An Investigation Into The Influence of Sodium Silicate On The Physical and Mechanical Properties of Minefill by Seyed Mehdi Razavi.

ANINVESTIGATION INTO THE INFLUENCE OF
SODIUM SILICATE ON THE PHYSICAL AND

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MINEFILL
by
Seyed Mehdi Razavi
Department of Mining and Materials n g i n e e r i ~ g
McGill University
Montreal, Canada
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial
. fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Seyed Mehdi Razavi, 2007
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ABSTRACT
Returning waste material underground, as backfill, has been practiced for many
years so as to improve the economical and environmental performance of underground
mining operations. A specific type of backfill, which is used to fill mined areas that will
not be exposed to. further mining, is called hydraulic backfill. Cemented backfill has also
been used to provide mechanical support for underground mining. Such backfill has
allowed mining companies to extract more ore, while simultaneously improving working
and envitonmental conditions. Cemented backfill, however, represents 50 to 85 percent of
operating costs compared with the 5 to 10 percent that hydraulic backfill consumes.
The objective of this thesis is to investigate use of sodium silicate as a partial or
total replacement for cement in stabilised backfill. Sodium silicate is a viscous material
that is usually used to activate pozzolanic materials such as slag and fly ash. The chemical
compound has many applications, namely, in waste treatment, cement and other
construction materials.
In order to determine the influence of sodium silicate on backfill performance, a
senes of laboratory experiments were carried out on samples with different binder
compositions, such as: cement; slag and cement; slag, cement and sodium silicate; and
slag and sodium silicate. Additionally, the effects of mixing time and addition order on
the backfill samples' performance were studied. The subsequent thesis focuses mainly on
the strength of paste and slurry backfill samples containing sodium silicate in addition to
the observation of a number of experimental variables, which include: pulp density
(relative amount of water), curing time, and binder dosage. In order to investigate the
overall suitability of sodium silicate for use in stabilised backfill, other properties such as
porosity, elasticmodulus, and trends ofwater release are aiso studied.
1
The results of the research endeavour demonstrate that sodium silicate-fortified
backfill materials behave favourably compared with cemented backfills. Sodium silicate,
thus, has potential as a backfill binder or additive.
11
RSUM
Le retour des matriaux rsiduels au niveau souterrain, sous forme de remblai, se
pratique depuis plusieurs annes. Cette mthode est favorise pour amliorer la
performance conomique et environnementale des mmes souterraines. Ce type de
remblai, le remblai hydraulique, empli les zones excaves qui ne seront pas mines
davantage lors de l'exploitation minire. Les remblais ciments servent de renforcement
mcanique pour les cavits excavs dans les mines souterraines. Cette mthode permet
aux entreprises minires d'extraire davantage de minerai, d'amliorer les conditions de
travail et de rduire leur impact environnemental. Par contre, le remblai ciment explique
de 50 85% des cots opratoires, tandis que le remblai hydraulique ne reprsente que de
5 10 % des cots.
L'objectif de cette thse est d'tudier la possibilit de substituer partiellement ou
totalement le ciment dans le remblai stabilis par le silicate de sodium. Ce produit
chimique visqueux sert habituellement comme activateur de matriaux pouzzolaniques,
tel que les scories et les escarbilles. Le silicate de sodium a plusieurs applications
industrielles telles que le traitement de dchets, ainsi que dans les matriaux ciments et
de construction.
Dans cette tude, pour dterminer l'influence du silicate de sodium sur la
performance du remblai, une srie d'expriences ont t ralis partir d'chantillons
ayant divers teneurs et types de liants. Par exemple, les types de liants tests sont: le
ciment, les scories et le ciment, les scories, le ciment et le silicate de sodium et,
finalement, les scories et le silicate de sodium. De plus, les effets de la dure du brassage
et de l'ordre d'ajout des composants sur la performance des chantillons ont galement
t valus. Par contre, cette thse se base surtout sur la force des chantillons de remblai
hydraulique contenant du silicate de sodium ainsi que plusieurs variables. Ces variables
incluent la densit de la pulpe (teneur en eau), le temps allou au durcissement des
chantillons et la teneur en liant. Pour valuer l'aptitude de l'utilisation du silicate de
111
sodium dans le remblai stabilis, d'autres proprits ont d tre tudies, tel que la
porosit, le module d'lasticit, le taux de la vidange d'eau et la quantit d'eau vide.
Les rsultats de cette srie d'exprimentations indiquent que le remblai stabilis
contenant du silicate de sodium se compare au remblai ciment. De ce fait, le silicate de
sodium peut potentiellement servir comme un liant ou un additif dans le remblai.
IV
ACKNOWLEDMENTS
. The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to Professor F.P. Hassani for his
patience, support, and guidance throughout the study pro gram. The author would also like'
to express deep appreciation to Prof essor M. Benzaazoua for his support and
encouragement over the last two years.
The author is appreciative of the direction, general support and friendship offered
by Dr M. Momayez, Professor H.S. Mitri, and Prof essor J. Ouellet during the study
period.
The author would like to exiend his appreciation to his fellow graduate students:
Bassam El Husseini, Afsaneh Hosseini and Shahe Shnorhokian for their help and
continuaI friendship. Special thanks are extended to Marie-Suzanne Gignac and Jasmine
Williams for their assistance during this project.
Finally, to my parents, Ahmad and Nori, and my wife, Azin, 1 cannot thank them
enough. Without them and their unceasing love and continued support, 1 would not have
been able to complete this thesis. It has been both a financial and emotional strain on
them and 1 hope that their belief in me is justified.
The financial support received through the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (NSERC) is appreciated. The cooperation of INCO is also
gratefullyappreciated.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ 1
, ,
RESUME ......................................................................................................................... III
ACKN"OWLEDMENTS ................................................................................................... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... VI
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... x
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ XIV
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW .... ................................................................... 4
2-1- BACKFILL PRACTICE IN MILLENNIUM ...................................................................... .4
2-2- RESEARCH BACKGROUND ......................................................................................... 6
2-3- BACKFILL MATERIALS ............................................................................................ 11
2-4- HYDRAULIC BACKFILL METHODS ........................................................................... 12
2-4-1- Cemented and Uncemented Hydraulic Fil! ....................... .............................. 12
2-4-2- Pastefill ...................... ..................................................................................... 13
2-4-3- Roclifill ................................................. ............................................................ 14
2-5- BACKFILL BINDERS AND ADDITIVES ....................................................................... 15
2-5-1- Portland cement ............................................................................................. 15
2-5-2- Calcium Sulphate Materials ........................................................................... 16
2-5-3- Natural and Artificial Pozzolans .............. , ..................................................... 18
2-5-4- Natural Sulphides .... ........................................................................................ 22
2-5-5- The Use of Non-Binding Additives in Cemented Baclifill ....................... ........ 22
2-5-'6- Sodium Silicate and Slag Activation ............................................................... 23
2-5-6-1- Sodium Silicate and its Applications ....................................................... 23
2-5-6-2- Definition of Activation ........................................................................... 25
2-5-6-3-Activation Material ................................................................................... 26
2-5-6-4- Hardening Process of Sodium Silicate-Activated Slag Pastes ................ 27
CHAPTER 3 - OPTIMIZATION METHODS FOR BACKFILL MATERIALS ..... 30
VI
3-1- CONCEPT OF BACKFILL MA TERIALS OPTIMIZATION ................................................ 30
3-2- BACKFILL AS AN ENGINEERING PRODUCT ............................................................... 31
3-2-1- Particle Size Distribution ...... .......................................................................... 31
3-2-1-1- Optimum Particle Size Distribution for Concrete ................................... 33
3-2-1-2- Designing the Optimum Particle Size Distribution ................................. 34
3-3- EXAMPLES OF PRACTICAL ApPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE-BASED TECHNOLOGY IN
BACKFILL MIX DESIGN ................................................. ; ................................................. 36
3-4- EFFECT OF COARSE AGGREGATE ON STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF TAILINGS FILLS ... 37
3-5- MOISTURE CONTROL ............................................................................................... 38
3-6- BINDER PERCENTAGE AND CURING TlME AS METHODS FOR OPTIMIZATION .......... .40
3 -6-1- Binder Alternatives ......................................................................................... 41
3-7- CONFINEMENT AS A METHOD FORBACKFILL OPTIMIZATION ................................. .42
CHAPTER 4 - ENGINEERING DESIGN RATIONALE OF BACKFILL
SYSTEMS ......................................................................................................................... 43
4-1-CONVENTIONAL BACKFILL DESIGN ......................................................................... 43
4-2- ROLES OF BACKFILL IN MINING CYCLE ................................................................... 43
4-3- BACKFILL SYSTEM DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. 45
4-3-1- Fai/ure Mechanism and Strength Requirements of Backfill ........................... 46
4-3-2- Backfill Design Considerations for Open Stope Mining. ............... ... , ............. 46
4-3-3- The Confined Black Failure Model.. .................................................. ............. 47
4-3-4- Backfill Strength Requirements for Open Stope Mining ................ ................. 48
4-3-5- Backfill Strength Requirements in Overhand Cut and Fil! Mining ................ 49
4-3-6- Backfill Strength Requirements in Underhand Cut and Fil! Mining .............. 50
4-4- BACKFILL STRENGTH PREDICTION MODELS ............................................................ 51
4-4-1- Strength Models for Cemented Backfills ......................................................... 51
4-4-2- Strength Madel for Cemented Hydraulic Backfill ...................... ..................... 52
4-4-3- Rockfill and Cemented Aggregate Fil! strength Models .... ............................. 53
CHAPTER 5 - CHARACTERIZATION OF THE PRIMARY MATERIALS USED
TO DETERMINE THE PROPERTIES OF STABILIZED BACKFILLS WITH
SODIUM SILICATE ....................................................................................................... 55
vii
5-1- INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 55
5-2- THE BACKFILL MATERIALS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS ..................................... 55
5-2-1- Tailings Characteristics ...................................................... ............................ 55
5-2-2- Tailings Mineralogy .......................................................... .............................. 62
5-3- BINDERS .................................................................................................................. 65
5-3-2- Mineralogy and Chemical Composition of Binders and Additive .................. 68
5-4- OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TAILINGS AND BINDERS ..................................... 68
5-4-1- Material Density and Specifie Area ................................................................ 68
5-4-2- Tailings J Water Absorption ................................... ............................. ............. 70
5-4-3- Water ................................................................... ............................. ............... 70
CHAPTER 6 - EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES .................................................... 72
6-1- INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 72
6-2- PRODUCTION AND PREPARATION OF BACKFILL SPECIMENS .................................... 72
6-3- MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR ...................................................................................... 75
6-3-1- The Confined Compressive Strength ofSpecimens ......................................... 75
6-3-2- The Unconfined Compressive Strength ofSpecimens ..................................... 77
6-4- METHODS FOR MICROSTRUCTURAL AND MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERIZA TION .... 79
6-4-1- Mercury Intrusion Porosimetery (MIP) .......................................................... 79
6-4-2- Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD)
............................................................................................................ ........................ 80
CHAPTER 7 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................ 81
7-1- RESULTS OF PHASE 1 OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 81
7-1-1 Mechanical Behaviour ..................................................................................... 81
7-1-2-Microstructure and Mineralogical Results ...................................................... 88
7-1-2-1- Mercury Intrusion Porosimetery Results ................................................. 88
7-1-2-2- Effect of Sodium Silicate on the Mineralogy and Microstructures of the
Sand Pastefill Materials ......................................................................................... 95
7-2- RESULTS OF THE PHASE II OF THE STUDY .............................................................. I05
7-2-1- Mechanical Behaviour .................................................................................. 105
7-2-2- Microstructure and Mineralogical Results ................................................... 114
VIl1
7-2-2-1- Mercury Intrusion Porosimetery Results ................................. 114
7 -2-2-2- Effect of Sodium Silicate on the Mineralogy and Microstructures of the
Sand Pastefill and Slurry Backfill Materials ........................................................ 116
CHAPTER 8 - CONCLUSION AND FURTHER WORK ........................................ 126
8-1- CONCLUSION ......................................... , ............................................................... 126
8-2-FuRTHER WORK .................................................................................................... 129
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 130
APPENDIX 1- SPECTRUM OF TAILINGS FROM SEM STUDY ....................... 1423
APPENDIX 2 - RECIPES AND USC VALUES OF PHASE 1 AND II OF STUDY
.......................................................................................................................................... 146
APPENDIX 3- X-RAY DIFFRACTION PATTERNS OF ST ABILIZED BACKFILL
BY DIFFERENT BINDERS ......................................................................................... 168
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1- A trend exists between the initial setting time and sodium silicate based
alkali-activator dosage. (after Chang, 2002) .............................................................. 29
Figure 2-2- A trend exists between the final settingtime and sodium silicate based alkali-
activator dosage. (after Chang, 2002) ........................................................................ 29
Figure 3-1- Effect of fine partic1es in hydraulic backfill (after Thomas et al., 1979) ........ 33
Figure 3-2- Evolution of the mechanical strength (UeS) as a function of the uniformity
coefficient Cu (D
60
/D
lO
) for two types ofbinders (4.5 wt% T10-T50 and T10-Slag)
during a curing time of 14 days (after Benzaazoua et al., 2004b) ............................. 35
Figure 3-3- Effect of water content (w) on the mechanical strength (UCS) of pastefill
mixtures made with sulphuric tailings (from mine E) and Portland cement (Tl 0) over
various lengths oftime (After Benzaazoua et al., 2004b) .......................................... 39
Figure 4-1- Confined fill block model(after Mitchell et al., 1982) .................................. .48
Figure 5 - 1 - Partic1e size distributions oftailings ............................................................ 57
Figure 5-2- SEM image of Tl tailings (Magnification 200X; Length ofbar-50j..tm) ........ 60
Figure 5-3- SEM image of Tl tailings (Magnification 1000X; Length ofbar-10j..tm) ...... 60
Figure 5-4- SEM image ofT2 tailings (Magnification 200X; Length ofbar-50j..tm) ........ 61
Figure 5-5- SEM image ofT2 tailings (Magnification 1000X; Length ofbar-10J-lm) ...... 61
Figure 5-6- X-ray diffraction obtained from Tl tailings .................................................... 63
Figure 5-7- X-ray diffraction obtained from T2 tailings .................................................... 64
Figure 5-8- Binders partic1e size distribution .................................................................... 66
Figure 5-9- SEM image of cement (Magnification 200X; Length of bar-50J-lm) .............. 67
Figure 5-10- SEM image of slag (Magnification 200X; Length ofbar-50J-lm) ................. 67
Figure 6-1- Mohr circles of stress ...................................................................................... 76
Figure 6-2- Confined compression setup ........................................................................... 77
Figure 6-3- Unconfined compressive setup ....................................................................... 78
Figure 7-1- ucs 'value evolution over the curing length of sand pastefill mixtures
containing 7 wt% (a, b) and 9 wt% (c, d) binder for two different mixing times ...... 82
x
Figure 7-2- ucs value evolution over cunng duration for sand pastefill mixtures
containing 7% (a, b) and 9% (c, d) binder with two different mixing times and
adding order 2 .............................................. ................................... 84
Figure 7-3- Effect of pulp density (water content) on the mechanical strength (ucs) of
sand pastefill mixtures made with 7wt %( a, b, c) and 9wt %( d, e, f) binder ......... 85
Figure 7-4- Effect of mixing time on compressive strength of sand pastefill prepared with
different binder types containing 7% (a, b, c) and 9 %( d, e, f) binder and cured for
different durations ...................................................................................................... 87
Figure 7-5- Effect of mixing (adding) order on the mechanical strength (UeS) of sand
pastefill samples at 80 (a) and 83 wt% (b) pulp density: ........................................... 88
Figure 7-6- Effect of binder type on pore size distribution and overall porosity of
sand pastefill samples made with 9 % binder consisting of e (a), se (b) and SSS(c)
.................................................................................................................................... 89
Figure 7-7- Effect of binder dosage on pore size distribution and overall porosity of sand
pastefill specimens containing 2% sodium silicate and 7wt% (a) and 9wt% (b) binder
(SSS) .......................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 7-8- Effect of mixing time on pore size distribution and overall porosity of sand
pastefill specimens mixed for 5 (a) and 8 minutes (b)with 9 wt% binder (SSS)
.................................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 7-9- Effect of adding order on pore size distribution and overall porosity of sand
pastefill specimens made with adding order 1 (a) and 2 (b), and 9 wt% of binder
(SSS) .......................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 7-10- Effect of sodium silicate concentration on pore size distributio.n and overall
porosity of sand pastefill specimens made with 2 (a) and 4% (b) of sodium silicate,
and 9 wt% ofbinder (SSS) ......................................................................................... 94
Figure 7-11- SEM backscattered images of sand pastefill (7 wt% of binder) with an
addition of 2% sodium silicate (by total binder weight) ............................................ 96
Figure 7-12- SEM backscattered images of sand pastefill (9 wt% binder) with an addition
of 2% sodium silicate ................................................................................................. 97
Figure 7-13- X-Ray mapping of sand pastefill samples with 7 wt% binder (SSS) (Window
1) ........................................................... : .................................................................. 101
Xl
2) .............................................................................................................................. 102
1) .................................................................... : ......................................................... 103
2) .............................................................................................................................. 104
Figure 7-17- Effect of binder type on ues evolution of sand pastefill (a) and slurry
backfill (b) mixtures containing 5% binder at 83(T1) and 70 wt% (T2)pulp density .
.................................................................................................................................. 106
Figure 7-18- Effect of binder dosage on strength development of sand pastefill samples
produced from Tl using (a) binder se and (b) binder sess at different binder
dosages (3-5-7wt%) .................................................................................................. 106
Figure 7-19- Effect of binder dosage on strength development of slurry backfill samples
produced from T2 using (a) binder se and (b) binder sess at different binder
dosages (3-5-7wt%) ................................................................................................. 1 07
Figure 7-20- Effect of pulp density on strength development of sand pastefill samples
produced from Tl using (a) binder se and (b) binder sess at 5 wt% binder dosage
.................................. : ............................................................................................... 108
Figure 7-21- Effect of pulp density on strength development of slurry backfill samples
produced from T2 using (a) binder se and (b) binder sess at 5 wt% binder dosage .
.................................................................................................................................. 108
Figure 7-22- Uniaxial compression stress-strain relationships of paste backfill samples
with (a) se and (b) sess binder after 28 days of curing ...................... , ................. 109
Figure 7-23- Uni axial compression stress-strain relationships of slurry backfill samples

