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Module4: Fiber in Ducts

Lecture 22: Flow in ducts, (Nozzles and diffusers) and wind tunnels(Contd.)

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

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Flow in ducts with heating or cooling factors tending to produce continuous changes in the state of a flowing stream are (i) changes in cross-sectional area, (ii) wall friction and (iii) energy effects such as external heat exchange, combustion, or moisture condensation. Simple To change is difficult to achieve in practice. If To is changed through external heat exchange, the connection between the mechanisms of friction and of heat transfer assure that frictional effects will be present. Combustion change in mass rate, chemical composition Simple To change is an ideal case. With constant area and no friction, the momentum equation is p + u 2 = F

= constant

Continuity u =

m = constant = G A

Combining p +

G2

F A

For fixed mass flow rate per unit area and constant impulse function per unit area, the above equation defines a unique relation between p and called the Rayleigh line. Since both enthalpy and entropy are functions of p and , the above equation can be used for representing the Rayleigh line on the h s diagram. All fluids have Rayleigh curves of the general form.

p01

p* Fanno isentrope p1

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

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The relation above, in the differential form, becomes

dp G 2 dp = = u2 u = d d 2
dp d represents the local velocity of sound only for a special circumstances, namely, when the
infinitesimal variation of pressure with density is such that there is no change of entropy. This condition is fulfilled at the point of maximum entropy on the Rayleigh line. This point represents the state of Mach number of unity for the process of simple To - change. Beginning with state 1, Mach number unity might be reached in several way (isentropically, adiabatically at constant area, etc), and it is only for simple heating the * point will correspond to Mach number unity. The branch of the Rayleigh curve about the point of maximum entropy generally corresponds to subsonic flow. Since the process of simple heating is thermodynamically reversible, heat addition must corresponds to an entropy increase and heat rejection must corresponds to an entropy decrease. Thus at subsonic speeds the Mach number is increased by heating and decreased by cooling. The reverse happens in case of supersonic flow. Hence, heat addition, like friction, always tends to make the Mach number approach unity. Cooling causes the Mach number to change always in the direction away from unity. For heat addition at either subsonic or supersonic speeds, the amount of heat input can not be greater than that for which the leaving Mach number is unity. If the heat addition is too great, the flow will be choked, the initial Mach number will be reduced to a magnitude that is consistent with the amount of heat thermal choking.

p1, T1 M1, T01

p2, T2 M2, T02

Mass Conservation

2 u1 = 1 u 2

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

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Momentum Equation

p1 p 2 =

m (u 2 u1 ) A

Using

m = u and u 2 = pM the momentum equation can be arranged to give A

p2 1 + M 1 = p1 1 + M 2 2
2

Equation of state:

p2 2T2 = p1 1T1

or

T2 p2 1 p2 u2 = = T1 p1 2 p1 u1

Definition of Mach number:

M2 M1

u2 a1 u2 = a2 u1 u1
2

T1 T2

Impulse function

F2

F1

p2 1 + M 2 =1 2 p1 1 + M 1

( (

) )

1 2 1 1+ M2 po 2 p2 2 Definition of isentropic pressure = po1 p1 1 2 1 M1 1 + 2 T2 s2 s1 T1 = ln cp p2 1 p 1

Change in entropy

When the process involves heat exchange, the change in stagnation temperature is a direct measure of the amount of heat transfer. Form the energy equation

Q = C p (T2 T1 ) +

u 2 u1 = C p (To 2 To1 ) 2
2 2

When the process involves combustion or evaporation, it is usually possible to devise an approximately equivalent process of simple To change. In such cases the initial and final stagnation

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

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temperatures would be made respectively identical for the real process and for the equivalent process. For a Rayleigh process, the change in stream properties are due primarily to changes in

, the rate of change of stream properties along the Rayleigh line is a stagnation temperature, u
function of the rate of change of stagnation temperature. Now

To 1 2 = 1+ M T 2

T T o2 = 2 To1 T1

1+ 1+

1 1
2 2

M2 M2

Substituting momentum equation and continuity into the equation of state

T2 1 + M 1 u 2 = T1 1 + M 2 2 u1
2

u2 from the definition of Mach number Using u1

T2 M 2 1 + M 1 = 2 T1 M1 1+ M 22
2

( (

2 2 2

) )

Substituting this into the stagnation temperature ratio

To 2 M 2 = 2 To1 M1

(1 + M ) (1 + M )
1 2

2 2 2 2

1+ 1+

1 1
2 2

M2 M1

Similar expression for

1 ,

p2

p1

u2

u1

may be found in terms of M 1 and M 2 . It is convenient to

normalize the equation by setting the Mach number equal to unity at one of the sections, say at 1.

( + 1) M 2 T = 2 T 1+ M 2
2

u ( + 1)M 2 = = u 1+ M 2

p +1 = p 1+ M 2

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

po po

1 2 1 21 + M +1 2 = 2 +1 1+ M
+1

+1 s s = ln M 2 2 cp 1+ M

The ratio of properties at two sections where the Mach numbers are M 1 and M 2 are found using these normalized expressions

To 2 To1

To M 1 T o and so on... = T o T M 2 o

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering