Chapter 3 Acids and Bases and Equation Writing Name: ______________________(

! CHAPTER MAP & OVERVIEW CHAPTER 3.1 THE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

) Class: ______ Date: ____________

Acids

Bases and Alkalis

Uses of Acids

Properties of Acids

Strength of an Acid

Strength of an Alkali

Properties of Acids

Uses of Acids

Sour Change colour of indicator (turn litmus paper red) Contain hydrogen ions and conduct electricity React with metals, carbonates and bases

Strong Acid/ Alkali: Dissociates completely to form H+/OHions respectively

Weak Acid/ Alkali: Dissociates partially to form H+/OHions respectively

Soapy Change colour of indicator (turn litmus paper blue) React with acids, ammonium salts and metal salts

Meaning of Chemical Equation CHAPTER 3.2 EQUATION WRITING Chapter Learning Objectives At the end of this Section, you should be able to: ! Balancing Chemical Equation

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M. Heyworth Rex, & J G R Briggs. (2013). All About Chemistry 'O' Level. Malaysia: Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd., pages 222 to 236, pages 244 to 249 and pages 250 to 255
(Advanced)

Learning Outcomes:
3.1 Acids and Bases
Pupils are expected to: (a) describe the meanings of the terms acid and alkali in terms of the ions they contain or produce in aqueous solution and their effects on indicator paper (b) describe how to test hydrogen ion concentration and hence relative acidity using Universal Indicator paper and the pH scale (c) describe the characteristic properties of acids as in reactions with metals, bases and carbonates (d) describe qualitatively the difference between strong and weak acids in terms of the extent of ionization (e) describe neutralisation as a reaction between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions to produce water, + H + OH (f) describe a salt as being the product of the neutralisation of an acid and a base (g) state that a salt is generally made up a cation (that comes from a base) and a anion ( that comes from an acid) (h) describe the importance of controlling the pH in soils and how excess acidity can be treated using calcium carbonate (i) state some common examples of acidic and basic materials found in everyday life (j) classify oxides as acidic, basic, amphoteric or neutral based on metallic/non-metallic character Advanced Topics (a) deduce the salts formed when a set of reactants is provided (b) describe the making of copper(II) sulfate using copper(II) carbonate and copper(II) oxide as starting materials (c) describe the use of filtration and crystallization as purification techniques in the making of salts (d) describe the general rules of solubility for common salts to include nitrates, chlorides (including silver and lead), sulfates (including barium, calcium and lead), carbonates, hydroxides, Group I cations and ammonium salts

3.2

Equation writing

Pupils are expected to: (a) state the symbols of the elements and formulae of compounds (b) deduce the formulae of simple compounds from the relative numbers of atoms present and vice versa (c) deduce the formulae of ionic compounds from the charges on the ions present and vice versa. (d) interpret, construct and balance chemical equations (Note: In S2 exams, pupils need not write the state symbols in chemical equations).

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3.1

Acids and bases

Acids Chemical reactions involving acids and bases play an important role in our lives. They occur in the kitchen, in the laundry, in the garden, in swimming pools and even inside the body. Most people think of acids as being corrosive and dangerous. This is true for some acids we use in the laboratory, such as sulfuric acid. But some acids are not harmful and are commonly found in our food. For example, vinegar is a solution of ethanoic acid in water. Citrus fruits, such as oranges and lemons, contain citric acid. The acids are responsible for the sour taste in these fruits. In fact, the word 'acid' comes from the Latin word acidus meaning sour. All acids have a sour taste. However, some acids like the sulfuric acid used in car batteries, are dangerously corrosive. The acids contain in ant stings and bee stings cause pain. Definition of Acid An acid is a substance which produces hydrogen ions as the only positive ions when it is dissolved in water. Example: HCl molecules dissolve in water to give hydrogen ion and chloride ion. Acids are classified as weak or strong. Strong acids are man-made and very corrosive. Large amounts of strong acids are used in industry for making useful products. Weak acids are usually found in plants and animals. They are used in food and are not as corrosive. The formulas of some common acids are given in the table below. Strong acids Common / Mineral Name Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Sulfuric acid Weak acids Name of Acid Acetic acid (ethanoic acid) Citric acid Tartaric acid Source vinegar lemon grape Chemical Name Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen nitrate Hydrogen sulfate Chemical Formula HCl HNO3 H2SO4