with (a) se and (b) sess binder after 28 days of curing ........................................ 110
Figure 7-24- Mohr circles of stress for sand pastefill samples with se (a) and sess (b)
binder at 83 wt% pu1p density and 5 wt% binder after 28 days of curing ............... 112
Figure 7-25- Mohr circles of stress for slurry backfill samples with se (a) and SCSS (b)
binder at 70 wt% pulp density and 5 wt% binder after 28 days of curing ............... 113
Figure 7-26- Effect of binder type on pore size distribution and overall porosity of sand
r
pastefill samples with 5 wt% binder SC (a), sess (b) ............................................ 114
Xl1
Figure 7-27- Effect of binder type on pore size distribution and overall porosity of slurry
backfill samples with 5 wt% binder SC (a), SCSS (b) ............................................. 115
Figure 7-28- SEM backscattered images of sand pastefill at 7 wt% binder (SC) ........... 117
Figure 7-29- SEM backscattered images of sand pastefill at 7 wt% binder (SCSS) ....... 118
Figure 7-30- SEM backscattered images of slurry backfill sample at 7 wt% binder (SC)
.................................................................................................................................. 120
Figure 7-31- SEM backscattered images of slurry backfill sample at 7 wt% binder
(SSSC) ...................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 7-32- Rate and amount ofwater re1ease for sand pastefill samp1es at 7 wt% binder
(SC and SCSS), and 81,83 and 85 wt% pulp density ............................................ 125
Figure 7-33- Rate and amount ofwater release for slurry backfill samples at 7 wt% binder
(SC and SCSS), and 68, 70 and 72 wt% pulp density ............................... , ............. 125
Figure A 1-1- SEM spectrum of Garson sand .................................................. 142
Figure A 1-2- SEM spectrum ofCreighton tailings ............................................ 143
Figure A 3-1- X-Ray diffraction pattern of stabilized sand pastefill with SC binder ...... 166
Figure A 3-2- X-Ray diffraction pattern of stabilized sand pastefill with SCSS binder .167
Figure A 3-3- X-Ray diffraction pattern of stabilized slurry backfill with SC binder ..... 168
Figure A 3-4- X-Ray diffraction pattern of stabilized slurry backfill with SCSS binder 169
X111
LIST OF TABLES
Table 5 -1 - The basic partic1e sizes (%) oftailings using the M.LT. Classification System
.................................................................................................................................... 57
Table 5-2- Dso values of the tailings .................................................................................. 59
Table 5-3- Partic1e shape and surface texture of the tailings ............................................. 59
Table 5-4- Mineralogy of both tailings .............................................................................. 62
Table 5-5- The Dso values ofbinders ................................................................................. 65
Table 5-6- The basic partic1e sizes (%) of binders using the M.LT. Classification System
....................................................... : ............................................................................ 66
Table 5-7- The chemical compositionofbinders .............................................................. 68
Table 5-8- The sodium silicate specifications ................................................................... 69
Table 5-9- Densities and specific surfaces oftailings and binders .................................... 70
Table 5-10- The amount ofwater absorbed by tailings .................................... : ................ 70
Table 5-11- Chemical analyses ofprocess and tap water (mg/L) ...................................... 71
Table 7-1- Mean EDS analyses of 17 spots on SEM-BSE images of sand pastefill (7 wt%
of Binder) with2% of sodium silicate ........................................ .: .......... , .................. 98
Table 7-2- Mean EDS analyses of 17 spots on SEM-BSE images of sand pastefill (7 wt%
of Binder) with 2% of sodium silicate ....................................................................... 99
Table 7-3- Detailed XRD analyses data and quantification results obtained for sand
pastefill samples made with SSS binder. ................................................................. 1 00
Table-7-4- UCS and Young's modulus values for 28 days cured sand pastefill samples
with SC and SCSS binder ............................................ , ........................................... 109
Table-7-5- UCS and Young's modulus valuesfor 28 days cured slurry backfill samples
with SC and SCSS binder ........................................................................................ 111
Table 7-6- Mohr parameters c and <p for sand pastefill and slurry backfill samples at 28
days of curing ........................................................................................................... 112
Table 7-7- Mean EDS analyses of 10 spots on SEM-BSE images of sand pastefill sample
with 7 wt% SC binder .............................................................................................. 119
XIV
with 7 wt% sess binder .......................................................................................... 119
Table 7-9- Mean EDS analyses of 10 spots on SEM -BSE images of slurry backfill sample
at 7 wt% se binder,70 wt% pulp density and 28 days of curing ............................. 122
Table 7-10- Mean EDS analyses of 10 spots on SEM-BSE images of slurry backfill
sample at 7 wt% sess binder,70 wt% pulp density and 28 days of curing ............ 122 .
Table 7-11- Detailed XRD data analyses and quantification results obtained for slurry
backfill samples made of se and sess binder ....................................................... 123
Table 7-12- Detailed XRD data analyses and quantification results obtained for sand
pastefill samples made of se and sess binder ....................................................... 124
Table A 2-1- Recipes and DeS values for sand pastefill samples after 28 days of
curing.(Phase 1) ........................................................................................................ 144
Table A 2-2- Recipes and DeS values for sand pastefill samples after 56 days of curing.
(Phase 1) ................................................................................................................... 150
Table A 2-3- Recipes and DeS values for sand pastefill sampi es after 120 days of curing.
(Phase 1) ................................................................................................................... 156
Table A 2-4- Recipes and DeS values for sand pastefill samples (Phase II) ................ 162
Table A 2-5- Recipes and DeS values for slurry backfill samples (Phase II) ............... 164
xv
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
The Canadian mining industry provides key trade resources for the nation and
pro vides employment and internationai as weIl as local investrnent, thus benefiting the
national economy. Incessant regional exploration and present research into improved
mining practices illustrates the economic significance of mining. The objective of mining
activities had always been to attain a peak valuable-mineral extraction yield in the most
secure and non-destructive manner possible. Processes involved with extracting large
of minerais, however, can effectively lead to an unsound mine structure. The
most common solution to this predicament, which has been employed by mining
companies, is leaving rock pillars within stop es to provide mine support. Consequently,
the mineraI extraction yield is lessened. As an alternative solution, backfill technology
has been introduced and is continually improving mining practices and design. Backfill is
defined as a "material, or materials, used to fill cavities created by mining so as to
establish and retain safe working conditions economicaIly" (Wilson, 1979).
Stabilised backfill's fundamental qualities lie in its compressive strength as well
as its porosity and, hence, permeability (Rawling et al., 1966; Thomas, 1978; Amaratunga
and Annor, 1989; Grice, 1989; Hassani and Archibald, 1998). Compressive strength is an
essential property that determines the way in which backfill responds to various loading
conditions. In regards to underground mining operations, the required compressive
strength of backfill is dependant upon its application within the mine. Nevertheless, the
general strength requirement is 1 MPa at 28 days of curing (Amaratunga and Annor,
1989; Grice, 1989). The strength requirement for cut and fill mining is, however,
usually less than 1 MPa, but may be up to 5 to 7 MPa for delayed backfill with pillar
recovery (Hassani and Archibald, 1998). Likewise, porosity and permeability are also key
characteristics since they establish the stope's dewatering capacity. There is no specified
permeability demand for backfiIl, but a percolation rate of 100 mm/hour is considered
acceptable (Hassani and Archibald, 1998).
1
Backfill is typically composed of mill tailings, water and binder. Metallurgical
and mining practices produce a regular flow of waste consisting of mill tailings nd
water, thus causing the basic constituents of backfill to be readily available on site.
Portland cement is the most regularly used binder in stabilizing waste and backfill
materials (Clark, 1988). This binder is not available on site, and so it must be hauled in
prior to its combination with the other components.
The two primary setbacks to using cement as a binding agent are namely its
associated mode of strength acquisition and cost. The former is prone to modifications
caused by the particle size distribution of mill tailings (Espley et al., 1970), the binder
content (Thomas, 1971; Neville, 1987), the curing time and the surrounding conditions
(Neville, 1987). Accordingly, on-site testing is required to ascertain an optimal cement
content to match the required design strength. The latter setback is due to high costs
associated with the production and transportation of cement. Such factors have prompted
mining companies to research possible alternatives for cement such as slag (Uusitalo et
al., 1993), fly ash (Udd and Annor, 1993), calcined gypsum (Amaratunga, 1995) and
sodium silicate (Razavi et al., 2005) that can partially or totally replace the cement.
In this thesis, the use of sodium silicate is investigated as a potential replacement
for cement, or as an additive, in stabilised backfill. The use of sodium silicate along with -
metallurgical waste to pro duce a stabilised backfill is a relatively new concept, and was
considered because of its many potential advantages, namely:
It produces a lower heat of hydration compared to cement and, hence,
lowers the risk of thermal cracking in thick structures, like backfill masses.
It reduces the setting time of stabilised backfill and, consequently, shortens
the mining cycle.
A small fraction of sodium silicate can replace a large fraction of cement
in stabilised backfill.
Each underground backfill is distinctive, due to the various materials that it
contains based on the unique proximate conditions in which it must perform. In order to
2
investigate the suitability of sodium silicate as a binder, or an additive, in underground-
stabilised backfill, the following topics were examined:
The characterization of tailings and binders used in this study;
The strength of sand pastefill and slurry backfill specimens with different
binders containing sodium silicate, cement and slag in a variety of
proportions and combinations;
The strength of silicate-fortified and non-silicate-fortified samples that
have been made according to two different addition orders and mixing
times;
The resulting microstructure and its effect on the properties of silicate-
fortified specimens; and
Other properties, such as porosity, rate and amount of water release, and
elastic modulus. This was done to investigate the overall suitability of
sodium silicate as a binder or additive for underground backfill operations.
3
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
2-1- BacklIlI Practice in Millennium
Backfill practice in rnining has a long history. It has only been in the past three
decades, however, that research and development has magnified the importance of
backfilling as an integrated part of underground mining operations. During the time of
ancient Greek civilization, stone pillars were used to support the roofs of silver mines
(Udd, 1989). At the beginning of the twentieth century, backfill was considered as
manually or pneumatically placed sand that was not ideal to provide sufficient support.
Consequently, timber support was employed to provide both structural strength and fill
containment. It was in the 1940s that hydraulic sandfiIl, a technique by which tailings is
transferred to stopes through pipes, was introduced as a cheaper and more effective
method. The use of sandfill brought sorne advantages, namely the elimination of physical
transport, emplacement and spreading offill by miners (Smaniotto, 1968). Nevertheless, a
fill with higher mechanical strength was required to improve backfill operations. At its
Hardy Mine in Sudbury, Falconbridge Nickel Mines Ltd. was. the first company to use
cemented backfill successfully in 1957 (Espley et al. 1970). The choice of cement at that
time was affiliated with its abundance and low' price relative to other binder agents
(Thomas, 1973a; Hassani and Archibald, 1998). Although cement has become widely
used for several different operations since then, its price and transportation cost has
simultaneously increased. During the late fifties, cemented backfill represented 50 to 85
percent of operation costs compared \Vith 5 to 10 percent for uncemented backfill
(Thomas et al., 1979; Barrett et al., 1983; Grice, 1989).
The expenditures on cement became a heavy burden for mining companies and
prompted an eventual search for partial or total substitution of cement using alternative
materials. Slag (Thomas, 1971; McGuire, 1978; Yu and Counter, 1983; Atkinson et al.,
1989), fly ash (Askew et al., 1978; Manca et al., 1983; Udd and Annor, 1993), ground
waste glass (Archibald et al., 1995 and 1999; De Souza et al., 1997) and calcium sulphate
(Contini et al., 1983; Udd and Annor, 1993; Amaratunga and Hmidi, 1997) have aIl been
4
established as acceptable substitutes. The common goal of the aforementioned
investigations was the reduction of binder cost and, hence, backfill expenditures as weIl;
aIl without any negative effect on the strength of cemented materials.
There has been continuing and consistent research into a new binder and backfill
method since 1980. As the result of these investigations, paste backfill was introduced as
an environmentally friendly method. Pastefill brought many advantages such as improved
mechanical behaviour, reduced binder consumption and mn-off water as weIl as the
reutilization of tailings in the mining process.
General improvements and changes in backfill technology encouraged mmmg
companies to better their operations in varying areas such as:
Working conditions
Stabilized backfills have improved safety in mines due to their contribution of
both local and regional support. Since the backfill prevents any ground movement and
uncontrolled deterioration, workers using load-bearing equipment are able to conduct
activities under safer conditions. Safety is of utmost concern in the psychological state of
workers, particularly when they are working in or around stopes or extracted ground.
Ore extraction
Sorne parts of ore are commonly left as pillars to provide support for the extracted
area. U sing stabilized backfill replaces the need for these pillars, thus the ore can be
extracted completely. As a result, ore production increases and consequently increases
yield, particularly in high-grade areas.
Environmental effects
Protection and conservation of the environment is of the greatest importance in
mining areas. Using backfill helps to dispose of the majority of tailings underground. It
also allows the reduction of the amount of waste materials being pumped to the tailings
5
dam and reduces the land required for disposaI. Moreover, in the case of rehabilitating
backfill, a reduction in the potential for surface subsidence is also achiev.ed.
2-2- Research Background
The three main components of cemented backfill are tailings, binder and water.
Filling the stopes underground is intended to provide sufficient support and a safe
working environment for miners. Thus, the strength of backfil1 is of great importance to
mines due to safety and cost concems. There are many parameters that may affect the
strength behaviour of cemented backfill. These parameters can be classified into two
main groups:
1) Macroscopic parameters, which includes all phenomena occurring at the stope
scale and any interaction between emplaced cemented backfill and nearby rocks.
The effect of the interface between backfill and surrounding rock as weIl as the
influence of consolidation due to filling the stope, the effect of cracks within the
cemented backfill that may change the drainage and amount of water in backfill
rnass are sorne examples.
2) lntrinsic parameters, which include all the constraints related to the three main
components of cemented backfiIl: tailings, binder and water.
The aforernentioned parameters are somewhat interrelated; though the highlight
and focus will beon the intrinsic factors. There have been many research studies
involving these parameters, sorne ofwhich shall be discussed in the ensuing sections.
Fall et al. (2005) have investigated the effect of tailings' fineness and density on
thequality of cernent paste backfill (CPB). The criteria that they used are: mechanical
strength rneasured by uniaxial compressive strength (DCS) test, econornic analysis based
on binder cost, microstructure study including the pore size distribution and porosity of
CPB and fmally the water demand to achieve the desired consistency. Results of their
6
research showed that the tailings' fineness and density have significant effect on ues,
water/binder ratio, and microstructure of cemented backfill.
Influence of curing temperature on paste backfill behaviour has also been
investigated by FaU et al. (2005). They conducted a series of experiments to investigate
the influence of curing temperature on strength, durability, and deformation
characteristics of paste backfill. They simulated different curing temperatures (OOe, 20C,
35C and 59C) by a process developed by the authors. They performed sorne laboratory
tests of strength, stress-strain performance, microstructure, and water absorption in
cemented paste backfill specimens. The results showed that for samples cured at lower
temperatures, the strength development rate decreases, resulting in lower strength.
However, binder type and curing dates have a major influence on a specimen's strength.
The compressive and tensile properties of underground paste backfill were
investigated by Fall et al. (2005). These parameters are of utmost concern due to both
economic and safety reasons. The authors utilized ues, triaxial and Brazilian tests to
study the properties and stress-strain behaviour of cemented paste backfill. They
investigated the effect of basic cemented paste backfill components' properties, as well as
the effect of strength, aging and confining pressure on the deformation behaviour of
cemented pastefill. The authors also suggested a formula for predicting the tensile
strength, stiffness, confined and peak strain of cemented paste backfill. They claimed that
the suggested model is reliable enough to predict the stress-strain behaviour of cemented
pastebackfill.
In another investigation by FaU and Benzaazoua (2005), a mathematical model
was developed to predict and analyze the strength development and cost of cemented
pastefill. The authors claimed that, the model was capable of predicting the relationship
between sulphate quantity and strength characteristics of backfill. Their results have
demonstrated that the sulphate concentration, the curing time, the binder percentages and
the chemistry of the binder play important roles in strength acquisition of cemented
pastefill.
7
Benzaazoua et al. (2006) have investigated the mechanical and leaching properties
of sludge recycled within cemented pastefill. They used different binders consisting of
slag and cement based binders. The results demonstrated that a combination of Portland
Type 10 and 50 cements offered more mechanical resistance compared to slag-based
binders. In strictly examining leaching ability, the Portland cement and slag-based binders
were beneficial in terms of minimizing the Zn and Mn release, even at a lower binder
proportion.
Kesimal et al. (2005) have investigated the effect of tailings and binder properties
on short and long-term strength of cemented backfill. They prepared 144 paste samples
containing 4 to 7 wt% binder to target a ues value greater or equal to 0.7 MPa after 28
days of curing for the two different tailings (Tl and T2). The specimens made of tailings
Tl showed more short-term strength development, compared to tailings T2 with the same
binder. It was attributed to higher water retntion capacity of tailings Tl relative to
tailings T2. As both tailings consisted of considerable quantities of sulphate, the strength
of both tailings deteriorated with time. They conc1uded that the short-term strength
deve10pment of backfill is tightly dependent on physical, chemical and mineralogical
properties of binder and tailings.
Al-Harthy et al. (2005) have investigated the effect of water quality on the
strength of fill mixtures. They used brackish and oily production water in their research.
The results indicated that the use of non-fresh water generated lower compressive
strength compared to tap water. The samples made of brackish groundwater gave higher
strength than mixes which were made of oily production water
Benzaazoua et al. (2004b) also have studied the hardening process of cemented
pastefil1. Their investigation showed that the hardening process of cemented pastefill
depends on physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of tailings, water content and
chemistry and finally the binder proportion and type. As claimed by the authors, the
hardening process of cemented pastefill not only is caused by direct hydration formed by
reaction of binder but also by precipitation of hydrates from pore. water. It was also
8
demonstrated that sulphate content in tailings may significantly influence the mechanical
behaviour of CPB in different ways: inhibiting the hardening process or, after hardening,
due to formation of expansive species, sulphate can causestrength losses.
Grabinsky and Bawden (2004) have investigated post peak behaviour of
unconfined cemented rockfill. They made 450 by 900 mm samples tested by stiff load
frame to capture the post-peak behaviour. Samples showed high ductility that is an
important factor for design purposes. As claimed by the authors, cemented backfill
materials are usually subjected to two different types of loads: static and dynamic. The
source of dynamic load is usually a rockburst, and in this case, the ductile post-peak
behaviour is important as a mechanism capable of absorbing released energy.
The strength performance of sulphide-rich mme tailings at an underground
copper-zinc mine in northeast Turkey was studied by Kesimal et al. (2004). Their
research included discussions on suitability of various paste mixes with different cement
percentages and slump values. They conducted sorne tests on chemical composition,
mineralogy, specific gravity, particle size distribution and rheological properties.
Prepared samples were subjected to DCS testing. Results pointed out that in the case of a
high sulphide tailings, the usual binder was not capable of sustaining sufficient strength in
the long term. They suggested more research on the application of sulphide resistant
binders.
Jianping et al. (2004) have carried out a number ofresearch projects to determine
the most economically and geotechnically appropriate fill recipes for cemented hydraulic
fill and cemented pastefill. Results showed that the mineralogy and oxidation of tailings,
cement type and proportion have significant effects on strength behaviour and quality of
cemented fill materials. They also conc1uded that the curing time has major influence on
strength of cemented backfill materials as for 56 days cured samples the DeS has a
higher value comparing with samples cured for 28 days.
9
In another investigation by Kesimal et al. (2003), the effect of deslimed mill
tailings on paste backfill performance at a mine in northeast Turkey has been analyzed.
Twodifferent mine tailings were used in the investigation and the amount of fine particles
in the tailings were reduced to 15,20,25 and 30 wt%. Deslimed tailings then were tested
to study the relationship between particle size and strength gain. The results showed that
decreasing the fine particle fraction in the tailings via desliming produced a positive
effect on uniaxial compressive strength of paste backfill and it can contribut to the
improvement in the gradation of tailings
Simon and Klein (2003) have investigated the setting time and compreSSIve
strength of various mixture recipes by Vicat apparatus and uniaxial compressive press.
They considered the impact of accelerators, ,salts, superplasticizers, and pH on setting
time and strength development of cemented backfill. Results showed that the additives
significantly affected the DCS and setting time. They demonstrated that the ionic species
positively affect the early strength, but they have little effect in the long term. In the case
of setting time, they concluded that the acidic samples had delayed setting time.
Crowder et al. (2002) have conducted sorne tests to find out the relationship
between different components of cemented pastefill with strength and angle of response.
They performed rheological and flume tests on pastefill showing the link between water
content, yield stress and angle of response. They emphasized the importance of
deflocculating agents on paste behaviour.
Bernier et al. (1999) have studied the effects of tailings and binder geochemistry
on the physical strength of paste backfill. They cured samples for different intervals up to
180 days. Results pointed out a decrease in DCS after 90 and 120 days of curing. This
could increase the potential of premature failure for backfill materials and consequently
loss or dilution of ore. It also causes the oxidation of failed material followed by self-
heating and generation of sulphur dioxide gas.
10
Archibald et al. (1996) have conducted research on the application of ground
industrial and municipal waste glass as a partial replacement for normal Portland cement
(NPC) in various mine backfill operations that could reduce costs for the mining industry.
They claimed that the glass could generate at least equivalent long-term strength in the
case of hydraulic or paste backfill. For both hydraulic and paste backfill, up to 35% of
cement was replaced by glass and excellent strength characteristics were developed. They
showed that the strength characteristics and development of cemented backfill materials
depend on water content, tailings mineralogy, pozzolans size distribution, curing
temperature and glass type. Obtained results showed that in the short-term, UCS of
samples made with cement is higher than ones made with glass.
2-3- Backfill Materials
The three main components of backfill are inert materials, binder and water. The
inert materials and water suggest a specific placement technique for the mixture
underground. Inert materials are classified into four groups, based on their particle size.
1) Mill Tailings
Tailings may be used as classified (deslimed) or total tailings. Ore processing and
desliming technologies define the particle size distribution of tailings.
2) Sand
Surface alluvial basins are the major source of sand. Depending on particle size
classification, the particle size distribution ranges between 61lm to 5 mm (Means and
Parcher, 1964; Draper, 1989; Hassani and Archibald, 1998).
3) Gravel
Particle size for gravel varies between 1 mm and 25 mm (Means and Parcher,
1964; Arioglu, 1983; Barrett et al, 1983; Senyurn and Erer, 1990; Bloss, 1992).
11
4) Rock
Waste rocks are sized down to meet the size requirements for pipeline
transportation. In the case of hydraulic transportation, the maximum size of 60 mm is
suggested. However, rocks up to 300 mm can be transported by conveyors or trucks
(Knissel and Helms, 1983; Bloss, 1992; Reshke, 1993; Stone 1993; Hassani and
Archibald, 1998).
Mine water is a common waste material from mining processes and it is usually
recycled. In backfilling, commonly processed surface or underground waters are used.
Water plays a dual role, in transportation and providing means for binder reaction to
pro duce the mechanical properties of the stabilized backfill.
2-4- Hydraulic Backfill Methods
Hydraulic backfill has been widely used as a placement technique in underground
mining operations all around the world. There are different hydraulic methods including
cemented; uncemented and paste backfill. There are also other placement techniques such
as mechanical and pneumatic fill, but these methods are not usually used.
2-4-1- Cemenfed and Uncemenfed Hydraulic Fill
Due to many advantages of the cemented hydraulic backfill method, it is the most
commonly used technique in the underground mining industry (Espley et al., 1970; Singh,
1976; Thomas et al.,1979; Swan, 1985; Terezopolous, 1987; Grice, 1989; Bloss, 1992;
Hassani and Archibald, 1998). The main applications of uncemented hydraulic backfill
are to provide working floors and to fill mined spaces that will not be subjected to further
mining in future. Sorne of the advantages of cemented hydraulic backfill are:
Installations and operations are relatively simple
Potential of preparing slurry both underground and on the surface
Taking advantage of gravit y to transport the slurry in boreholes or pipelines
By optimizing the pipeline lay-out, puinping can be avoided
12
Reduction of disposaI area due to the partial placement of tailings underground
Removing the fine particles or desliming is simply achieved by hydrocyclones
The major problem associated with slurry backfill is the extra water that IS
required in the production process. Extra water brings sorne problems such as:
AlI of the excess water should be pumped out from the stopes to the surface
Extra water may cause segregation that greatly affects the performance of the
backfill
Due to the generation of cement-rich or slime layers on the surface of backfill,