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Strength of an acid The strength of an acid depends on its degree of dissociation / ionisation in water to form hydrogen ions. Strong acids A strong acid is one that ionises / dissociates completely in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+). There are no molecules left. The solution contains a high concentration of ions: good electrical conductor. Pure HCl (g) : covalent + HCl (aq) ! H (aq) + Cl- (aq) Pure HNO3 (l) : covalent + HNO3 (aq) ! H (aq) + NO3- (aq) Pure H2SO4 (l) : covalent H2SO4 (aq) ! 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) Weak acids A weak acid is one that ionises / dissociates incompletely / partially in water to produce few hydrogen ions (H+). Most of the acid molecules remain as molecules. The solution contains a low concentration of ions: poor electrical conductor. CH3COOH (aq) -> CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq) Importance of water for acidity Pure acids exist as molecules instead of ions. Pure acids do not behave as acids as the properties of acids are due to the presence of hydrogen ions. When acids are mixed with water, ionisation of acids occurs, and hydrogen ions are produced. Therefore, acids can only behave as acids when they are dissolved in water.

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Properties of Acids An acid, when dissolved in water, forms a colourless solution. Solutions of acids have the following properties: 1. 2. 3. 4. sour taste. change the colour of indicators (e.g. turn blue litmus paper red). contain hydrogen ions and conduct electricity. react with metals, carbonates and bases.

Reactions with metals Acids react with metals to produce a salt and hydrogen

Acid + metal ! salt + hydrogen

Example: Observations:

2HCl (aq) + Zn (s) ! ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) (a) Effervescence observed. Colourless, odourless gas evolved which extinguished a lighted wooden splint with a pop sound. (b) Grey solid reduced in size (when in excess). Grey solid dissolves to form a colourless solution (c) Heat liberated.

Zinc chloride is called a salt. Salts of nitric acid are called nitrates. Salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates, and those of hydrochloric acid are called chlorides. A salt is generally made up a cation (that comes from a base) and an anion (that comes from an acid). A salt is the product of the neutralisation of an acid and a base Acid Sulfuric acid Nitric acid Hydrochloric acid Examples of Salts Zinc sulfate Sodium sulfate Potassium nitrate Copper (II) nitrate Magnesium chloride Sodium chloride Formula ZnSO4 Na2SO4 KNO3 Cu(NO3)2 MgCl2 NaCl

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Exceptions a) Metals which are less reactive than hydrogen is not reactive enough to react with acids. For example: copper, silver and gold are not reactive with acids.

Reactions with carbonates Acids react with carbonate to produce a salt, carbon dioxide and water.

Acid + carbonate ! salt + carbon dioxide + water

Example:

Na2CO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ! Na2SO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Observations: (a) Effervescence occurs. Colourless, odourless gas evolved which reacts with calcium hydroxide to form a white precipitate. (b) White solid dissolves to form a colourless solution.

Reactions with bases Acids react with bases (metal oxides and metal hydroxides) to produce a salt and water.

Acid + base ! salt + water

Example:

MgO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ! MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Observation: (a) White solid dissolves to form a colourless solution. Example: 2KOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) ! K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Observation: (a) Heat is evolved. No visible change.

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Uses of acids The table below shows some common uses of acids:

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Describing acids and bases You can describe how acidic or basic a substance is by using the numbers on the pH scale. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Low pH numbers (less than pH 7) mean that substances are acidic. High pH numbers (more than pH 7) mean that substances are basic. If a substance has a pH of 7 it is said to be neutral neither acidic nor basic. Acids and bases can be graded from strong to weak. pH values depend on the concentration of acid/base and degree of dissociation. The use of pH in measuring the strength of an acid is limited since its value changes with concentration. The higher the concentration of the hydrogen ion, the lower the pH value. For example, a strong acid has a very low pH (pH 0 or 1) and a strong base has a very high pH (pH 13 or 14). The pH level of a substance can be measured using a pH meter or a special indicator called universal indicator. Universal indicator is a mixture of indicators and it changes colour as the strength of an acid or base changes. The colour range of universal indicator is shown below.

The colour range of universal indicator. It is pink in strong acid (pH1), blue in strong base (pH14) and green in neutral solutions (pH7).

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The pH of most 'pure' water is not exactly 7 because it contains tiny amounts of impurities. Even rain water has a pH less than 7. It has a pH of about 6 because carbon dioxide from the air makes it slightly acidic. Some other commercial indicators and corresponding colour changes observations are indicated in the table below:

Indicators Litmus paper Methyl Orange

Observation(s) An acid turns blue litmus paper red. Used to identify strong acids. Colour change at pH 4 Strong acid turns methyl orange red. Alkali turn methyl orange yellow.

Phenolphthalein

Used to identify strong alkalis. Colour change at pH 9 Strong alkali turns phenolphthalein pink. Phenolphthalein remains colourless in acid.

Universal Indicator In neutral solutions, universal indicator remains green. Strong acid: red Strong alkali: violet The pH meter is an electrical meter for measuring the pH of a solution. It is more accurate than indicators.

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Connections and Practice Carbon dioxide in the air makes rain slightly acidic with a pH of 6. This weakly acidic rain corrodes limestone rock into weird shapes like those in Sarawak shown in the photograph below. It took about five million years of rain to produce these razor-sharp pinnacles which can be up to 45 meters high. Nearby, rainwater has dissolved away the limestone to produce the world's biggest cave so large that eight jumbo jets can be placed in a line across the cave, head to tail. The chemical equation for this reaction is

pH and Agriculture Most plants grow best when the pH of the soil is about 6.5. This is almost neutral. Many food crops will not grow well in soils that are too acidic or too alkaline. Soils can become too acidic from extensive use of chemical fertilisers. such as ammonium sulfate, and from acid rain. Excess acid in the soil can be neutralised by adding calcium hydroxide. This is a cheap alkali and is commonly called slaked lime. When farmers spread calcium hydroxide powder over their fields to neutralise acids, they are said to be 'liming the soil'.

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Bases and Alkalis Bases have a bitter taste and feel slippery or soapy to touch. Some bases are very corrosive, especially caustic soda. Caustic soda will break down fat, hair and vegetable matter. Other bases are used in shampoos, toothpaste, and cleaning agents like dishwashing liquid and cloudy ammonia. Bases that can be dissolved in water are called alkalis.

Definition of bases and alkalis Bases are the oxides or hydroxides of metal that reacts with an acid to form a salt and water only. Most bases are insoluble in water. Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis. An alkali is a metal hydroxide which is soluble in water and produces hydroxide ions (OH-) in water. All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis. Examples: Insoluble base Copper (II) oxide, aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, zinc hydroxide Soluble base / alkali Sodium oxide, potassium oxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide (slightly soluble), ammonium hydroxide

Types of Oxides ! 1. Acidic oxide : All other non-metal oxides are acidic. For example, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide. 2. Basic oxide : All other metal oxides are basic (Except Zinc Al, Lead) For example, calcium oxide, iron(III) oxide, magnesium oxide etc Neutral oxide : carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, water etc. Amphoteric oxide : Oxide of Zinc, Aluminum and Lead For example, zinc oxide, aluminium oxide, lead(II) oxide, lead(IV) oxide

3. 4.

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1. Acidic oxide ! An acidic oxide is a non-metallic oxide that neutralises a base to form salt and water only. It reacts with water slightly to form an acid solution. Neutralization: Reaction with water: CO2 + H2O ! H2CO3 SO2 + H2O ! H2SO3 2. Basic oxide ! A basic oxide is a metallic oxide that neutralises an acid to form salt and water only. If it is soluble in water, it forms an alkali. Neutralization : Reaction with water: Na2O + H2O ! 2NaOH CaO + H2O ! Ca(OH)2 3. Neutral oxide ! Neutral oxides are non-metallic oxides that show neither acidic nor basic properties. They are insoluble in water and do not react with water. E.g. H2O, CO, NO 4. Amphoteric oxide ! Amphoteric oxides are metallic oxides that react with both acid and base to form salt and water. They have both acidic and basic property. E.g. ZnO, Al2O3, PbO, PbO2 Reaction with acid: ZnO (s) + 2HCl (aq) ! ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) Reaction with alkali: ZnO (s) + 2NaOH (aq) ! Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H2O (l) MgO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ! MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) CO2 (g) + 2KOH (aq) ! K2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

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Strength of an alkali Alkalis can be weak or strong. When strong alkalis dissolve in water, they become OH-(aq) ions in solution. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are examples of strong alkalis. The strength of an alkali depends on its degree of dissociation / ionisation in water to form hydroxide ions. The properties of alkalis are due to the hydroxides ions. Strong alkali A strong alkali is one that ionises / dissociates completely in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH-). There are no molecules left. The common strong alkalis are sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. NaOH (aq) KOH (aq) ! Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) ! K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Strong alkalis react with ammonium salts to produce ammonia gas. Weak alkali A weak alkali is one that ionises / dissociates incompletely / partially in water to produce few hydroxide ions (OH-). Most of the alkali molecules remain as molecules. Ammonia is the most common example of a weak alkali. When ammonia dissolves in water, only a small fraction of the ammonia molecules react with the water to form OH-(aq) ions. Most of the ammonia molecules remain unchanged. That is why you can smell the ammonia molecules in a bottle of aqueous ammonia.