safety hazards may be created
Presence of cement in the milling circuit reduces mineral recovery
Large amounts of water in the slurry delay the setting time and strength
development of backfilI.
2-4-2- Pastefill
The application of cemented pastefill as an underground backfilling material has
become a broadly used technology in modem mines all around the world (Landriault,
1995; Hassani and Archibald, 1998; Belem and Benzaazoua, 2003). Such media generally
consist of fine process tailings that have approximately 15% of particles sized smaller
than 2011ffi. Other components of cemented paste backfill are water (to achieve desired
consistency) and binder (3-7% by dry total weight). Each component plays a crucial role
in paste transportation, placement, and strength characteristics (Lamos and Clark, 1989;
Stone, 1993; Hassani and Archibald, 1998; Belem et al., 2001; Benzaazoua et al. 2002b).
According to Petrolito et al. (1998), tailings particle size distribution is the single most
important factor that determines the characteristics of stabilized backfill. Pastefill
products, unlike slurries, may therefore be capable of utilizing significant fractions of fine
tailings. This backfill form, unlike slurry, has been shown to offer significant benefits to
mines in terms of reducing surface tailings storage requirements, improvingfill strength
13
character and minimizing water-handling costs. Typical pastefills require lower water
contents than slurry fills. They generate minimal run-off water when placed and hardened
similar to slurry products with much less cement consumption.
Disadvantages of this system include the capital cost required for the dewatering
system and the complexity of the operation that needs constant supervision. Another point
is the addition of cement evento those paste fractions that will not be exposed, due to
inclusion of fines in slurry. However, even with the fine particle fraction, not aIl tailings
can be returned underground in a paste backfill operation.
2-4-3- Rockfill .
Rockfill is a mixture of aggregate materials that is used for the purpose of
backfilling underground cavities. Typical rockfill mixtures may comprise unconsolidated
or consolidated waste rock aggregates. The major use of rockfill is in the form of
cemented (consolidated) rockfill containing various types of binders. Compared to
conventional hydraulic methods, the cemented rockfill generally produces stiffer and
higher strength fill (Reschke, 1993, Annor, 1999). Consolidated rockfill is comprised of
sized or unsized aggregate mixed with various types and amounts of binder materials.
However, as it is reported in certain Canadian mining operations, sized rockfill aggregates
are used in making cemented rockfill material. Cemented rockfiIl, with the equivalent
binder content, can usually pro duce higher compressive strength than those of hydraulic
and paste fill. When cemented rockfill is placed sufficiently, it produces a high quality fill
material. Alternate1y, rock aggregate material may be post-consolidated by adding cement
slurry mixture onto and through emplacement.
Unconsolidated rockfill is used when the filled stope will not be exposed in future
pillar recovery operations since aIl stopes surrounding the filled stope will have been
previously mined and filled. This filling method is usually utilized for void filling and to
provide sorne measure of passive wall support for resisting localized ground movement.
14
Disadvantages of this system inc1ude segregation of coarser material to stope sides
and reduction of the ability to tightly fill the stope due to coning of placed rockfill when
placed in the stope. Also in order to ensure the rockfill competence, the voids in rockfill
may require fine material and cementing agents to be added.
2-5- Backfill Binders and Additives
The introduction of cement in 1957 encouraged researchers to look for other
agents to improve backfill performance and reduce the costs in mining operations. The
use of alternative binders and additives depends upon their availability, cost and ability to
partially, if not totally, replace Portland cement in backfill operations. In the following
section, cement and a wide range of alternative binders and their performance are
discussed.
2-5-1- Portland Cement
Portland cement is mostly made of calcium carbonate, alumina, silica and iron
oxide. Grinding and mixing the raw materials and heating the mixture to 1400C
produces Portland cement. When the cement is mixed with water, a plastic and workable
paste is produced that stiffens and hardens during the following reactions:
3CaO.Si0
2
+ xH
2
0 -+ 2CaO.Si0
2
.yH
2
0 + 3Ca (OH) 2
2CaO.Si0
2
+ xH
2
0 -+ CaO.Si0
2
.yH
2
0 + Ca (OH) 2
(2-1)
(2-2)
where x and y are values that balance the hydration reactions. Tricalcium silicate
(3CaO.Si0
2
) is responsible for the short-term strength gain because of its high-energy
state (Aylmer, 1973; Singh, 1976; Neville, 1987).
During the 1 960s, mining companies used up to 20% of cement by total dry
weight to stabilize backfill materials. With increasing knowledge in different fields such
15
as rock mechanics and fill technology, companies started to reduce the amount of cement
in their operations. Obtained results from different investigations showed that various
tailings with the same cement percentage did not have the same strength. Renee, strength
behaviours of backfill are mostly site-specific (Thomas, 1971; Knissel and Reims, 1983;
Manca et a1.1983;Atkinson et a1.1989; Lamos and Clark, 1989). The reason is attributed
to the large range of variables associated with each individual mining operation. In reeent
years, mines usually add 3% to 7 wt% cement to reach to ultimate strength of IMPa after
28 days of curing.
Since cemented backfill was introduced, various researches has been conducted to
achieve a better understanding and improve backfill technology (Corson, 1966; Rawling
et al., 1966; Espley et al., 1970; Weaver and Luka, 1970; Thomas, 1971; Aylmer, 1973;
Thomas, 1973a; Singh, 1976; Knissel and ReIms, 1983; Manca et al., 1983; Atkinson et
al., 1989; Lamos and Clark, 1989). Results indicated that the strength of cemented
backfill increases with increasing cement percentages and curing time, and decreases with
an increase in water content and porosity.
2-5-2- Calcium Sulphate Materials
Anhydrite (anhydrous calcium sulphate, CaS04), bassanite (calcium sulphate
hemihydrate ,CaS04.1/2R
2
0), and gypsum (calcium sulphate dihydrate, CaS04.2R
2
0)
are three naturally occurring calcium sulphate materials. Among the abovementioned
materials, gypsum is' most abundant; existing in many areas around the world. Gypsum
cornes into being by evaporation of seawater in old lakes or enclosed lagoons (Smith,
1981). Calcium sulphate hemihydrate and calcium sulphate anhydrite are created due to
the calcinidation of gypsum (Kuntze et al., 1989; Rand, 1997). Moreover, the calcium
sulphate materials can be produced as by-products of chemical processes and
desulphurization techniques (Beretka et al., 1981; Contini et al., 1983). The morphology
and reactivity of individual calcium sulphate materials are unique. Different types of
calcined gypsum materials exist, (l- and p-hemihydrate as weIl as (l- and p-anhydrite
among others. When mixed with water, such substances produce a strong hardened mass.
16
Once hardened, the exhibit various different properties depending on their
calcined composition (Contini et al., 1983; Kuntze et al., 1989; Udd and Annor, 1993;
Polarski, 1994).
1. Calcium sulphate anhydrite
Naturally occurring anhydrite was investigated by Udd andAnnor (1993). They
created a mixture from anhydrite, mill tailings and water. The results of their study
indicated that, in spite of encouraging results, the mixture required an uneconomical
quantity of binder. Farsangi (1988) also used anhydrite as a packing material and
proposed its potential as a binder in backfilling. Flour-gypsum, another name given to
calcium suiphate anhydrite, was used by Contini et al. (1983). This particular anhydrite is
a by-product of acid production plants and can absorb water promptly, producing a
plastic, easy to pour slurry that hardens by drying. They showed that a strength of 2 to 4
MPa could be produced when the solid content is equally divided between flour-gypsum
and tailings. Slurries made of gypsum-based binder containing accelerants or lime,
produced up to 10 MPa of strength. In comparison to cement, more flour-gypsum is
required for equivalent strength.
2. Calcium sulphate hemihydrate
Polarski's (1994) investigations showed that a combination of a-calcium sulphate
hemihydrate and water at 66 wt% produced a strength of 25 MPa after 1 day of curing,
increasing with prolonged curing time. A mix of a-hemihydrate/fly ash and a-
hemihydrate/waste in equal proportion and 66 wt% solids produced strengths of 17 MPa
and 10 MPa at 28 days of curing, respectively. Another combination of a-calcium
hemihydrate/fly ash and waste rock (50%/25%/25%) exhibited strengths of 5 MPa with a
solids content of 66 wt% after 28days of curing. The results demonstrate that the
. gypsum-based binder may be used in mining operations and produces sufficient strength,
but more research into quantitiesofbinder is necessary.
17
~ Calcium sulphate hemihydrate and anhydrite
Kuntze et al. (1989) used a-calcium sulphate hemihydrate and anhydrite in
sulphuric acid solutions as a binder. The authors did not report any extra strength, but
they conc1uded that the strength development of the a-hemihydrate is followed by slow
strength rate development of anhydrite. AIso, Polarski (1994) used a mix of a-calcium
sulphate hemihydrate and anhydrite in proportion of 50/50 at 66 wt% solids content. This
combination is capable of producing strengths of 10 MPa after 1 hour and 17 MPa after 7 .
days of curing. These strength values meet the requirements for backfilling but, again,
comparing to cemented backfiU, these binders are more expensive.
4. Ettringite
Ettringite is a complex sulphoaluminate hydrate that is rarely found in nature (Sun
et al., 1998). It is of practical importance in cement technology (Neville, 1987). When
ettringite is mixed with water in a 1:9 volume ratio, the material solidifies and produces
artificial stone within 5-30 minutes of the initial combination. The strength development
is rapid and generates strengths of 1.5 MPa after 2 hours, 3 MPa in a day and 5 MPa in a
week. As an alternative binder, ettringite is more cost effective and brings environmental
advantages over cement, but several problems are associated with its production and
transportation.
2-5-3- Natural and Artificial Pozzolans
A pozzolan is described as a siliceous or aluminous/siliceous material that has no
cementitious property on its OWll. If present in a finely ground form and in the vicinity of
water, however, a chemical reaction with calcium hydroxide occurs and produces
material with a cementitious property (ASTM 1987). Lime (calcium hydroxide) is
combined with various pozzolans in cement hydration and produces secondary calcium
silicate hydrates. Though certain chemically inactive pozzolans exist, these are not
beneficial for use in backfill stabilization (Thomas, 1973b).
18
1. Natural Pozzolans
Pozzolans are found naturally as vo1canic ash, pumicite, opaline shales and cherts,
ca1cined ditatomiceous earth and burnt clay. Due to the cementitious properties of these
materials, extensive investigations into their use as a partial, or even total, replacement for
cement in backfill operations aIl around the world have been conducted (Lukaszewski,
1973; Carlson and Saperstein, 1989). However, there are some problems associated with
natural pozzolans use, such as:
Insufficient resources in the proximity of mining areas.
Problem with activation due to a high temperature requirement.
2. Artificial pozzolans
Slag, fly ash and to a lesser extent ground waste glass are artificial pozzolans that
are usually used as replacement binders for cement in backfill operations. These are
readily available and cheaper than cement. Depending on the manufacturing technique
1
and the chemical composition, cementitious properties of artificial pozzolans vary
considerably (Yu and Counter, 1988; Atkinson et al., 1989; Archibald et al., 1995).
Slag
Slag can be produced as a by-product of different metallurgicai processes, such as
smelting of iron, lead, zinc and copper. Slag must be in an amorphous or glass state rather
than a crystal state to have pozzolanic properties. Granulated slag is created when molten
slag is poured into water to form solid slag, which is then ground to increase the surface
area and therefore the reactivity of the material. Slag is capable of sustaining hydration
reactions for long curing times in the presence of water, lime and alkaline conditions
(McGuire, 1978).
Many investigations into partial replacement of cement with slag have taken
place. Results indicate that such a process is feasible and economically viable (Thomas,
19
1971, 1973b; Swain, 1973; McGuire, 1978; Nantel and Lecuyer, 1983; Yu and Counter,
1983; Douglas and Malhotra, 1989). INCO Limited, for example, at its Stobie Mine
operation, uses a binder that is composed of 90% slag and 10% normal Portland cement
(NPC) at an overall binder/tailings mix ratio approximating 1/15 - 1/30 (Archibald, 2004).
The researches indicate that a mix of cementlslag/tailings could have a strength of
1MPa or higher. For instance, Thomas (1971) c1aimed that a combination of 4 wt%
cement and 6 wt% copper reverberatory furnace slag could produce equivalent strength as
that of cement and brought 60% savings in mine income. Thomas (1973) showed that up
to 50 wt% of cement could be reduced without affecting the strength. A minimum amount
of 2 wt% of cement is required to ensure the consistent strength of the mix. This amount
of cement provides the minimum lime content required for secondary hydrate formation.
Practically, since blast furnace slag (BFS) in itself is no more than a latent hydraulic
binder, it must be activated to react and provide strength (Wang, 1994). There have been
many investigations into the addition of activationmaterials that could activate BFS. For
instance, Douglas and Malhotra (1989) showed that a mix of slag and lime, after 28 days,
could produce strength of 1 MPa. The aforementioned research team used slag of various
partic1e sizes, tailings to binder ratios at 70/30 and a sufficient amount of lime to produce
pH of 12.4:
Atkinson et al. (1989) used activated copper slag with both lime and gypsum. A
combination of 5.4 wt% of copper slag, 0.75 wt% lime and 0.93 wt% gypsum at 80 wt%
solids content produced the strength of 1 MPa after 28 days of curing. Nantel and Lecuyer
(1983)used slag and pyrhotite tailings in proportion of 90/10 at 96 wt% solids content
and they achieved the strength of 0.35 MPa after 28 days of curing. This mixture could be
used to fill mined areas that would not be exposed tofurther mining.
Udd and Annor (1993) added a mixture of lime, gypsum and anhydrite to a
slag/cementltailings blend and observed increase in compressive strength compared to a
slag/cementltailings combination. The total replacement of cement by slag was proved to
be feasible in cementltailings mixtures. Compared to cement, however, the strength
20
deve10pment rate of slag is very slow and requires long curing times (up to one year).
Currently, there are many mining operations in Canada that . are using cement /slag in
proportion of 20/80 or 10/90 in their backfill operations (Archibald, 2004).
Flyash
Fly ash is produced as a by-product of pulverized coal combustion in thermal
power plants. Mechanical collectors are usually used to remove the fly ash from the
resultant combustion gases (Nville, 1987). The production of a fly ash with adequate
pozzolanic property requires mixing of cement or other sources of free lime with the ash
(Thomas, 1971; Aylmer, 1973; Yu and Courrter, 1988). Results of several investigations
showed the potential of partial replacement of cement by fly ash (Weaver and Luka,
1970; Thomas, 1971; Askew et al., 1978; Manca et al., 1983; Yu and Courrter, 1988; Udd
and Annor, 1993). The early strength (urrder 28 days) development of fly ash/cement is
slower than cement and it needs more curing time to attain the required strength (Weaver
and Luka, 1970; Manca et al., 1983; Yu and Courrter, 1988). Under long curing times,
however, fly ash is capable of replacing up to 60% of cement with considerable cost
savings (Yu and Courrter, 1988; Udd and Annor, 1993). Nevertheless, to ensure consistent
strength, a minimum of 2% cement is required to provide the lime as to form secondary
hydrates (Yu and Courrter, 1988).
There have been different investigations into the use of additives such as
anhydrite, gypsum, slag and lime in backfill, and results showed enhancement in the
performance of backfills. Thomas (1973b) used lime to activate fly ash. He mixed 14
wt% of both materials at 69 wt% solids content and conc1uded that the mixture achieved
IMPa strength after 224 days of curing. Atkinson et al. (1989) mixed 6wt% fly ash, 0.75
wt% lime, and 1.5wt% gypsurn at 76-82 wt% total solids to achieve 1 MPa of strength
after 20 days of curing. Manca et al. (1983) c1aimed that the use offly ash and lime is not
feasible since the final strength of their samples was low. Yu and Courrter (1983) further
concluded that a rnix of fly ash and slag together had no strength or cost advantage
compared to fly ash and cement mixes.
21
Ground waste glass
Ground waste glass has pozzolanic properties and is readily available. Glass is
usually disposed into landfills in large quantities, a practice which is costly to municipal
and industrial users. This practice does not have any environmental benefits. The use of
glass in backfill operations was first suggested by Archibald (1995). Glass is mixed with
aggregate, with and without cement and lime. The results indicated that, when 15-35 wt%
waste glass in the mix containing cement and construction sand is used, the mixture has
higher strengths compared to mixes with cement alone. De Souza et al. (1997) also
emphasized the bneficial use of ground waste glass in mine backfill within their
research. Both studies concluded that the use of ground waste glass and cement yield an
effective binder alternative.
2-5-4- Natural Sulphides
The use of natural sulphides was studied by different investigators (Swain, 1973;
Nantel and Lecuyer, 1983; Amaratunga, 1995). Notably, pyrite and pyrrohitite have been
extensively studied. Upon oxidation, a relatively rapid formation of oxidized materials
including hydrated iron oxides and various sulphates are produced. This mixture is
capable of cementing the COarse materials within the mix. Swain (1973) made a blend of
tailings/slag in a 4:1 ratio and 8 wt% pyrrhotite that had the strength of 1.86 MPa.
However, strength developed by iron-sulphide is usually' low and these materials are
suitable for use in the areas that are not exposed to future mining.
2-5-5- The Use of Non-Binding Additives in Cemented Backfill
Fibres and chemical admixtures are two major groups of non-binding additives
that are investigated for use in backfill. Fibres are known to improve the strength,
toughness, shrinkage and impact resistance of concrete (Wittreich, 1988). The use of
fibreglass as backfill reinforcement has been reported by Askew et al. (1973) and the use
of steel and plastic by others (Dison and Blight, 1988; Wittiech, 1988). The results
22
showed that the use of sorne fibres in backfill increased the strength; however, the
increase was too small to consider the addition of fibres as an economical replacement for
cement. Furthermore, incorporating fibres in backfill has various operational problems.
Certain fibres have yet to be studied for backfill use.
Farzam et al. (1998) reported the use of chemical admixtures in concrete
production to output more economic building material. N evertheless, use of chemical
admixture in backfill is minimal. This fact is seemingly paradoxical, considering the
similarities of the parameters that affect behaviour of backfill and concrete. Reasons for
low use can be attributed to lack of information on the benefits of these additives and the
cost of these materials. There have been investigations into the evaluation of the
performance of chemical admixtures for backfill operations. The results showed that
chemical admixtures could improve the transport, placement, and in situ properties of the
mix (Weaver and Luka, 1970; Braes, 1973; Hoffner, 1973; Farzam et a1.1998). The
chemical admixtures that have been studied to date include dispersants, stabilizers,
activators, foaming agents (Farzam et al. 1998) and flocculants (Weaver and Luka, 1970;
Braes, 1973; Hoffner, 1973; Loubser, 1988).
2-5-6- Sodium Silicate and Slag Activation
2-5-6-1- Sodium Silicate and its Applications
The history of the industrial application of soluble silicate (i.e. sodium silicate)
started in 1818. Sodium silicate is produced by smelting sand (Si0
2
) with sodium
carbonate (Na2C03) at 1100-1200 oC. The resulting material dissolves with high-pressure
steam to form a cIear, slightly viscous liquid that is known as water glass.
In general, soluble silicates are polymerie substances and are categorized by AM
(Alkali Modulus) as an activator. This modulus shows the ratio of Si0
2
and Na20 in
silicate varying from 3.22 (low alkalinity) to 1.0 (high alkalinity) and the degree of
polymerization depends on this ratio (Conner, 1970). Sodium silicate has many
applications in varying fields. In the following sections, recent applications of sodium
23
silicate relevant to the research topic under discussion, such as its applications in waste
treatment, cement and construction materials are highlighted and discussed.
1. Sodium Silicate in Cement and Construction
Once sodium silicate is used in cement and construction materials, it can function .
in different ways. It acts as a penetrating sealant, an accelerting admixture and an alkali-
activator for slag and fly ash. Sodium silicate penetrates the concrete surface and reacts
with portlandite (Ca (OH) 2) and/or Ca
2
+ .The product of this reaction is a C-S-H gel.
Presence of portlandite is not desirable since it precipitates around aggregates and
produces a porous paste/aggregates interface that increases permeability and hence
decreases the compressive strength. Also portlandite is prone to acid attack and
carbonation. Forming C-S-H gel, in contrast, brings sorne advantages such as filling the
voids by acting as glue. By applying sodium silicate, portlandite is replaced with C-S-H
gel thal enhances the abrasion and chemical resistance as weIl as durability of the
concrete surface.
Sodium silicate also accelerates the setting time of the mixture and the degree of
acceleration depends on the silicate type (Anderson et a1.,1998). In the case of insoluble
silicates the acceleration rate is lower because silicate should be dissolved first. As
hydrous powder dissolves more quickly than glass powder, it accelerates the setting much
more than glass does. In sorne applications like shotcreting, the' sodium silicate is used to
set the shotcrete immediately. It should be considered that the acceleration might bring
sorne detrimental effects on compressive strength.
2. Sodium Silicate in Waste Treatment
Sodium silicate has been used as a low cost additive in solidification and
stabilization of hazardous wastes. It can be used in conjunction with cement, slag, and
other pozzolans like fly ash (Conner, 1970). Once applied, it contributes superior
24
properties to the mixture. Soluble silicate is capable of (Razavi et al., 2005; Kovacs,
1993):
1) Reducing raw material costs by reducing the amount of setting agent required for
the complete stabilization process.
2) Reducing the volume of stabilized materials and consequently,the required disposaI
area.
3) Shortening the setting time that may be desirable in many cases.
4) Producing a stable, environmental friendly and acid resistant solid.
2-5-6-2- Definition of Activation
In many parts of the world, blast furnace slag (BFS) has become a widely used
and important material as a supplementary binder for ordinary Portland cement (OPC).
Slag is basically composed of calcium and magne sium (alumino) silicates and glass.
Although it is extensively used in blended cement and paste, the strength development of
slag by itself is relatively slow. Despite this inadequacy, several other intrinsic features of
slag either as a blending component in concrete or as a mineraI admixture in concrete are
weIl documented (Chang, 2002). In the mining industry, slag has also been used as a
partial replacement for Portland cement in many operations aIl around Canada
(Archibald, 2004).
Since BFS in itself is no more than a latent hydraulic binder, it must be activated
in practice to react and provide strength. Several factors may affect the strength of alkali-
activated slag. The most important factors are: the type of alkaline activator, the me ans of
adding the activator, the dosage of alkali, the type and fineness of slag, the Si0
2
/Na20
ratio (AM) when using a water glass solution, curing temperature, the liquid/slag or
water/slag ratio and the additives present. Past and ongoing research shows that the
potential hydraulic property of slag can be considerably enhanced by alkali activation.
Slag is usually chemically activated but this kind of activation can be improved if it is
25
combined with mechanical (more finely ground) or thermal (increased temperature)
activation.
Alkali-activated slag (AAS) is a new type of binder used in concrete
manufacturing. This binder, based on 100% slag plus activator, has been used in Eastern
Europe, Scandinavia and China (Chang, 2002). !ts production utilizes industrial by-
products that require less energy than ordinary Portland cement and is associated with
low C02 emissions. The AAS concrete has recently received much attention from the
academic field and many valuable research results have been repotted. AAS concrete has
been found to have sorne superior properties over OPC concrete, namely, low hydration
heat, high eady strength and excellent durability in aggressive environments. Brough
(2002) studied the strength, hydration and microstructure of sodium silicate-based alkali-
activated slag mortars. The end result shows that alkali-activated slag with sodium silicate
gives clinker-free binders with high and early strength development, although set time is
short and somewhat variable.
Sekulic et al. (2004) have studied the mechanical activation of cement and fly ash
mixtures. The results displayed that the mechanical activation improved properties in all
samples. Buchwald (2004) used cement kiln dust (CKD) as an activation material for
alumina silicate materials, including ground-granUlated blast fumace slag, low-calcium
fly ash and metakaolin.
2-5-6-3-Activation Material
Seeing as most literature related to activation originates in the concrete industry,
the main focus of this section will be on activator agents used in this field. The chemical
reaction of slag is normally carried out with lime directly and indirectly by me ans of
ordinary Portland cement or gypsum. Activation with lime provides a concrete with a low
heat of hydration development. In thick structures, this redues the risk of cracking.
Blended cement of slag and normal Portland cement has come into widespread use in
many countries. Activation with gypsum provides a rapid growth in strength, high final
26
strength and a high resistapce; however, it is vulnerable to other decomposing attacks.
. ,
Consequently, its practical use is negligible.
Knowledge of and interest in a third type of chemical activation, alkali-activation,
grew significantly during the 1970s (Anderson and Gram, 1988). The possibilities of
using alkali-activation have, however, been known since at least 1940 (Purdon, 1940).
Alkali-activation is a chemical activation of slag with alkaline hydroxide ROH, non-
silicic saltsofweak acids, R2C03, R
2
S0
3
, R
2
S, RF, aild silicic salts ofR
2
0(n) Si02 type,
where R stands for an alkaline metal ion such as Na+, Lt etc. Concrete manufactured
with alkali-activated slag as the sole binder has been used in numerous applications in
Russia and in several applications in Poland. This type of concrete is mainly used for
concrete products such as pre-cast concrete units.
Ta activate slag, the chemical composition and physical properties of the slag
should satisfy certain specifications. BIast furnace slag is a granulated product ground to a
fineness of about 383 m
2
Jkg, with a partic1e size range of 5 -75 !lm. This material is
neutral at basicity coefficient (Kb= (CaO + MgO)/ (Si02+Ah03)) of 0.93 (Chang, 2002).
The hydration modulus (HM) is defined as:
HM = CaO + MgO + Al
2
0 3
Si0
2
(2-3)
It is suggested that the HM of slag should exceed 1.4 to ensure sound hydration
properties.
2-5-6-4- Hardening Process of Sodium Silicate-Activated Slag Pastes
Different factors of sodium silicate may influence the hardening process of alkali-
activated slag (AAS). The pH value of a given activator, for instance, along with the
. alkali modulus (AM) and alkali activator dosage affects the strength development of slag-
activated paste. Chang (2002) showed that the pH value and the AM have a strong
relationship. The activator dosage, which is defined as the sum of the Si0
2
and Na20
concentrations, displays a significant relationship with the setting time (Figure 2-1 and 2-
27
2). Research results also show that the influence of Si0
2
on the setting time is more
apparent than that ofNa20.
Regardless of the activator used, the final hydration product is a calcium silicate
hydrate with a low cement to slag ratio (C/S) and varying degrees of crystallinity.
Furthermore, a crystalline phase of hydrotalcite type is formed in slag activated with
sodium silicate (water glass). It has been reported that the strength deve1opme!lt of AAS
concrete depends on the activator type and concentration. The sodium silicate activator
has the best performance on the basis of strength development. However, sodium silicate
causes a rapid setting time. In engineering practice, a binder should have a reasonable
setting time. This means that the concrete, or in case of mine backfill, a binder should
have a reasonable setting time long enough to permit transport of the concrete or backfill.
In a study by Zhou 1993, it was shown that during the hydration of AAS using a
1
sodium silicate-based activator, four stages similar to that of OPC including initial,
induction, acce1eration, dece1eration or hardening processes could be found in the
hydration process but the mechanisms were different. Shi and Day (1995, 1996) have also
found that due to the variation of the activator, the hydration of alkali-slag cements can
be described by different models.
28