Properties of bases 1. Alkalis have a soapy feel and a bitter taste. 2. Alkalis can change the colour of indicators (e.g. turn red litmus paper blue). 3. Bases can react with acids to form salt and water only Neutralisation. This means that the acid properties have been destroyed.

Base + acid ! salt + water

Example: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) ! NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) Note: Neutralisation The formation of molecules of water from hydrogen ion of an acid and hydroxide ion of an alkali. H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) ! H2O (l).

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Bases can react with ammonium salts to form salt, ammonia and water. Base + ammonium salt ! salt + ammonia + water

Example:

NaOH (aq) + NH4Cl (s) ! NaCl (aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O (l) A colourless, pungent gas is evolved. The gas turns damp red litmus paper blue.

Observation: (a)

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Alkalis can react with a solution of one metal salt to give metal hydroxide and another metal salt CuSO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) ! Cu(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)

Example:

Uses of Bases and Alkalis Alkalis are used in the home for two reasons. One is to neutralise acids. Toothpastes are alkaline. The alkali neutralises acids on our teeth produced by bacteria when they feed on sugars in our food. If the acid is not destroyed it corrodes the teeth causing them to decay. Toothpaste usually contains magnesium hydroxide, which neutralises the acids in the mouth. Excess acid in the stomach can make you feel unwell. The medicine for treating this contains alkalis and carbonates. This neutralises some of the acid. The other reason for using alkalis is to dissolve dirt and grease. Soaps and detergents are mild alkalis. Floor cleaners often contain sodium hydroxide, which is a powerful alkali. Ammonia is used in liquids for cleaning glass windows. The table below shows some other common uses of bases:

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3.2

Equation Writing

The meaning of a chemical equation A chemical equation is a chemists shorthand expression for describing a chemical change. As an example, consider what takes place when iron rusts. The equation for this change is: Fe + O2 ! Fe2O3 In this expression, the symbols and formulas of the reacting substances, called the reactants, are written on the left side of the arrow and the products of the reaction are written on the right side. The arrow is read as gives, yields, or forms and the plus (+) sign is read as and. When the plus (+) sign appears between the formulas for two reactants, it can be read as reacts with. (The + sign does not imply mathematical addition.) The equation, above, can be read as iron reacts with oxygen to yield (or form) iron(III) oxide.

Balancing a chemical equation As it is written, the equation indicates in a qualitative way what substances are consumed in the reaction and what new substances are formed. In order to have quantitative information about the reaction, the equation must be balanced so that it conforms to the Law of Conservation of Matter. That is, there must be the same number of atoms of each element on the right hand side of the equation as there are on the left hand side. If the number of atoms of each element in the equation above is counted, it is observed that there are 1 atom of Fe and 2 atoms of O on the left side and 2 atoms Fe and 3 atoms of O on the right. Fe + O2 ! Fe2O3
Left side: 1 atom Fe 2 atoms O Right side: 2 atoms Fe 3 atoms O

The balancing of the equation is accomplished by introducing the proper number or coefficient before each formula. To balance the number of O atoms, write a 3 in from of the O2 and a 2 in front of the Fe2O3: Fe + 3 O2 ! 2 Fe2O3 The equation, above, now has 6 atoms of O on each side, but the Fe atoms are not balanced.

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Since there is 1 atom of Fe on the left and 4 atoms of Fe on the right, the Fe atoms can be balanced by writing a 4 in front of the Fe: 4Fe + 3 O2 ! 2 Fe2O3 This equation is now balanced. It contains 4 atoms of Fe and 6 atoms of O on each side of the equation. The equation is interpreted to mean that 4 atoms of Fe will reaction with 3 molecules of O2 to form 2 molecules of Fe2O3. It is important to note that the balancing of an equation is accomplished by placing numbers in front of the proper atoms or molecules and not as subscripts. In an equation, all chemical species appear as correct formula units. The addition (or change) of a subscript changes the meaning of the formula unit and of the equation. Coefficients in front of a formula unit multiply that entire formula unit. Another example of balancing an equation is: Al(OH)3 + H2SO4 ! Al2(SO4)3 + H2O Counting the atoms of each element in the equation it is found that there are 1 atom Al, 7 atoms O, 5 atoms H, and 1 atom S on the left side and 2 atoms Al, 13 atoms O, 2 atoms H, and 3 atoms S on the right side. Al(OH)3 + H2SO4 ! Al2(SO4)3 + H2O Left side: 1 atom Al 7 atoms O 5 atoms H 1 atom S Right side: 2 atoms Al 13 atoms O 2 atoms H 3 atoms S