=
.5
S

:c

= '':::

800 1
600
I-
400
i-
'ii
:c
:3 200 1-
o
120
\
1
..,
1
\
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
\
l
\
\

1 1 1
160 200 240 280
Dosage of alkali activator (g/I)
Figure 2-1- A trend exists between the initial setting time and sodium silicate based
alkali-activator dosage. (After Chang, 2002)
1600

.! 1200
=
=
g
..
]
800

...
'"
'ii
=

400
o
120
l
\
\
\
,
1
1
1
l
+ \
L
l
\
\+
1
l
\ .
\
...
160 200
Dosage of alkali activator (glI)
240 280
Figure 2-2- A trend exists between the final setting time and sodium silicate based alkali-
activator dosage. (After Chang, 2002)
29
CHAPTER 3 - OPTIMIZATION METHODS FOR BACKFILL
MATERIALS
3-1- Concept of Backfill Materials Optimization
Optimization . of backfill materials generally involves improvement of the
operational efficiency while simultaneously considering co st. The most current processes
have consistently yielded such results (Stone 1993; Reschke, 1993; Landriault, 1995;
Farsangi et al., 1996). Backfill performance optimization may be used to increase support
potential, which means increasing the strength and stiffness of fill materials. Many
investigations have led to suggestions for improving backfill strength; amongst them:
1) The reduction of the backfill's porosity by optimizing the aggregate size gradation
(Berry, 1980; Thomas, 1981;Arioglu, 1983; Swan, 1985; Hedley, 1995; Lidkea
and Landriault, 1993; Swan et al., 1993; Stone, 1993; Wingrove, 1993)
2) The compaction and control of moisture (Nicholson and Wayment, 1964; Weaver
and Luka, 1970;Thomas, 1981;Arioglu et al., 1986)
3) The convergence ofthe stope walls after backfill placement (Hedley, 1995).
Due to the effect of binder composition and sample curing time on the strength
development of backfill and on the mining cycle, determination of optimal backfill
conditions can also be considered as optimization. Furthermore, fill placement and
conditions are important factors in optimization since they influence the strength of
emplaced fill (Corson et al., 1970; Berry, 1980). Fill conditions include the level of
exposure or confi:p.ement ofbackfill, parameters also influenced by the mining method.
30
3-2- Backfill as an Engineering Product
Several researchers have viewed the structural aspects of mine backfill as an
engineering material (Atchison et al., 1973; Annor and Clarke, 1988; Hassani, 1993),
however no specific suggestions regarding its design conception have been considered.
Investigators report that total tailings are a suitable inert material for mme
backfilling (Clark, 1988; Lamos, 1993; Aref et al., 1989; Vickery and boldt, 1989; Ross-
Watt, 1989; Chen and Annor, 1995). The engineering of total tailings, however, has yet to
be clearly understood. Under general circumstances, the structural requirements of
practiced mining methods dictate backfill design. Furthermore, backfill is required to
meet the following requirements:
Being self-supportable
Applying regional support to control convergence
Providing a working floor
Minimizing dilution
Providing sufficient roof support
The most important factors considered in designing backfill are safety and cost.
Fill material should, thus, be designed to meet engineering design requirements while
minimizing project costs.
3-2-1- Particle Size Distribution
The effectiveness of backfill is dependent on three main parameters: fill material
properties, pulp density and placement conditions. Particle size and gradation are the .
major factors affecting the mechanical performance of soil-like materials such as backfill
(Espley et al., 1970). In the case of mine backfill, the main intent of particle size
31
optimization is the reduction of porosity and, consequently, the decline In binder
percentages and operating costs, as well (Thomas et al., 1979).
Basedon principles of soil mechanics (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967) and concrete
technology (Neville, 1987), various particle sizedistributions are proposed for
backfilling. There is no unanimous agreement amongst researchers regarding the optimal
size distribution of backfill, nor do any comparable opinions regarding how it should be
quantified exist. An assortment of indices such as the coefficient of uniformity (Cu), the
effective grain size (DIO), and the coefficient of curvature (Cc) are used to qualify and
characterize the particle size distribution of backfill materials (Bowles, 1970). These
indices are described as follows:
where:
DIO= grain size at 10% passing (also, the effective grain size)
D30 = grain size at 30% passing
D60 = grain size at 60% passing
(3-1)
(3-2)
A well-graded material typically contains equal amounts of different size
fractions. For instance, a sample with a Cu between 4 and 6, and a Cc between 1 and 3,
will result in the fill or soil materials to be considered as weIl graded (Terzaghi and Peck,
1967; Peck et al., 1974; Das, 1983; Craig, 1978). In the case of backfill, material's
particIe sizes vary tremendously, from a few microns to several millimetres. An
unpredictable coefficient of uniformity (Cu) should, thus, be expected for backfill
materials. As mentioned by Benzaazoua et al. (2004b), the mechanical evolution of paste
backfill is highly affected by the uniformity coefficient. For instance, samples with Cu
values around 12 reach a high strength under drained conditions.
32
3-2-1-1- Optimum Particle Size Distribution for Con crete
There is a close relationship between the aggregate particle size distribution and
the compressive strength of concrete (Neville, 1987). A well-chosen particle size
distribution results in an optimal concrete design by reducing porosity and, hence,
minimizing the required amount of cement. This approach is usually applied in the case
of backfill mix design. Swan (1985) has proposed that the performance of binders in
backfill can be optimized by an accurate choice of particle size distributions. The role of
fine prticles in backfill is to fill in the voids present between larger particles, resulting in
less space to be filled by cement's gel formation (Figure 3-1)(Thomas et al., 1979). This
results in stronger bonding between the particles. Researchers have demonstrated that
porosity of cemented fill is lower than that of an uncemented material (Clark, 1988; Chen
and Annor, 1996).
As proposed by researchers, higher proportions of fine particles also result in
higher compressive strengths relative to fills containing medium or coarse particles
(Thomas et al., 1979; Vickery and Boldt, 1989; Ross-Watt, 1989).
Binder gel
Figure 3-1- Effect of fine particles in hydraulic bckfill (after Thomas et al., 1979)
It has been demonstrated (Clark, 1988; Chen and Annor, 1995) that, tailings with
higher specific gravities have higher porosities at the same water to lsolids ratio. Adding
33
cement to tailings increases fine particle fraction in the total mix and, therefore, allows
<,
tailings to retain more water between its particles. A lower placement porosity compared
to uncemented fine tailings can, hence, be created. AIso, Fall et al. (2005) showed that the
tailings' density has a great influence on the strength of paste backfill. Tailings with
higher densities have higher strengths for the same amount ofbinder.
3-2-1-2- Designing the Optimum Particle Size Distribution
In conventional hydraulic fill technology, it is commonly accepted that the partic1e
size distribution should be chosen with ambitions of achieving a high shear strength
resulting in an increased binder performance, and consequently a reduction in cost of
backfill. Different authors have studied the effect of aggregate size on backfill strength.
Swan (1985) employed concrete concepts where the amount of binder and strength of
concrete are related to the particle size distribution of materials: He used the Talbot curve,
which is often used in concrete technology for the estimation of cement requirements for
poorly graded aggregate as to achieve an acceptable strength. The Talbot curve is defined
as follows:
where:
p (u) = percent passing through the sieve size U and particle size U
m
n = experimental coefficient
(3-3)
Talbot and Richard's (1923) experiments have shown that the optimum value of
"n" minimizes porosity and maximizes the strength. Although theoretically true, this
method is not the solution for optimizing a backfill mix. The discrepancy between
mathematics and direct application is likely due to effects of minimizing porosity of
hydraulic fill(SwaiJ., 1985).
In the case of cemented backfill, differnt researchers have investigated the effect
of particle size distribution on the strength development of paste backfill. Notably,
34
Benzaazoua et al. (2004b) have prepared mixtures of five different particle Slze
distributions through the use of sieves and hydrocyclones. Two distinct binders, including
two types of cement and a combination of cement and blast fumace slag (50:50) were
used. The amount of binder added was 4.5 wt% and samples were cured for 14, 28, 56
and 90 days. The results showed the strong effect of particle size distribution, binder type
and curing time on paste backfill samples' mechanical behaviour. Any increase in the
particle size distribution of tailings leads to an increase in the solid weight percentage, a
decrease in porosity and an increase in the degree of saturation.
.-..
=

VJ
U

'tJ
,a

40)
..
$
Cu (D60IDI0)
T10.T50 14d --4- Tit)..m 2EId __ T1t)..
--4-TiO,-2EId
Figure 3-2- Evolution of the mechanical strength (UeS) as a function of the uniformity
coefficient eu (D601D1O) for two types ofbinders (4.5 wt% TI0-T50 and TI0-Slag)
during a curing time of 14 days (After Benzaazoua et al., 2004b)
Moreover, Fall et al. (2005) have investigated the influence of tailings' fineness
and density on the performance of cemented paste backfill. Their study demonstrated that
the fineness of tailings strongly affects the strength properties of cemented pastefill. As
for undrained samples, the ues values increase as the grains' fineness decreases until the
amount of fine particles reaches between 35 and 55%. Considering this study, it is clear
that an increase in fine particles leads to an evident decrease in ues values. The
abovementioned researchers attributed such results to the effect of fine particles on
35
porosity, pore size distribution and specific surface oftailings in cemented paste backfill.
Furthermore, they proposed that tailings with coarse particles gain strength more rapidly
than tailings with fine-particles.
In addition, Kesimal et al. (2004 and 2005) have studied the effect of particle size
distribution on the characteristics of backfill and proposed that the most important
characteristic for any fill is its particle size distribution. Particle gradation has been
proven to be the strongest effect on fill porosity and delivery. They claimed that in the
case of cemented paste backfill, fine particles 20 Ilm) have the most prominent effect
on pumpability. The work indicated that desliming the tailings is beneficial since it
improves paste quality and reduces costs. Another research by Kesimal et al. (2003)
indicated that the particle gradation of tailings is one of the most important characteristics
of backfi1l. They used a sedimentation technique to deslime the tailings and to obtain the
optimum size distribution. Results showed that the modification of a particle size
distribution is a useful tool to improve the strength characteristics of paste backfi11. For
instance, tailings with lessened amounts of fine particles show a higher strength once
cured for 28 days.
Extensive research conducted by Sivakugan et al. (2006) on 20 different hydraulic
fill operations in Australia discusses the range of particle size distributions used for
hydraulic and paste backfill. This investigation claimed that the hydraulic fills are silty-
sand and sandy-silt without the presence of clay, and the United Soil Classification
System usually classifies them as ML or SM. It has been suggested that the drinage and,
hence, permeability are both affected by the particle size distribution of tailings.
Consequently, these factors are ofutmost concem in the design ofhydraulic backfill.
3-3- Examples of Practical Applications of Concrete-Based Technology in Backfill
MixDesign
Boldt et al. (1993) have proposed the application of a fineness modulus (FM) for
backfill mix design. They investigated the effect of this modulus on the strength of total
36
tailings consisting of sand-sized partic1es. A fineness modulus (FM) shows the fineness of
aggregate in concrete technology, defined as follows:
FM = (Cumulative percentages of materials retained on US sieve screen 4 to 100)/100
For which the screen sizes are 4,8, 16,30,50 and 100.
In another study by Boldt et al. (1993), two unique mixes consisting of 4 wt% and
6% cement were prepared. The water content was kept constant and the pulp density was
fixed at 80% solids by weight. Sample's strength increases proportionally with the
amount of binder. In the case of 6 wt% cement, its strength initially decreased but
displayed an overall increasing trend over time. The difference among these strengths is
attributed to an increase in the fine partic1e fraction. It was suggested that the presence of
more fine partic1es increases the amount of water required to wet the surface of partic1es
and consequently the amount of water required for the hydration of cement. They
suggested that the increase of a fine fraction allows a betler gradation for aggregate
mixtures. As the materials become finer and the FM decreases, compressive strength
increases under fixed slump and water/cement ratio conditions. Boldt et al. (1993) also
reported that, under constant slump and water/cement ratios, any changes in sand grading
have no effect on the compressive strength of mortar or concrete. Moreover, it was
reported that the compressive strength of tailings is more affected by the water/cement
ratio andthe size gradation. For a waterlcement (W/C) ratio between 7 and 11, the effect
of partic1e size distribution was not significant. In contrast, when the W/C ratio was
around 4.42, the unconfined compressive strength doubles compared to the values
obtained from samples with a W IC ratio ranging from 7 to Il.
3-4- Effect of Coarse Aggregate on Strength Properties of Tailings Fills
Arioglu (1983) studied the effect of coarse aggregate on strength characteristics of
cemented tailings. Since he used crushed marble aggregate and tailings, his work can be
considered as a study on optimization of aggregate size. The specific gravit y of marble
and tailings were 3.01 and 2.65 and their coefficients of uniformity were 4.7 and 4.89,
37
respectively. The grading was ideal for a combined material resulting in a high density
and, hence, a compressive strength that was expressed by the following equation.
p =
Dmax
where:
P = percentage of particles smaller than "d"
Dmax = maximum particle size
(3-4)
The proportions of 40% tailings and 60% marble aggregate, with particle sizes
ranging between 0.15 mm and 30 mm, were used as a combined material. Three different
. recipes were prepared with total aggregate/cement ratios of 5:1, 10:1, 20:1 in addition to
water/cement ratios varying between 0.72 and 2.21. The results suggested strength of
combined materials and tailings materials increase along with an escalating cement
content and decrease with a rising water/cement ratio. The additions of coarse aggregate
to the tailings mix resulted in a noticeable increase in the mixture's strength properties.
The enhancement of strength properties was more attributed to the cement content and the
water/cement ratio than to the addition of aggregate ..
3-5- Moisture Control
In conventional hydraulic sand and mill tailings, moi sture is controlled through
drainage as a means of strength improvement. In consideration of the available literature,
the main purpose of desliming tailings is to improve the drainage of the mix and reduce
the water to binder ratio, accordingly reducing the cost. The literature review shows that
moisture control and binder content are suspected to be the most influential factors of
strength gain in tailings fills.
Benzaazoua et al. (2004b) have studied the effect of the quantity of water on fill
behaviour. The results indicated that the water to binder ratio plays a critical role in the
hardening process of cemented pastefill. This ratio controls aIl the hydration and
38
precipitation reactions, which in turn control aIl the hardening processes within the
pastefill materials. The quantity of water is added with the intention to give the paste the
desired fluidity as to be conveyed underground. As mentioned by the researchers, an
increase in the amount of water and the degree of saturation have a negative effect on the
strength properties of paste backfill. This outcome was particularly clear over short time
periods and was less evident at the long-term curing time. Figure 3-3 depicts the
relationship between the proportion of water and the resulting ues values and as it is
obvious, the ues values decrease while the water proportions increase.
FaU et al. (2005) showed that theamount of fine particles defines the water
demand to attan the desired consistency for paste backfiIl. The role of cement in the
mixture is to coat the particles' surfaces. Therefore, the finer the particles, the vaster the
surface area that gel must coyer. Since the porosity of paste backfiU materials decreases
from fine to coarse, for a certain weight of tailings and cement, tailings with coarse
particles require less water than medium or fine tailings to reach the same pulp density.
QXI
400
,-..
~
~
S'OO
rJ'1
U
P
2tXI '
. 1 ~
112Syel
100
A . ~
) 1 ~
0
a ~ 24 25 2!1
Water content W (%)
Figure 3-3- Effect ofwater content (w) on the mechanical strength (UeS) ofpastefill
mixtures made with sulphuric tailings (from mine E) and Portlimd cement (Tl 0)
over various lengths oftime (After Benzaazoua et al., 2004b).
39
Furthermore, the research endeavour proved that the drained samples have higher
strengths compared to undrained samples due to their decreased porosity and that
drainage of additional water has a favourable effect on the hydration process of cement
(Benzaazoua et al. 2004b).
3-6- Binder Percentage and Curing Time as Methods for Optimization
The binder proportion and curing time can also be considered for backfill design
optimization. The strength development of backfill materials highly depends upon the

physical and chemical properties of the binder and the reactions" occurring between the
binder and the fill material. The physical make up of the binder is defined by its fineness,
which is often expressed in terms of Blaine fineness.
Many investigations concerning different backfill binders have been undertaken
within the industry. Several researchers, including; Thomas (1973a and b), McGuire
(1978), Thomas and Cowling (1978), Manca et al. (1983), Yu and Counter (1986,1988),
Hassani (1989), Douglas and Malhotra (1989), Hopkins and Beaudry (1989), Fall et al.
(2004 and 2005), Benzaazoua et al. (1999,2002 and 2004b), Belem et al. (2000),and
Kesimal (2004 and 2005), among others, have reported or investigated the use of
alternative binders for backfill consolidation. It has been concluded that binders improve
. cohesion and stiffness of backfill material. Furthermore, alternative binders can pro vide a
cost-effective means ofbackfill consolidation.
Two parmeters are essential for evaluating the effectiveness of binders in backfill
consolidation: the rate of strength development and the ultimate strength. The strength
development rate for slag and fly ash is lower than that of Portland cement, however the
ultimate strength of slag or fly ash, particularly in the long-term, is higher than that of
Portland cement (Kesimal, et al. 2005). Kesimal et al.'s also questioned the
influence of curing time on the short and long-term strength acquisition of cemented
backfill. Results showed an increase in UCS values within the first 28 days, after which
40
the UCS values, again, increse until they reach the maximum value at 180 days of curing
and then the strength begins a decline after 180 days.
3-6-1- Binder Alternatives
The efficiency of alternative binders have been investigated and proven. Results
of different researchers' investigations have shown that the use of alternative binders may
bring substantial savings to the mining industry. Alternative binders could partially
replace Portland cement, resulting in a cheaper binder with a similar performance to that
of cement. Fly ash and slag have been used as partial replacements for Portland cement in
proportions of 50:50, 10:90 or 20:80, respectively (Archibald 2004). BIast furnace slag
(BFS) and non-ferrous slag have alse' been suggested as replacement Bassani
(1989) proposed the use of anhydrite as another binder alternative.
Petrolito et al. (1998) studied the strength characteristics of backfill with calcined
gypsum as a more economical alternative to Portland cement. Samples with height to
diameter ratios of 2 were prepared and used to determine the unconfined compressive
strength of stbilized backfill. They proposed the following empirical equation to reliably
predict the strength of the stabilized backfill.
UCS(MPa) = 2.084(W / CGr
2
.
322
(3-5)
where:
UCS = unconfined compressive strength