The counting, however, can be simplified by observing that the S and O in the SO4 polyatomic ion act as a single unbreakable unit in this equation. Recounting, using the SO4 as a single unit, it is found that there are 1 atom Al, 3 atoms O, 5 atoms H, and 1 SO4 polyatomic ion on the left side and 2 atoms Al, 1 O atom, 2 H atoms, and 3 SO4 polyatomic ions on the right side. Al(OH)3 + H2SO4 ! Al2(SO4)3 + H2O Left side: 1 atom Al 3 atoms O 5 atoms H 1 SO4 group Right side: 2 atoms Al 1 atoms O 2 atoms H 3 SO4 groups

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Starting with Al, the atoms of Al can be balanced by writing a 2 in front of the Al(OH)3: 2 Al(OH)3 + H2SO4 ! Al2(SO4)3 + H2O Looking at the SO4 ions, these are balanced by writing a 3 in front of the H2SO4: 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2SO4 ! Al2(SO4)3 + H2O Now, only the O atoms and H atoms remain unbalanced. There are 6 atoms of O and 12 atoms of H on the left hand side of the equation and only 1 atom O and 2 atoms H on the right side. These can be balanced by writing a 6 in front of the H2O: 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2SO4 ! Al2(SO4)3 + 6 H2O The equation is now balanced and it is interpreted to mean that 2 molecules of Al(OH)3 react with 3 molecules of H2SO4 to form 1 molecule of Al2(SO4)3 and 6 molecules H2O . Equation Writing Challenge Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions: ! a) Solid sodium hydrogen carbonate and sulfuric acid

2 NaHCO3 + H2SO4 ! Na2SO4 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

b) Solid potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid

KOH + HCl ! KCl + H2O

c) Solid copper oxide and nitric acid

CuO + 2HNO3 ! Cu(NO3)2 + H2O

d) Solid Magnesium with sulfuric acid !

Mg + H2SO4 ! MgSO4 + H2
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Advanced: Producing Salts Tea, coffee, shampoo and baking powder are all examples of household chemicals designed to be used when dissolved in water. Because water is a good solvent, it is able to dissolve many other substances. Chemicals which are dissolved are called solutes. A solution is a mixture of a solute and the solvent in which it is dissolved. Many reactions involving acids and bases occur in water. These reactions are said to occur in solution. One very important reaction involving acids and bases is neutralisation. Neutralisation is the name given to the chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react with each other to produce water. The other substance produced in a neutralisation reaction is called a salt. Your stomach contains hydrochloric acid, which helps to break up food for digestion. Too much acid, however, can be a problem. If your stomach produces too much acid, you may need to take an antacid such as 'milk of magnesia'. This medicine has the solid base magnesium oxide (MgO) suspended in it. This base reacts with the hydrochloric acid in your stomach according to the equation: MgO (s) + 2HCl (aq) ! MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) base acid salt water The products are the salt, magnesium chloride and water. The salt contains the positive metal ion from the base and the negative non-metal ion from the acid. The base sodium hydrogen carbonate, commonly known as 'bi-carb', is a component of baking powder. It has the formula NaHCO3 and it contains the hydrogen carbonate ion HCO3. When bases containing this ion react with acids, the gas carbon dioxide is produced as well as salt and water. When hydrochloric acid and bi-carb' are mixed together, the following reaction takes place: NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) ! NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (1). base + acid ! salt + carbon + water dioxide

The products are sodium chloride, carbon dioxide and water. In both of the above reactions the salts formed were metal chlorides, because they contained the chloride ion (Cl-) from the hydrochloric acid. Neutralisation reactions between many different acids and bases are possible, therefore it is possible to produce many different salts. The names of all these salts are related to the bases and acids from which they are formed. Some of these are summarised in the table below.

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Do you know? Many salts are brightly coloured and many are highly poisonous and not at all suitable for sprinkling on your fish and chips! Salts containing copper ions are usually blue, those containing nickel are pale green, those containing iron can be green or orange and cobalt salts are pink.

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