W/CG = water to calcined gypsum ratio
Again, the rates of strength development and ultimate strengths are essential to assess the
effectiveness of a binder.
Kesimal et al. (2005) have conducted sorne research on the effect of binder type
on the short and long-term strength characteristics of two different paste backfills,
composed of two different types of tailings (with high sulphide content) and binders.
They prepared 192 specimens at four different binder contents. The solid content was
41
fixed at 82.5% and 81.5% by weight of tailings. Samples were 'subjected to uniaxial
compression strength tests. The alternative binder comprised a greater concentration of
pozzolanic additives, conferred more resistance to sulphate attacks. In spite of the slow
strength-gain rate of pozzolans, they contribute more final strength compared to cement
particularly in tailings with high sulphide contents.
3-7- Confinement as a Method for Backfill Optimization
When the backfill is placed in the stope, it will generally be subjected to
confinement due to convergence 'of the stope walls (Moruzi, 1978; Hedley, 1987). Such
convergence, however, causes a greater stiffness of placed backfill under stable
conditions (Hedley, 1987, 1995) .
. Different investigators have reported the effect of confinement on the behaviour
of cemented backfill including Nicholson and Wayment (1964), Moruzi (1978), Mitchell
. and Wong (1982) and Hunt (1989). Moruzi reported that a confining pressure of 25 psi
(0.17 MPa) increases the strength of backfill to 125 psi (0.86 MPa). Augmenting the
confining pressure to 75 psi (0.25 MPa) resulted in 300 psi (2.10 MPa) strength for fill
materials.
Be1em et al. (2000) also reported triaxial compressive strengths of pastes made
with two different tailings and binders. The results indicated a pronounced effect of the
type of tailings on cohesion, which is not significant in the case of the internaI friction
angle. The aforementioned research also concluded that the highest cohesion was
obtained with the blast furnace slag-based binder.
42
CHAPTER 4 - ENGINEERING DESIGN RATIONALE OF
BACKFILL SYSTEMS
4-1- Conventional Backfill Design
In general, backfilling is practiced in order to provide sustainable support for both
gravitational and dynamic loads produced by blasting. Many investigators have
highlighted the requirements of strength development with regard to conventional
hydraulic backfill systems. Unconfined compressive strength is one of the most important
factors to be considered in design of backfill operations (Thomas et al., 1979). The
unconfined compressive strength requirement is usually determined by defining exposure
dimensions of the stope.
Recently, diverse UCS readings have been suggested to correlate with sufficient
support. With regards to cemented paste backfill operations, for example, a maximum
UCS value of 8.3 MPa is suggested by Yu (1989) and Boldt et al. (1990) and 1 MPa by
others. In the case of rockfill, the 28 day strength varies between 0.7 MPa and 2.3 MPa. A
range of UCS values between 0.24 MPa and 4.3 MPa (after 28 days) has been proposed
by Yu (1989) and Hassani and Bios (1992) as acceptable for use in Quebec mines. The
wide variability of UCS values proposed by researchers can be attributed to unique
requirements that vary based on mining niethods of specific sites.
4-2- Roles of Backfill in Mining Cycle
Due to erratic ground conditions and operational requirements, backfill plays a
variable, but consistently fundamental function in the mining cycle. Considering the
structural needs of underground mines, certain particular roles for backfill are expected to
gain importance within conventional backfill operations (Thomas et al., 1979; Chen et al.,
1996):
43
Backfill should provide sufficient support when placed within vertical spaces left by
the pillars' removal. The higher the unsupported vertical. gap, the stronger the
backfill must be.
To control the stope convergence and movement of stope wans, fin should have
sufficient stiffness. To achieve such a condition, fill must provide a certain amount
of passive support that can improvestructure of neighbouring voids. In this regard,
the presence of tight fill at the back of a stope is a crucial consideration for the
global structural stability of the mine. A tight fin is most notably characterized by
its low porosity and high stiffness.
An important role of backfill in the conventional cut and fill mining method is in
providing a stable surface to support mining activities, as weIl as controlling
dilution of mined ore. Therefore, the bearing capacity of backfill is of utmost
concern.
In the undercut and fill method, backfill should provide a stable roof support, hence,
a tight fill with a low void ratio is required.
To abovementioned design requirements can only be met if a strong and stiff
backfill is implemented. Mining sequence, stope size and geometry of the mine may aIl
contribute to the strength and stiffness of particular backfill applications. In order to
define backfill strength requirements for specific mining conditions based on failure
models, several empirical models have been developed. Because of varying conditions
from one mine site to another, required strengths and deformations are mostly site
specific. For instance, Yu (1989) reported that in Kidd Creek Mines Ltd., where the
exposed fill faces were 120 m in height and 60 m in length, cemented rockfill is required
to withstand 7.0 MPa to provide sufficient support. To merely support the gravit y load in
the same mine, a compressive strength of 2.8MPa is required. Yu (1989) suggested a
safety factor of 2.5 for loads induced by blasting and strength of loose fil!. Designing
backfill systems r q u i r ~ precise engineering analysis in which the potential failure
conditions encountered underground should be taken into account.
44
Required supports are generally somewhat related to geological and rock mass
conditions (Hassani and Bois, 1992). The size of stopes aIso affects the support
requirements. To meet specific target strength and deformation, the amount of binder
contained in backfill must be closely monitored.
4-3- Backfill System Design Requirements
With the goal of defining strength requirements for mining operations, many
failure models have been developed (Mitchell et al., 1982) or adopted from fields such as
geotechnical engineering. These design criteria have emerged from both laboratory and
in-situ investigations. One of the important considerations in successful design and pillar
recovery is tensile strength of the fill mass. The fill mass should withstand blast induced
loads in order to be deemed of adequate tensile strength. The ability of a given fill mass to
withstand tensile damage in the form of flexural failure under vertical loading,
undercutting or blasting vibration is aIl categorized as tensile strength.
It is difficult to accurately measure the tensile strength of backfill systems
directly, thus such a process is often carried out indirectly as suggested by Wong (1982),
Arioglu (1983), Yu (1989) and others (Vickery and Boldt, 1989). The aforementioned
authors have suggested that the tensile strength of backfill must be approximately 5% to
15% of the unconfined compressive strength. Sivakugan et al. (2006) indicated that the
measured values of tensile strength by direct shear tests in the laboratory are much more
than those determined for common granular soils. This difference can be contributed to
angular particles created by crushing.
Fan et al. (2005) have conducted sorne tensile strength tests on paste backfill
samples. Their results revealed that the stress-strain relationship of cemented paste
backfills under a tensile load is relatively different from the relationship under
compression. The authors' research indicated that the tailings characteristics of cemented
paste backfill (i.e. tailings type, cement percentage, cement type) affect the tensile
45
strength. They suggested the following equation for demonstrating the relationship
between uniaxial compressive strength and tensile strength (for UCS< 400 kPa):
(4-1)
where:
h= split tnsile strength (kPa)
/co= uniaxial compressive strength (kPa)
4-3-1- Fai/ure Mechanism and Strength Requirements of Backfill
In consideration of available literature, several failure modes have been suggested
inc1uding:
Failure caused by insufficient stiffness resulting in high deformation under load.
Failure due to insufficient drainage in saturated fill that leads to fill liquefaction
under dynamic loading.
Failure caused by the insufficient load bearing capacity of fill that is applied by
mobile equipment, weight of ore piles or miners' activity.
Failure by sloughing.
Failure due to inadequate shear strength leading to slabbing and wedge failure of
exposed fill face.
Each of these failure modes needs to be considered during the design of adequate
backfill systems. Hassani and Bois (1992) suggested that cemented backfill provides the
best support in Quebec mines.
4-3-2- Backfill Design Considerations for Open Stope Mining
Induced static and dynamic loads from blasting are of utmost concem in open
stope mining. During pillar recovery, both static and dynamic loads produced by blasting
46
vibration, can cause fin failure. Many analytical methods have been developed to
determine the strength requirements of fill. Difficulties associated with estimating the
dynamic loads from blasting caused existing methods to consider the static load alone.
As a rule for different operations, a conservative safety factor is usually assumed to cover
the elimination of dynamic loads in design.
4-3-3- The Confined Block Failure Model
Although several failure models have been suggested, the confined block with
cohesion failure model is most applicable to fin design. The model considers a block that
has one exposed side and one side that is confined by a slope wall. To analyze the
stability of freestanding fin, a wedge failure model is employed assuming the existence of
shear resistance between the fill and stope walls. The weight of the block is consideredas
gravit y loading minus the shear components along the two stope side walls. For stability
analysis, the shear resistance between the fill and stope walls (in the failure plane) is
supposed to exceed the driving force created by gravit y loading. The safety factor,
therefore, is calculated as follows:
LCW. M A.
--+ c cos a tan 'f'
F = cosa
S Mc cosa
where:
L = strike length of an exposed fill (m)
W = width of a fill block (m)
Mc = fill block weight minus the wall shear component (kN)
Mc= HeW (Ly-2C)
He = effective height of the fin block (m)
He= H-O.5Wtana
y = unit weight of the fill (kN/m
3
)
C = Cohesion of the fill (kN/m
2
)
47
(4-2)
L
H
.' . -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. -. - _. -. -,:1 t W tana
,,' w / / / /' - ~ ~ - : . l
cosa / ~
/' a = 45 + <p/2
-L ____ ~ ________________________ _L __ ___
Figure 4-1- Confined fill block model (after Mitchell et al., 1982)
Various researchers have described this model, among them: Mitchell et al. (1982),
Nantel and Lecuyer (1983), Smith et al. (1983) and Arioglu (1984).
4-3-4- Backfill Strength Requirements for Open Stope Mining
U sing the preceding model, fill strength requirements for open stope mining can
be defined as follows:
where:
O"c = fill compressive strength after 28 days (MPa)
<]) = internai angel of friction
a = failure angle in fillblock a = (45+<])/2)
y = unit weight offill (tones/m
3
)
M= constant (0.18 for cemented rockfill and 0.35 for cemented tailings and sand fill)
L = length of exposed fill
H= effective height offill block (m)
F
s
= safety factor for fill stability (3 to 5)
48
4-3-5- Backfill Strength Requirements in Overhand Cut and Fill Mining
With regards to the overhand ~ t and fill mining method, backfill's role becomes
as a working floor for employees and equipment. Structural failure in cut and fill mining
is cornrnon1y attributed to wedge collapse from equipment load. The shear strengthof fill
controls underground stability and supports mining activity. Terzaghi and Peck (1967)
expressed backfill as having bearing capacity:
Qc = I.3CN c + O.4yBN g
where:
Qe= bearing capacity of the fill
C = cohesion of the fill
y = unit weight of the fill
B = width of bearing contact surface
Ne = bearing capacity factor of the fill due to cohesion
N
g
= bearing capacity factor of the fill due to unit weight
(4-4)
In design terrns, fill is defined as a shaIlow strip foundation in contact with the
stope floor. The failure mechanism of fill is based on Terzaghi's Theory regarding the
bearing capacity (as mentioned above). Ne and N
g
are both dependent on the internaI
friction angle (cI of filI. The friction angle, in the case of tailings fill, is a function of
grain size distribution and density of fill material. Loose fills have lower internaI fri'ction
angles and, hence exhibit lower bearing capacity, while tight fills have higher internaI
friction angles and load bearing capacity. A safety factor, F: , is often used to evaluate the
stability of fill:
(4-5)
where:
Qo= mining equipment load.
49
When implementing the overhand cut and fill method, one must ensure fill bears the
maximum load. The unconfined compressive strength required can be calculated as:
where:
C = cohesion of the fill
Qo = = maximum load per unit area
NB
Q = totalload of equipment
N = number of wheels contacting the fill
B = tire contact area on the surface of fill
(4-6)
4-:3-6- Backfill Strength Requirements in Underhand Cut and Fill Mining
In the underhand cut and fill method, fill continues to act as a roof and hence, the
flexural failure model is mostconsidered in order to represent an accurate failure
condition. Once underlying ore is removed and the critical condition is achieved, rocks
deform and the fill is subjected to both non-uniform vertical and closure stresses. In order
to simplify the condition, the fill's stress-strain state is analyzed as a two dimensional
plane strain stability problem. The forementioned perspective interprets external stresses
as bending and shear stresses in the fil!. An irregular surface, caused by blasting in the
wall, functions as an interlock and prevents the spillage of the fil!. Rough wall conditions
cause the fill to act as a simple beam, with fixed ends, which is susceptible to flexural
1
failure under verticalloading due to its Iow tensile strength.
Tension in the central part of the fill initiates instability due to gravit y loading.
When tensile stress exceeds tensile strength, the fill fails. With this regard, in eut and fill
mining, emphasis is placed on improving the tensile strength of backfill and fill is further
reinforced with steel screens and bars as to sl!pport the verticalloads. In terms of flexural
beam analysis, the tensile strength can be calculated as follows:
50
where:
crt = tensile strength of the fill
y = unit weight of the fill
Yr = unit weight of the rock overlying the fill
B = width of the stope
h = height of the cut
<l> = rock friction angle
F s = safety factor
L = length of exposed fill
(4-7)
Improving the stability of fill requires considering two series of issues, namely fill
factors and mining operation factors. Mathematical models often introduce high safety
factors so as to compensate for effects ofthese factors.
4-4- Backfill Strength Prediction Models
Various models have been proposed for backfill strength predictions by different
researchers. The fill material properties are frequently considered parameters in aIl
models. The goal of these models is to increase fill strength by reducing porosity and void
ratio.
4-4-1- Strength Modelsfor Cemented Backfills
Mitchell and Wong (1982) proposed a model in 1982 such that the compressive
strength to porosity ratio, water to cement ratio and binder percentages are considered.
The compressive strength is calculated as:
(4-8)
51
where:
cre = unconfined compressive strength (kPa)
n = porosity (%)
W = water content (%)
C = binder content (%)
a and b = experimental constants (1.1-1.7)
Kl and K
2
= experimental constants
Swan (1985) reported a model which relates the unconfined compressive strength
(crJ to "binder number" (Cv) and, consequently, interprets the volume of cement in the
filI. In the author's model, the mean free space betWeen aggregate particles in the mix
(davg) and aggregate specific surface area (a
p
) for a fixed cement to water ratio are related
to unconfined compressive strength' An empirical model is expressed as follows:
(4-9)
where:
Cv = cement volume in a unit dry volume of freshly placed backfill (%)
d
avg
= free distance between aggregate particles in the mix
a
p
= surface area of aggregate in constant water/cement ratio
Estimating the above-mentioned parameters are difficult, therefore, application of
this model is impractical for conventional backfill operations.
4-4-2- Strength Modelfor Cemented Hydraulic Backfill
As described by yet another model, unconfined compressive strength is related to
the solid concentration of slurry and the particle Bize distribution of a material. This
relationship is expressed as:
(4-10)
52
where:
C* = ratio of cement to fill materials (tailings or sand)
Cg = solid concentration of fill, placed underground
N = constant (2.5 for consoliclated fill)
A and B = constant depending on solid' s grain size
for tailings fin A=0.235, B=14.494
for sand fin 2.5mm), B=19.628
for sand fin 1.2mm), A=0.255, B=16.459
Lamos and Clark (1989) related the strength of fin to its cement content, water
content and overan material composition. The uniaxial compressive strength of fill is
expressed as:
2.1S+[S.6S(OPC +0.67
PFA
+1.60
PBFC
)J[I+0.07 CT + CW J+0.21 NCS
UCS = 1 W W W NCS NCS W
where:
L = length of exposed fin
OPC = ordinary Portland cement weight
PF A = pulverized fly ash weight
W = water weight
CT = classified tailings weight
CW = comminuted waste weight
NCS = non-cement solids (aIl material mass in same unit) weight
PBFC = Portland blast furnace cement weight
Limiting range: water/cement = 2 to 10, total solids/water = 2 to 5
4-4-3- Rockfill and Cemented Aggregate Fill strength Models
(4-11)
Arioglu (1983) investigated the relationship between uniaxlI compressive
strength and water/cement ratios of rockfill and cemented aggregate fills. He suggested
the foIlowing equation:
(j' = Aa-
n
c .
(4-12)
53
where:
(je = uniaxial compressive strength
a = water/cement ratio by weight
A, n = experimental constant
The author also established the ensumg relationship between cohesion and
uniaxial compressive strength:
where:
C = cohesion (kg/cm
2
)
(Tc = uniaxial compressive strength (kg/cm
2
)
A, B ,; experimental constants
(4-13)
Yu (1989) modified Arioglu' s model and suggested the following equation for
predicting uniaxial compressive strength of consolidated rockfill. He conducted sorne
laboratory tests on backfill samples from Kidd Creek Mines and suggested the following:
(4-14)
where:
(Tc = unconfined compressive strength (MPa)
c = cement percentage by weight of minus 4 sieve aggregate
54
CHAPTER 5 - CHARACTERIZATION OF THE PRIMARY
MATERIALS USED TO DETERMINE THE PROPERTIES OF
STABILIZED BACKFILLS WITH SODIUM SILICATE
5-1- Introduction
Tailings remaining from mineraI processing plants and sand obtained from nearby
surface alluvial basins compose the majority of mine fill materials. The properties of
these components generally reflect the defining characteristics of the resultant stabilized
backfill. The mineralogical and physical properties . of Canadian tailings vary due to
extensive diversity in the country' s mineraI deposits, mining techniques and pre-
backfilling tailings treatments.
This chapter provides a full classification of the primary materials used to produce
specimens containing sodium silicate, which are further investigated in this thesis. To
characterize these materials, sorne techniques from soil mechanics and concrete
technology are applied.
5-2- The Backfill Materials and Their Characteristics
The backfill materiaIs used in this study are:
Garson alluviaI sand (Tl) from the Sudbury region (Gars on Mine)
Deslimed tailings from the Creighton Mine in Sudbury (T2)
5-2-1- Tailings Characteristics
The compressive strength, porosity and permeability of stabilized backfill are
substantially influenced by the tailings' particle shape and size distribution due to the
packing of particles upon placement (Means and Parcher, 1964; Hassani and Archibald,
1998; Fall and Benzaazoua, 2005; KesimaI et al., 2003). Generally, fine particles fill the
55
voids between coarse particles, resulting in a stronger material with a decreased
permeability. This phenomenon depends on the fine particle fraction in the mlX.
Therefore, the particle size distribution of backfill materiais plays a key role in a
mixture's behaviour.
1. Particle Size of Tailings
There are several methods to as certain the particle size distribution of tailings
including sieving, microscopy, sedimentation, pereametery, electrozone sensing, and laser
diffraction (Rhodes, 1998). Due to the presence of fine particles in the tailings, and the
simplicity and the minimal expense of sieving
j
the particle size distributions of tailings
were deteimined by a combination of two different methods. Sieving (using woven wire
sieves) was performed on dry materials' retained by the number 100 sieve and a mass
distribution oftailings for known sieve diameters wasproduced. For particles passing the
number 100 sieve, the laser light diffraction technique was employed'. Sieving generally
pro vides a reliable and reproducible particle size distribution, assuming basic standards
are followed and care is taken.
The tailings' particle size distributions were determined usmg the American
Society for Testing and Materials' (AS TM) Standard test method for sieve analysis of
fine and coarse aggregates C 136-06 (2006). The tailings were sampled in accordance
with the Standard practice for sampling (ASTM D 75-87, 2006). The samples were dried
to reach a constant weight at 110 5C for 24 hours. A stack consisting of seven sieves
(30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 80, and 100 mesh) was used. Results of the Laser Light Diffraction
method showed a 3% error for partic1es passing the number 100 sieve for standard sieve
analyses.
Subsequent to obtaining data from both sieving and laser light diffraction
methods, true particle size distributions were detetmined. The resulting particle size
distributions for the two tailings are shown in Figure 5-1. Furthermore, the Massachusetts,
Institute of Technology (M.I.T) Classification (Means and Parcher, 1964) was employed
to characterize the fill material. In Table 5-1, basic particle sizes based on the M.LT.
56
classification system are shown. The Table also shows that the majority of analyzed
material can be c1assified as sand-silt and silt-sand for Tl and T2, respectively.
The coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of gradation are effective in
classifying aIl materials relevant to soil mechanics (Hazen, cited in Means and Parcher,
1964).
100
90
+'
80
oC
C)
70
. ~
60
>-
.c
50 C)
c
40 'iii
II)
1"11
30 a.
~
0
20
--------- --- -- -11
--------- --- -- - ~ -
--------- --- - - ~ - -
-- - - -- -- --- - ~ - - -
--------- ---ft---
-- ------ - - ~ - - --
: : : : : : : : : : - v ~ : - :
Ir
Yo
- - - - - - - - - - ---- - -
10
0
-- ------fI -- --
. ~ Ir.!
1 10 100 1000 10000
Particle size(microns)
I-.-T1 -+-
T2
1
M.I.T.
Classification
1 Clay
1 Gravell
Silt Sand
Figure 5 - 1 - Particle size distributions of tailings
Table 5 - l - The basic particle sizes (%) oftailings using the M.I.T. Classification
System
Material Gravel (%) Sand (%) Silt and Clay (%) Category
Tl 1.49 89.71 8.8 Sand-Silt
T2 0 23.6 76 Silt-Sand
57
The coefficient ofuniformity (Cu) is defined as:
where:
Cu = D
60
DIO
D
60
= the diameter of the particle that passes 60% of the sample
DIO = the diameter of the particle that passes 10% of the sample
(5-1)
The Cu defines the slope of the particle size distribution curve. Hence, for a soil
with a uniform particle size, Cu equals 1. For a graded soil, the Cu value is greater than 1
and increases when there is a wider range of particle size.
The coefficient of gradation (Cg) shows the shape of the particle size distribution
curve between DlO and D60 and it is defined as:
(5-2)
where:
D
30
= the diameter of particles that pass 30% of sample
According to the Unified Soil Classification System (Bowles, 1988), sand is weIl
graded when Cu is greater than 6 and Cg is between 1 and 3. The tailings used in this
research, like most other mine tailings, do not meet those criteria (see Table 5-2) and
hence, they are classified as poorly graded sand. Cu and Cg have no significance when
more than 10 wt% of a sample is smaller than 75 microns. In this case, the substantial part
of the material is silt and clay.
The mining industry frequently employs the Dso value to classify mine tailings,
defined as the sieve diameter at which 50 wt% of the sample passes (average particle
diameter)(Thomas, 1971). Table 5-2 tabulates the Cu, Cg" and Dso values for two types of
tailings.
58
Table 5-2- Dso values of the tailings
Tailings
Cu Cg Dso (microns)
Tl 4.38 0.50 150
T2 2.52 0.88 45
2. Particle shape and surfa(i:e texture of the tailings
The partic1e shape and surface texture of tailings influence final mechanical
behaviour of the backfill (Thomas, 1966; Hassani and Archibald, 1998). Similarly, it has
been suggested by Neville (1987) that the aforementioned tailings properties affect water
requirements of cement-based slurry and, hence, its mechanical properties.
Due to the influence of the tailings' particle shape on the compaction degree of the
particles, the partic1e's shape affects the density and stability of the entire mass (Lees,
1964). The relative sharpness of each partic1e's edges and corners define the physical
particle shape. The surface texture of the tailings is also defined by visual observation and
is based on the relative degree of roughness on the particles' surface.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was employed to determine the particle
shape and surface texture of tailings. The samples were prepared by sprinkling the tailings
onto an aluminium stub that was covered by double-sided adhesive tape. The samples
were then coated with carbon so as to enhance the visualization of the tailings. The
photomicrographs obtained from the SEM for Tl and T2 are shown in Figures 5-2 to 5-5.
Those images and the British Standard Classification System (British Standard, 812: part
I, 1975) were employed together to determine the shape and surface texture of particles.
The results are displayed in Table 5-3.
Table 5-3- Partic1e shape and surface texture of the tailings
Tailings Partic1e shape Surface texture
Tl Irregular Smooth
T2 Angular Rough
59
With reference to Table 5-3, "irregular" is used to describe any naturally irregular
or partly shaped partic1e having rounded edges. Angular refers to a partic1e with well-
defined edges that fonu at the intersection of roughly planar faces.
Figure 5-2- SEM image ofT! tailings (Magnification 200X; Length ofbar-50Mm)
Figure 5-3- SEM image ofT! tailings (Magnification 1000X; Length ofbar-IOMm)
60
Figure 5-4- SEM image ofT2 tailings (Magnification 200X; Length ofbar-50llm)
Figure 5-5- SEM image ofT2 tailings (Magnification lOOOX; Length ofbar-10llm)
Within geological terms, smooth is used to refer to the fracture of laminated, fine-
grained or water-wom rock. In contrast, the term rough is employed to describe a jagged
61
fracture of fine or medium-grained rock that has no crystalline constituents. Tl tailings
are irregular and smooth, anticipated as they were collected from a river
system and would have been eroded by water. T2 tailings are angular andrough, which is
typical of most mine tailings due to the practiced mineraI extraction techniques (for
example: crushing).
5-2-2- Tailings Mineralogy
The X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) technique was employed to determine the
mineralogicaI content of both tailings Tl and T2. A portion of tailings was dried in the
oven and afterward it was ground into a fine powder. After crushing, the tailings were
pressed into an aluminium cup. The cup was then placed in the X-ray generator for
mineralogical analysis. X-ray diffraction results for both types of tailings are shown in
Figures 5-6 and 5-7. The X-ray spectrums for both tailings then were automatically
compared to ones from known mineraIs to determine the minerai ogy of the two tailings.
The identified minerais are shown in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4- Mineralogy of both tailings
Tailings MineraIs
Mainly quartz, Albite, small amounts of Calcite, Muscovite,
Tl Actinolite, Rhodochrosite, Anorthite, Chlorite, Microc1ine
intermediate
Mainly quartz, Albite, small amounts of Calcite, Muscovite,
T2 Actinolite, Anorthite, Chalcopyrite, Biotite, Pyrrhotite,
Epidote, Chlorite
62
!il
1:
::l
0

C
:.:::
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
BQ
70
110
50
'"
'"
20
10
Garson Sand
10 20
'" '"
50 60
2-Theta - Scale
b!lGarson Smd File: GaBon Sand.raw - Type: 2ThlTh lock.ed - Slat 4.966 0 _ End 69.972" _ Step: 0,005
0
Operations: Displa:ement 0.0651 0.05211mport
0000-046-1045 (') - QlJlO1z, syn - 5102 - Y: 104.92 %- d xbr 1. - WL: 1.78897 -Hexagonal- a4.91344 - b
[!]oo.o09-0466 (1- Albite. ordered - NaA/Sl30B - Y: 17.49 %- d x by: 1. -WL: 1.78897 - Trlclinic- a 8.1440
1!)00-03H1518 (C)-LeadOxideSulfate-alph&-Pb302S04- Y: 6.55%-dxbr 1. -WL: 1.78897 -Mooodi
:.':'.,01-074-2428 (C) - Muscovite 2MI - KAl3Si3010(0H)2 - Y: 5.22 % - d x br 1. - WL: 1.78897 - MonocH,;c
[!l01-OS3-1381 (C) - Chlorite, chromian - MgS.OAlO.75CrO.25Ai1.00SI3.0001 O(OH)8 - Y: 4.69 % - d x by: 1.
IOO-044-1472 (') - Rhodochrosite, syn - MnC03 - Y: 3.30 % - d x br 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Hexagonal (Rh) - a
[!J01-OS9-5378 (C) - Actinolite - (Fe3.112MnO.D88Mg1.954Ca1.814NaO.018)Si7.988022.12(OH)1.86OFO.O
(1-Anorthite, ordered-CaAJ2Si208- Y: 6.25 %- dxby: 1.-WL: 1.78897 - Triclinic-aB.1
1!l0I-Oll9-1952 (C)-Chalcopyrite group-Cu2MnSnS4- Y: 3.26 %-dxby: 1.- WL: 1.78897 -Tetragonal-
[;]00-012-0216 (D)-Sericite[NR]- KAl2(SI3AI)010(OH,F}2- Y: 2.00 %-dxby'1 _ \/\Il: U8897_
.... 00-024-0027 (0) - Caldte- Cac03 - Y: 4.B5 % - d x by: 1. -WL: 1.7BB97 - Hexagonal (Rh) - a 4.99000 - b
(") - Mlcrodine. OI"dered - KAlSi308 - Y: 2.08 % - d x by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Triclinic - a 8.581

Albite 14.53 %
Calcite 1.99 %
Muscovite 6.14 %
Actinoiite 1.55 %
0.73: %
Anorthite 8.52 %
Chlorite lib 3.72 %
Microdine ir!!$fmedime1 34 %
2G
... iIoIoOI..-Io ....... "'"-'l ............................. iII"'""liooIIWI ..... w\ioll''"''''.uwioolMo ....... -..Jw ........ .JW-oi.w-..... --fIWt..o ....... - ................
-2()

-60. 1 1
-8 Il
-1
Il
Il 1 1IIIUf nlili
5 6 7 Il
2Th Degrees
Figure 5-6- X-ray diffraction obtained from Tl tailings
63

C
:;:J
0

C
:::;
170
160
150
1<0
130
120
.110
100
90
60
70
60
50
<0
30
20
10
-100.
-120'
-140
Tailings RH
10 20 30 <0 50 60
2-Thela - Scale
ii\JTaitings RH - File: Tallings RH.raw - Type: Iocked - Start: 4.972 D - End: 69.977' - Step; 0.005'-
Operations: Displacement 0.054 1 Import
(C) - !'clinoli1e - (NaO.11 KO.04)(Ca1.68NaO.04FeO.28)(Mg3.65Fe1.14PJ021)(Si7.3Bi>J0 - Y:
[!JOO-Olo.0393 (*)- .Albite, disordered - Na(Si3.AJ)08 - Y: 27.32 %- d x by: 1. -WL: 1.78897 - Triclinic-a 8.1
[!J00-046-1045 r)- Quartz, syn-Si02- Y: 75.67 %-dxby: l.-Wl: 1.7BBS7- Hexagonal-a 4.91344- b4.
:.< OHlB3-1381 (C) - Chlorite, chromlan - Mg5,O.AJO.75CrO.25AI1.00Si3.00010(OH)8 - Y: 8.33 % - d xby: 1.
:I00-037-0518 (C) -lead Oxid. Sulfate - a1pha-Pb302S04 -Y: 6.25 % - d xby. 1. - Wl: 1.78897 - Monodi
1Bi01-082-1652 (C) - Muscovite 3T Si-och (KO.93NaO.03)(AJ1.54FeO.25MgO.21TiO.04)((Si3.34A10.66)010)
Taili
1 1
1 Hill 11111
: ....i01-s.1954 (C) - Pyrrhotlte 4C - Fe7se - Y: 4.17 % -d x by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Monoclinic- a 11.90200-
[!]01-O78-2440 (C)- Epidote- Ca2.AJ2FeSi3013H - Y: 4.17 % - d x by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Monoclinic -8 B.a
(") - .Anorthile, ordered - CaAl2Si208 - Y: 12.50 % - dxby: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - TricUnic -8 8,
[!J01-OB3-1366 (C) - Bio1ite - K2(Fe2.786Mg2.321TiO.550)(Al2.413Si5.587020)(OH)4 - Y: 12.50 % - d xby:
l.:]00-037-0471 (1- ChalcopyTite - CuFe52 -Y: 3.20 % - d x by: ,. - Wl: 1.78897 - TelTagont - a 5.28930-
Quartz
Albite
Calcite
2h11
ActinoHte
Anorthlte
Chalcopyrite
Biotite 1 M Mica
Pya1lot!tl!.: :sT
Epidote
Chiante lib
20.69 %
18.87 %
5.96 %
f.d:iP%
10.19%
22.06 %
0.38 %
8.45%
2.11 %
1.06%
4.07 %
5 6 7 8 9 10 12131415161718 lil 20212223'24 25 2627 28'2930313233343536 3738 39 40 4142 4344 4546 47 4849 50 51525354 55 5657 58 59 606162 63 6465 6s 67 6869 70
21h Degrees
Figure 5-7- X-ray diffraction obtained from T2 tailings
64
5-3- Binders
The two main binder agents used in this project were:
Type 10 Portland cement from Lafarge
Blast furnace slag (BFS) from Lafarge
From these two binder agents in addition to sodium silicate (used as an additive),
various binders were prepared:
Cement (C)
A combination of slag and cement (SC)
A combination of cement and sodium silicate (CSS)
A combination of slag, cement and sodium silicate (SCSS)
A combination of slag and sodium silicate (SSS)
5-3-1- The Characteristics of Binders
Similar to other binders, slag and cement are partially soluble in water and their
interactions with water alter sorne of the mixture's fundamental characteristics. The
particle size distribution of the binder before it is hydrated is used to identify the binder.
The particle size distribution of each binder is, therefore, used as the main binder
characteristic from this point on in this thesis. Initially, a standard sieve analysis was
employed to determine the particle size distribution of binders. Since the particles were
smaller than the smallest sieve available (43 microns), the Laser Light Diffraction method
was used. The particle size distribution of cement and slag are shown in Figure 5-8 and
the Dso values are given in Table 5-5.
Table 5-5- The Dso values ofbinders
Material Cement Slag
Dso (microns) 15 7
65
As for the tailings, the M.LT. Classification System was used to determine the
basic partic1e size (Table 5-6). The table shows that cement and slag have particle size
ranges similar to that of silty clay. Figures 5-9 and 5-10 show the SEM images of cement
and slag, respectively. Table 5-5, 5-6 and the SEM images show the binders range in size,
shape and Dso values.
Table 5-6- The basic partic1e sizes (%) ofbinders using the M.LT. Classification System
Material
Cement
Slag
-
.c
Cl
';
>-
oC
Cl
c
1/)
1/)
ca
Q.
'#.
M.LT.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
o
Classification
Gravel (%)
0.00
0.00
~
JI
JI i
tii!!:.
1
1 Clay 1
Sand (%) Silt (%)
5.62 84.36
0.00 78.82
--f

~
f if
l
.-
i
.1

10 100 1000
Particle size(microns}
I-+-- Slag --Cement 1
Silt Sand
Figure 5-8- Binders particle size distribution
66
Clay (%) Category
10.02 Silt-Clay
21.18 Silt-Clay
10000
Grave1
Figure 5-9- SEM image of cement (Magnification 200X; Length ofbar-50Jlm)
Figure 5-10- SEM image ofslag (Magnification 200X; Length ofbar-50J-tm)
67
5-3-2- Mineralogy and Chemical Composition of Binders and Additive
As the cement is prepared from known proportions of lime, silica and alumina, the
cement's mineralogical content was not explored. It also meets the requirements of
ASTM C 150-94 Standard specification for Portland cement (2006). Similarly, blast
furnace slag is essentially made of silicates and alumino-silicates of calcium; thus, it was
not examined for mineralogical content. The blast furnace slag used in this research
complies with the requirements of ASTM C 989-05 Standard specification for ground
granulated blast-furnace slag for use in concrete and mortars (2006). The XRD aJ}alysis
was used to determine the main chemical components of thetwo binders and the results
are shown in Table 5-7. The sodium silicate type N (Sodium Silicate Solution) supplied
by the PQ Corporation was used as an additive. The sodium silicate specifications are
tabulated in Table 5-8.
Table 5-7- The chemicalcomposition ofbinders
Material
Si0
2 Ah0 3 Fe203 CaO MgO K
2
0 Na20
(%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt)
Cement 19.27 4.75 2.44 60.59 2.15 0.80 2.12
Slag 36.76 10.04 0.43 37.15 10.55 0.50 0.41
5-4- Other Characteristics of the Tailings and Binders
In the previous sections, the characteristics of tailings and binders have been
explored. Bereafter, a number of other characteristics of tailings and binders, which
influence the performance ofbackfill, will be discussed.
5-4-1- Material Density and Specifie Area
The density of aggregate is usually used in concrete technology as an indicator of
the strength of resultant concrete (Neville, 1987). Bence, the density of tailings and
binders are used as a comparative indicator of the uItimate strength of backfill.
68
Table 5-8- The sodium silicate specifications (PQ National Silicate)
Sodium silicate
Standard Maximum Minimum
properties
Na20, % 8.90 9.10 8.70
Si0
2
, % 28.66 29.00 28.20
Weight Ratio, %
3.22 3.27 3.15
Si0
2
/Na20
Density, @20 e 41.00 41.50 40.5
Specifie Gravity,
1.394 1.401 1.388
@200e
Viscosity @ 20
0
e
177 213 141
Centipoises
Solids, % 37.56 38.10 36.90
Bulk densities of tailings were determined by ASTM C 128-04 Standard test
method for density, relative density (specifie gravity), and absorption of fine aggregate
(2006). The results are shown in Table 5-9. Due to the vital role of the specific surface of
tailings and binders in the strength of backfill, the Laser Light Diffraction Technique was
employed to determine the tailings' and binders' specific areas. In the case of tailings,
they were sieved and the portion passing sieve number 100 was then analyzed. As for
binders, the total particle size distribution was considered (Table 5-9). The specifie area
ofthe tailings T2 is higher than that ofT1, thus showing a finer particle size. As shown in
Table 5-9, T2 tailings are denser than Tl tailings. This was expected since T2 consists of
quartz and the heavier iron mineraIs such as chalcopyrite, while Tl consists mainly of
quartz and minor trace elements. Furthermore, the binders are lighter than tailings. Those
results were also expected since the binders consist principally of lighter elements such as
calcium, oxygen, aluminium and sulphur.
69
Table 5-9- Densities and specifie surfaces oftailings and binders.
Tailings
Bulk density Specific area
Binders
Bulk density Specific area
(kg/m\ (cm
2
/cm
3
) (kg/m
3
) (cm
2
Icm
3
)
Tl 2711.6 5920 Cement 1506 8519.8
T2 2902.9 12962 BPS 961 10599
5-4-2- Tailings' Water Absorption
The tailings' water absorption is an important factor since it determines the
required quantity ofwater for the backfill mix. ASTM C 128-04 Standard test methodfor
density, relative density (specifie gravity), and absorption of fine aggregate was
employed to determine the amount of water absorbed during mixing (2006). The results
are shown in Table 5-10.
Table 5-10- The amount of water absorbed by tailings
Materials Tl T2
Water absorbed (wt %) 1.30.2 1.9 0.1
Although the amount of water absorbed by the T2 tailings is around 2 wt%, it is
still negligible compared to the amount of water currently used in hydraulic fill operations
(between 20 and 35 wt %). The amount ofwater that is required to dampen the particles'
\
surfaces and be absorbed by tailings during the preparation of the mixture is, therefore, a
relatively small quantity that has been chosen to be neglected.
5-4-3- Water
The main function of water is to hydrate the binders and to transport the backfill
materials. The water used in producing both sand pastefill and slurry backfill was McGill
University tap water. It was selected because large volumes were readily available at
70
close proximity. A typical chemical analysis of the tap water and mine process water was
provided to compare the chemical elehlents in the employed waters (Table 5-11). The
concentration of each element in tap water is negligible compared to mine process water.
Hence, it was considered that any chemicals present in the water would not influence the
hydration process.
Table 5-11- Chemical analyses ofprocess and tap water (mg/L)
Sample Al Si Na Ca Mg
Mine process water 0 7.8 58.9 107 62.4
Tap Water 0 0.5 3.9 41 15
71
CHAPTER6-EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURES
6-1- Introduction
The main variables associated with production of a suitable backfill are: binder
type, water content, sequential addition of ingredients, mixing time, curing time and.
proximal conditions. Seeing as component properties influence the backfill mixture.
greatly, strength of cemented backfill varies substantially from one study to another . The
use of standard techniques is, hence, imperative in this, and any credible backfill project.
Initial test specimens were prepared according to a standard developed at the McGill
University geomechanics laboratory. Other standard tests, including the ASTM Standards
and the British Standard, have also been referred to in this research. Two different phases
were defined, as weIl. In phase l of the study, sand pastefill was investigated, while
throughout phase II, both sand pastefill and slurry backfill were explored.
6-2- Production and Preparation of Backfill Specimens
(i) Method of Specimen Preparation
A kitchen stand mixer (Kitchenaid, Commercial 5 Series, Model: KM25GOX) was
used to blend the paste and slurry for both tailings (Tl and T2). The stainless steel wire
whip blade was used since it provided relatively homogeneous samples. The agitator was
operated at the lowest possible speed of the 150-RPM mixer. The dry tailings were mixed
alone for a short period in order to uniformly mix tailings in the 5-quart, stainless steel
bowl. Giving consideration to the specific sequence of ingredient addition, the remaining
materials were inserted into the bowl accordingly. Due to the problematic process
placement of slurry backfills (T2) inta their maulds, a plastic tap was installed at the
bottom of the mixing bowl so as to facilitate transfer during mixing. Subsequent to a five
and eight-minute blending period, the slurry and paste backfills were poured into
cylindrical, plastic, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) moulds.
72
(ii) Size of the Test Cylinder
An objective of this experiment was to verify if smaller test cylinders, as
compared to the large variety, would provide similar results and, thus, allow for a
reduction of the tailings and binders used. The two types of PVC moulds used were both
of standard size. The larger model was 203 mm in height by 101.5 mm in diameter, while
the smaller one had dimensions of 101.5 mm in height by 50.8 mm in diameter. A height
to diameter ratio of 2: 1 is the recommended ratio for unconfined compressive strength
(UCS) tests (Kartashov et al., 1970). The two unique moulds, hence, meet the
requirement for use in compressive tests since they allowed the enclosed sample to be of
equivalent aspect ratio. Results of 'compressive strength tests on the two ,distinct sample
types did not show significant differences. This was expected because the particle sizes
data of both tailings are very small compared to the cross sectional area of the moulds. As
a result, the smaller moulds were chosen for future testing. In order to distribute humidity
uniformly throughout the sample material, plastic caps were placed on top of the moulds.
In arder to simulate drainage in the laboratory, aIl the moulds were perforated at the
bottom with 30 equally distributed holes. Filters made of a geo-textile material supplied
by the Texel Company and cut to conform to the mould bases were used in order to
prevent escaping of fine particles.
(iii) Mixing Technique
Mining companies usually pro duce stabilised backfill at a backfill plant where the
binder is added to a mixture of water and tailings. The paste-like slurry is monitored at
various checkpoints along the pipeline as a means of quality control. In this project, it was
impossible to use a pilot plant configuration due to economic and space limitations.
During phase 1 of the study, two individual mixing sequences were used as a means of
determining the effect of addition order on the strength of sand pastefill while using
different binders.
(a) Mixing Order ofMaterials
73
Two addition orders for the materials were investigated. These sequences are
termed as adding order 1 and 2. In the first one, initially % of the water was progressively
added, followed by the binders inc1uding C, CSS, SCSS, SSS and the remaining water.
The second adding order commenced with adding sodium silicate immediately after % of
the water and conc1uded once the other binders (dry binders) were added to the mixture
graduaIly.
(b) Mixing Time
The effect of mixing time on the strength of aIl samples (made with tailings Tl)
was investigated to establish the minimum mixing time. In Phase 1, two different mixing
times, 5 and 8 minutes, were used for the making of the specimens. A stopwatch installed
on the mixer controIled the time of mixing. A total of 600 samples were prepared to study
the effect of mixing time on the strength acquisition of backfill materials (sand pastefill).
Due to the attainment of a higher strength with a mixing time of 5 minutes in aIl the
mixtures (with and without sodium silicate), the mixing time of 5 minutes was chosen for
phase II of the investigation.
(iv) Curirig of Test Specimens
ln Phase 1 of the study, triplicate test specimens were made, allowing for a copy of
each sample to be cured for either 28,56 or 120 days. AlI of the samples were kept within
the moulds during their curing inside a humidity chamber. In Phase II of the study,
samples were cured for 3, 7 or 28 days. An automaticaIly operated control panel was used
to adjust the relative humidity and temperature of thehumidity chamber. In order to
simulate underground conditions in the laboratory, the humidity room was adjusted to 90
5% and the temperature to 25 2 oC. Humidity and temperature were controlled
because they are the most ubiquitously controlled in an underground mining environment.
74
6-3- Mechanical Behaviour
Compressive strength is the most significant property of stabilized backfill seeing
as it indicates the behaviour of backfill mass under different loading conditions. Mine
conditions such as temperature and humidity, however, affect the compressive strength of
the backfill mass and are conditions that cannot be controlled in situ.
6-3-1- The Confined Compressive Strength of Specimens
Two approaches may be taken to measure the strength of materials in soil
technology, namely the confined and unconfined compressive tests (Jumikis, 1962;
Capper and Cassie, 1963; Thomas et al., 1979; Miligan and Houlsby, 1984; Hassani and
Archibald, 1998). As it is simple, convenient and provides a conservative estimate of the
stabilized materials' strength, the latter is most commonly employed in mining-related
research (Bloss, 1992). This method is to be used when the confined compressive strength
of backfill increases with a rise in confining pressure. Such a phenomena is true when the
angle of shear resistance is greater than zero (Jumikis, 1962). The test's application to
specimens with different combinations of components, however, had unknown results.
During phase II, the confined compressive strength of backfill specimens was, hence,
thoroughly investigated.
Mohr-Coulomb's Law is the most widely recognized failure criterion for
describing the behaviour of backfill under different degrees of confinement:
(6-1)
Where:
Tf = The shear stress on the failure surface at failure
C = The cohesion
() n = The normal stress on the failure surface
e = The angle of shear resistance
75
The Mohr cireles are usually used to determine confined compressive strength
(Head, 1986). Typically, identical specimens at various confining pressures are used to
draw a set of Mohr cireles and the line drawn tangential to these cireles represents the
failure laws.
'rf
Tf=c+CTntanB
c
Figure 6-1- Mohr Cireles of Stress
The triaxial compressive strength of specimens was determined using the ASTM
standard D 4767-04 Standard test method for consolidated-undrained triaxial
compression test for cohesive soifs (2006); the apparatus employed ~ i n g shown in Figure
6-2. In Phase II of the study, a total number of 24 samples were subjected to triaxial tests.
AlI tri axial tests were performed with a Wykeham Farrance 100 KN Stepless press
machine using a 50 KN load ceIl and a 25 mm L VDT sensor at the normalloading rate of
1 mm/min. The setup is 'computer controIled and the data was logged with graphic
representations. Prior to testing, each specimen was positioned into a rubber membrane
sealed with four plastic sealers, two at the top and two at the bottom. The compression
ceIl Was then sealed and fiIled with de-aired water at a pre-selected confining pressure
range of 200 to 600 KPa.
76
Figure 6-2- Confined compression setup
6-3-2- The Unconfined Compressive Strength of Specimens
Unconfined compressive strength is themost commonly used factor to determine
backfilI strength. The compressive strength of test specimens was determined according
to ASTM D 2166-00 Standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of
cohesive sail (2006). A total number of 1224 (408 triplicate) backfill samples during
Phase I, and 324 (l08 triplicate) backfilI samples during Phase II, were subjected to
uniaxial compression tests. AlI UCS tests were performed with a Wykeham Farrance 100
KN stepless press machine, using a 50 KN load celI and a 25 mm L VDT sensor, at the
normalloading rate of 1 mm/min. The setup is computer controlled, much like the setup
for the confined compression tests. The samples had, on average, height to diameter ratios
of 2: 1 and ends that were flattened so as to achieve planar surfaces prior to compression.
Graphical UCS data displays a maximum stress value observed during any given.
compression test. The unconfined compressive strength setup is shown in Figure 6-3.
77
Figure 6-3- Dnconfined compressive setup
A particular issue that requires discussion is the influence of the state of sample
extremities on the reaction conditions of compressed test samples.
Influence of End Conditions on the Stress State of Cylindrical Specimens
Despite the theoretical simplicity of DCS, accurate measurements are difficult to
obtain in practice due to the intricacy involved in maintaining a truly uniaxial load. An
unconfined compressive test involves a specimen that is subjected to an axialload by two
steel platens located directly in contact with the specimen's extremities. Friction between
the machine's platens and the specimen introduces triaxial stress environments at both
ends of the specimen. Furthermore, surface roughness at both or one sample edge may
generate localized stress and result in major variations in measured strength (Hawkes and
MeIlor, 1970). Capping the cyl indri cal samples before testing is a common practice in
concrete testing as a me ans of generating reproducible test results (Richardson, 1991) as
weIl as even distribution of stress. Initially, plastic plates were used as a capping material.
In order to compare the results with and without capping, specimens were tested under
both conditions. Results of these compression tests indicated trivial differences between
. the strength of capped and non-capped specimens.
78
6-4- Methods for Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization
6-4-1- Mercury Intrusion Porosimetery (MIP)
The theory of mercury intrusion porosimetery is based on the principle that a non-
wetting and non-reactive liquid will only penetrate spaces when the amount of pressUre
applied is sufficient in causing entry of mercury into the pore spaces. Laplace's Law or
the Washburn equation (6-2) is used to demonstrate the relationship between the applied
pressure and pore size.
Where:
D = pore opening diameter
P = applied pressure
D= 4ycosp
P
(6-2)
'Y = surface tension ofmercury which is equal to 480 dyne/cm and
cp = contact angle between mercury and pore wall that is usually near 140
0
To obtain both cumulative and incremental intrusion porosity versus pore size, the
pores were assumed to be cylindrical and, in this regard, the pore diameter was ca1culated
from applied pressure (Belem et al., 2000). Total porosity (MP
tot
), free access porosity
(MP free) and trapped porosity (MP trap) of the cemented backfill materials can aIl be
determined from results of MIP testing. In order to obtain values for free access and
trapped porosity, two cycles of mercury intrusion are required. The samples are subjected
to a first cycle of mercury intrusion (MP
tot
), they are kept in desiccators for 24 hours to
drain the trapped mercury, and are finally subjected to a second cycle of mercury
intrusion (MPfree). The difference between the two cycles depicts the level of trapped
mercury intrusion (MP
trap
). A total amount of fourteen samples (ten from Phase 1 and four
from Phase II) were subjected to the mercury intrusion porosimetery test.
79
6-4-2- Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD)
To study and characterize the texture and microstructure of cemented backfill
samples, a Hitachi 3500-N .scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used. The
backscattered electron (BSE) imaging mode was chosen due to its production of images
which display chemical contrasts superimposed upon relief contrasts. In order to
characterize selected hydrated phases, energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) in which an
X-ray probe was coupled to the SEM, was exploited. The aforementioned electronic
images give sorne information regarding:
The composite grain size distribution and grain morphology
The cement phase texture
The hydrated cement phase morphology
The porosity of the composite
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed on the tailings and the cemented
backfill samples ~ as to identify any mineralogical effect of sodium silicate' s presence in
the binder used.
80
CHAPTER 7 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7-1- Results of Phase 1 of the Study
ln Phase 1 of this investigation, the long tenn mechanical behaviours and
microstructures of cemented backfill specimens were investigated after 28, 56 and 120
days of curing. The Tl Tailings were used to generate sand pastefill samples. In this
phase, the effects of different parameters on mechanical behaviour and microstructure of
sand pastefill were investigated. The binder content varied from 3 to 9 wt% and pulp
density was adjusted to values between 80 and 83%. AIso, the effects of sorne other
parameters such as mixing time, adding order and curing duration have been explored.
7-1-1 Mechanical Behaviour
Uniaxial compressive test results
Sorne results of ues are presented here, whilst complete results are given in
Appendic 2. The ues values obtained from different trials can be analyzed in various
terms. In Phase 1 of the study, the ues results are analyzed on the basis of:
1. Binder type and dosage
The ues values obtained from various tests are shown in Figure 7-1. For a given
curing time, there was a sound reproducibility between triplicate samples for each
mixture, which shows sample homogeneity. Results can be interpreted in two different
manners: binder type and binder dosage. Figure 7-1 shows the evolution of the ues
values as a function of curing time and binder dosage for different types of binders. The
ues evolution for all of the binders (e, es s, ses S, SSS and Se), at 7 wt% binder, 83
wt% pulp density, and mixed with adding order 1 is shown in Figure 7-1 (a, b).
Additionally, the ues results for samples made with the same binders, pulp density,
adding order and mixing time, but with 9 wt% binder, are presented in Figure 7-1 (c, d).
81
This figure c1early shows the disparity in the modes of strength acquisition for sand
pastefill samples with different binder contents .. This means that the different binders do
not solidify the sand pastefill in the same manner. For a given binder type, these
differences are shown both by the ues value and by the effect ofmixing time. Figure 7-1
(a, b) shows that when the SSS (slag / sodium silicate) binder is used, the strength
acquisition of sand pastefill is not significant at 28 days of curing, relative to other binder
combinations. However, at 56 and 120 days of curing, the ues values for SSS specimens
are higher than those for other types of specimens. This is true regardless of binder
percentage or mixing time. The strength of sand pastefill with a se binder is between that
of e and those for other binders. Figure 7-1 (d) shows that the rate of strength acquisition
of sand pastefill containing a se binder is more prompt with 9 wt% of binder and an 8-
minute mixing time, comparing to the other cases. However, the maximal ues value
obtained for each of the 5 different binders is always proportional to the binder
percentage.
PD=83wt%, AO=1, B=7wt%, MT=5min
12
10
...... c
Iii'
8
___ css
a.
:E
S
---scss
en

...... sss
()
4
::::> ---sc
2
"
..
0

0 50 100 150
a Curing time(days)
12
10
...... c
Iii' 8
-css
a.
---scss
:E
S
..:M
en

...... sss
()
4
---sc
::::>
2
-1
--
0
:1
b
0 50 100 150
Curing time(days)

12
10
Iii'
a.
8
s
CI)
()
4
::::>
2
0
C
12
10
Iii' 8
a.
s
CI)
g 4
2
0
d
PD=83wt%. AO=1. B=9wt%. MT=5min

...... c

-css
---scss

...... sss
'Jrl
--
___ sc
j
0 50 100 150
Curing time(days)
...... c
+-_____ -css
---scss
...... sss
___ sc
0 50 100 150
Curing time(days)
__ ._._. __ . ________ -.J
Figure 7-1- ues value evolution over the curing length of sand pastefill mixtures
containing 7 wt% (a, b) and 9 wt% (c, d) binder for two different mixing times
82
The binders C, CSS and SCSS solidify the sand pastefill samples in the same
manner and give relatively low strengths that increase slightly with curing time
(regardless of binder percentage and mixing time).
Mixtures with C, CSS, SCSS and SC c1early show a sub-linear and proportional
relationship between the UCS value and the curing time. Accordingly, the mechanical
resistance of backfill increases with increasing binder amounts, if only the binder amount
is taken into consideration. As shown in Figure 7-1, the rate of strength acquisition for
sand pastefill with a SSS binder slows down after 56 days of curing. This type of
behaviour is due to a hardening limitation of backfill materials. Since it was previously
reported by different studies, this property was expected. Figure 7-1 also shows that the
strength acquisition rate and the ues value for mixtures containing C and CSS binders
are nearly the same. Furthermore, the figure shows that sodium silicate has no significant
role in the strength acquisition of sand pastefill when used with cement. With reference to
available literature, the main function of sodium silicate is activation of pozzolanic
material and as there is no slag in the preparation of samples, the sodium silicate does not
show beneficial effect when used with cement.
Figure 7-2 demonstrates the effect of adding order on the strength acquisition of
sand pastefill for samples with C, CSS, SCSS and SSS binders. The rate and the manner
of strength acquisition with both binder dosages are the same. However, the UCS values
obtained from the second adding order are smaller than the corresponding values from the
first adding order.
As shown in Figures 7-1 and 7-2, at 28 days of curing, the UCS values obtained
from the SSS (slag / sodium silicate) binder are very small. This can be attributed to the
amount of water that is re1eased from mixtures with the SSS binder. For samples made
with this type of binder, the amount of water released is smaller than water that is
released by other samples containing different binder types. Possibly, the water gets
entrapped by the sodium silicate, which, thus, causes a relative reduction in the UCS
value. However, more investigation is required. To find an economic alternative and a
83
solution to this problem, sorne samples were prepared usmg 3 and 5 wt% bil1der
consisting of 2 %( total binder weight) cement, 2 % sodium silicat, and 96 % slag. The
results are tabulated in Table A 2-1.
Cil
a.
::E
li
()
::J
a
iii
a.
::E
ur
()
::J
b
.
...
...... c
)Il'
"...... -css
.L 1 ""-scss
1 .........
_sss
J
0 50 100 150
Curing time(days)
12
10
8 ...... c
6
-css
lN""'"
....-scss
4
F
2
-1
.AL
0
:i'
0 50 100 150
Curing time(days)

10+---------------__
Cil
a.
::E -css
'Ji 6 +-------fllilF---------..---4I....-
scss
g 4
2

o 50 100 150
c Curing time(days)
12
10
...........
...... c
Cil
8 -css
a.
::E
6
""-scss
li
/: ---'-

()
4
::J
1
.....
2
-:1
0
0 50 100 150
d Curing time(days)
Figure 7-2- ues value evolution over curing duration for sand pastefill mixtures
containing 7% (a, b) and 9% (c, d) binder with two different mixing times
and adding order 2
2. Effect ofpulp density (water content)
Figure 7-3 portrays the effect of pulp density on the mechanical strength of sand
pastefill with 7 and 9 wt% of binder and at different curing times. The water to binder
ratio plays a very important role in the strength acquisition of backfill materials. It
controls all of the hydration and precipitation reactions that affect the hardening process
within paste backfill.
For paste backfill material, an increase in water content results in a negative effect
on sample strength. Figure 7-3 c1early shows that a decrease in pulp density (Le. an
84
increase in water content) results in a decrease of the UCS values. This is true regardless
of the binder content. This effect is clear at 28 days of curing as weIl as for samples cured
for 56 and 120 days. It is also true for sand pastefill samples made with different binders.
AO=1, B=7wt%, MT=5min,CD=28days

Cil3 _1__----
a.
52_1__----
CI)

::>1
o
C C/SS S/C/SS S/SS SIC
a Bindertype
5r---------------
4 _1__-------
Cil
3-1------
en 2 -1------

::>
1
o
b Binder type

7+--------
6 +--------
III
a. 5 +--------
54_1__----
3+-----
::> 2
c
1
o
C C/SS S/C/SS S/SS
Binder type
SIC
83wt%
80wt%"
1!183wt%
m80wt%
1!183wt%
m80wt%"
AO=1, B=9wt%, MJ=5min,CD=28days
5r-----------------------,

Cil

en2

::>
1
o
d
Binder type
AO=1, B=9w t%, Mr=5rnin,CD=56days

6+--------
Cil 5 +--------

en 3 _1___----
g2
e
1
o
Bindertype
10+--------
8 +--------
56+-----,
CI)
4+-----
::>
2
o
,..C?J c,..C?J
ci
J
C;)\J
cd
f Binder type
1i183wt%
maOwt%
Figure 7-3- Effect of pulp density (water content) on the mechanical strength (DCS) of
sand pastefiIl mixtures made with 7wt %( a, b, c) and 9wt %( d, e, f) binder
3. Mixing time
Figure 7-4 shows the effect of mixing time on the compressive strength of the
different sand pastefill samples at 7 and 9 wt% binder. Selection of the appropriate
mixing time is important to ensure the homogeneous distribution of the tailings and
85
binder reagents. An insufficient mixing time can result in localized unmixed backfill. In
contrast, an excessive mixing time can inhibit gel formation by cement or slag. Excessive
mixing can also break bonds formed by cement and inhibit the reformation of these bonds
(Kovac-s, 1993). The ues values obtained from samples containing different binders
show the same relationship as described in literature. Associatively, a mixing time of 8
minutes has a negative effect on the ues value, regardless of binder type and amount. It
can be attributed to the a fore-mentioned fact that excessive mixing may result in
breaking the chemical bonds and inhibiting the reformation of new bonds. Itcan also be
linked to the microstructures of sand pastefill samples that are discussed in the following
sections.
4. Mixing Order
Figure 7-5 demonstrates the effect ofmixing (adding) order on the ues values of
sand pastefill specimens with 9 wt% binder and different binder proportions at 56 days of
curing. As shown in Figure 7-5, regardless ofbinder type and proportion, the ues values
of sand - pastefill samples made with the first adding order are higher than the
corresponding values for the second adding order. The reason can be attributed to fast
reaction between sodium silicate and dry binders in first adding order. Hence, the
compressive strengths of sand pastefill are deeply influenced by adding order of material.
5. Sodium silicate concentration
A series of mixtures with 2 and 4 % (total binder weight) of sodium silicate and 7
and 9 wt% of binder were prepared and tested to demonstrate the effect of sodium silicate
concentration on the strength of sand pastefill samples. The ues values for samples with
2 %( total binder weight) sodium silicate are greater than corresponding values for
samples prepared with 4% sodium silicate. It can be attributed to microstructures (i.e.
porosity, pore size distribution) within sand pastefill. Mercury intrusion porosimetery
(MIP) analyses of samples made with 2 and 4 % of sodium silicate showed that samples
containing 4% of sodium silicate have higher porosities and larger pore diameters than
86
samples with same characteristics other than their sodium silicate content, which is 2%.
These results will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.
CD=28days , PD=83wt% ,AO=1, B=7wt%
4-,-,--------------.

cu
0..
52+------
en

::>
a
o
C C/SS S/C/SS S/5S SIC
Bindertype
ImMT.51
IIMT8
CD=56days , PD=83 wt% , AO=1, B=7wt%

4-t--------
Iil
3+------
2-t------
::>
o
b Binder type
CD=120days, PD=83wt% ,AO=1, B=7wt%
8,..-------------,
7-t--------
1il 6 -t--------
0...5-1----------'-
::a:
Cif4
3 +--------fU
::> 2
c
1
o
C C/SS S/C/SS S/SS
Binder type
SIC
I
13MT
5
1
IIMT8
CD=28days , PD=83wt% , AO=1, B=9wt%
5,-------------------,
4 +_------.,.
Iil

I
13MT
.
S
I
IIMT8
::>
1
Q
C C/SS S/C/5S S/SS SIC
d Bindertype
CD=56days , PD=83wt% , AO=1, B=9wt%
7,.......------------,
6-t--------
1il5-1--------
4+------
Cii 3 -t------

::> 2
o
e Binder type
CD=120days, PD=83wt% ,AO=1, B=9wt%

10
Iil
8
0..
::a:
6
Cii
ImMT.51
IIIMT8 '

4
::>
2
0
f
Bindertype
Figure 7-4- Effect of mixing time on compressive strength of sand pastefill prepared with
different binder types containing 7% (a, b, c) and 9 %( d, e, f) binder and cured for
different durations
87
PD=80wt% , B=9wt% , MT=5min ,
CD=56days

44---------f'%';
63-i--------1"'e
..c:
g, 2 -i-------tk,

i5
a
o
C C/SS S/C/SS S/SS
Bindertype
[BAD1 [
Ii!IAD2
PD=83wt% , B=9wt% , MT=5min ,
CD=56days
7,------------------.
Cil 6 -i--------",.".
a. 5 -j----------I0Ji
6 4
..c:
g, 3
!!! 2
i5 1
o
b
C C/SS S/C/SS S/SS
Bindertype
Figure 7-5- Effect ofmixing (adding) order on the mechanical strength (UCS) of sand
pastefill samples at 80 (a) and 83 wt% (b) pulp density
7-1-2-Microstructure and Mineralogical Results
7-1-2-1- Mercury Intrusion Porosimetery Results
ln Phase 1 of the study, a total of la samples were subjected to MIP tests to
investigate the effect of different variables on the porosity and hence the microstructure
of stabilized backfill material. The results can be analyzed in terms of:
1. Binder Type
Figure 7-6 shows the MIP curves of studied cemented sand pastefill after 56 days
of curing. Figure 7-6 (a, b, and c) represents the effect of binder type on pore size
distribution and total porosity of stabilized samples. The binders consist of cement (C),
slag and cement (SC), and slag and sodium silicate (SSS). These figures show that the
binder type strongly influences both the overallporosity and the pore size distribution of
stabilized samples.
The MIP results indicate that the sand pastefill specimen with cement (Figure 7-
6a) is characterized by one pore size distribution. pore size family contains pores
between la 000 and 100 000 A and is mostly responsible for the overall porosity of sand
pastefill samples (29.47%), which is the peak of the histogram.
88
35

30 +---------..

; 25
+-_______ -+-cumulative
__ incremental
2.5 z;.
'iii
e 20
0
0
c..
15

"3
10
E
::1
0
5
0
a
a..
+-____________ 1.5
CI)
E
I!!
u
s:::
0.5 -
......
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
Pore diameter(A)
30
..... 25
C
.....
20
0
-+-cumulative
+-----------',.,-----++-----1 __ incremental
2 C
z;.
"iii
1.5 e
o
c..
..
0
c..
15
QI
>
..
l'CI
10
"3
E
::1
0
5
0
b
35
..... 30

25
III
e
20
0
c..
QI
15 >

"3
10
E
:1
0
5
0
C
10 100
S
s:::
CI)
E
I!!
_________ 0.5
....
1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
Pore diameter(A)

+--------....:" ..... --HII-------.....j-+-cumulative 2.5 z;.
__ incremental
+-_______ ____ __ 2 0
c..
1 5 S
s:::
CI)
E
I!!
u
-l-------=Jk.I.J!.----II!!II .... 0.5 .E

10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
Pore diameter (A)
Figure 7-6- Effect ofbinder type on pore size distribution and overall porosity of
sand pastefill samples made with 9 % binder consisting
ofC (a), SC (b) and SSS(c)
89
Additionally, samples made with a binder composed of slag and cement (Figure 7-
6b) have one main pore sizes family. Compared to Figure 7-6a, samples using a SC
binder have a range of smaller pore sizes that vary between 1 000 and 100 000 A. The
foremost pore type has an aImost 10000 A diameter and the overall porosity is 26.78%.
Finally, for sand pastefill specimens made with a slag/sodium silicate binder (Figure 7-
6c), there is one pore family ofpore sizes between 100 and 1 000 A. Additionally, there is
a huge shift in pore size distributions when the slag/sodium silicate binder is used.
2. Binder dosage
Two samples were chosen to study the effect of bindei dosage on pore size
distribution and overall porosity of sand pastefill samples. Figure 7-7(a, b) shows the MIP
curves for samples made with 7 and 9 wt% of binder, respectively. These figures show
that the binderdosage strongly influences both the pore size distribution and the overall
porosity of sand pastefill samples. Figure 7-7(a) shows that a sand pastefill specimen with
7 wt% of'binder is characterized by two distinct pore size distributions, notably pore
diameters between 100 and 1 000 A, and finall y between 10 000 and 100 000 A.
The overaIl porosity is around 32 % and the contribution of pores with a diameter
smaller than 100 A and greater than 100000 A to overaIl porosity is low. Figure 7-7(b)
shows that sand pastefill specimens with 9 wt% of binder are characterized by on pore
size distribution that is between 100 and 1 000 A. The overall porosity is around 30 %
and the contribution of pores with a diameter greater than 1000 A to overall porosity is
low. Hence, the distribution ofpore size and overall porosity are influenced by the binder
dosage. This may explain the differences in DCS values for specimens containing
different binder dosages.
90

ii
e
0
Cl.

"3
E

0
a

iii
e
0
Cl.
QI
i
"3
E

0
b
35
30
25
20
15
10
.5
0
2.5

__ incremental

2

1.5 ...
o
Cl.
:s
c:
QI
E
2!
0.5 .
+-----.-----r---.,---.;.::. __ 0
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
Pore diameter (A)
35
30
25
+-___ _+_cumulative
__ incremental
20
15
10
5
0
__ "':;'1--.4 0
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
Pore diameter (A)
Figure 7-7- Effect of binder dosage on pore size distribution and overall porosity of sand
pastefill specimens containing 2% sodium silicate and 7wt% (a) and 9wt% (b)
binder (SSS)
3. Mixing time
To investigate the effect of mixing time on the microstructure of sand pastefill
specimens, two samples made with 9 wt% binder (SC) were chosen. Figure 7-8(a, b)
shows the MIP curves for specimens that were made using 5 and 8 minute mixing times
respectively. These figures show that the mixing time strongly affects the pore size
distribution and the overall porosity of sand pastefill specimens. From these figures, one
pore size distribution can be discemed. For both sand pastefill' samples , pore sizes are
91
around 10 000 A. The contribution of pores with diameters greater than 10 000 A on the
overall porosity is negligible.
30 2.5
.-.. 25
C
2
~
~ 20
-+-cumulative
~
UJ -III- incremental
"iii
0
1.5 e ...
0 0
a.
15
a.
G)
~ >
:;:1 t:
t'II
10
G)
:i E
E li!
j
0.5
u
0
5
.5
0 0
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
a
Pore diameter()
35 2
.-.. 30 .-..
~ "i!- D
1.5 ~
~ 25
~
"iii
0
20
...
0 0
a. a.
~ 15
~
:;:1 t:
t'II
G)
:i
10
E
E
0.5
li!
j u
0
5
.5
0 0
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
b
Pore diameter (A)
Figure 7-8- Effect of mixing time on pore size distribution and overall porosity of sand
pastefill specimens mixed for 5 (a) and 8 minutes (b)
with 9 wt% binder (SSS)
4. Adding order
Figure 7-9 (a, b) shows the effect of adding order on pore size distribution and
overall porosity of sand pastefill specimens. The samples are made with 9 wt% of binder
(SSS) and cured for 56 days. These figures show that adding order strongly affects the
pore size distribution of sand pastefill specimens. As shown in Figure 7-9, samples
92
enclose one and two different types of pore size distributions for adding order 1 and 2,
respectively.
35
30
;;'

25
iii
2
20
0
c.
CI)
> 15
:1:1
cv
"5
10
E
::l
0
5
0
a
35
-
30
e

25
III
2
20
0
c.
CI)
15 >
i
"5
10
E
::l
0
5
0
b
,..------------------------,- 3.5

--;;e
2.5 :;
+---------='"lk-+-IIII--------1-.-cumulative
_II__ incremental

0
c.
1.5
10 100
---------!- 0.5
__
1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
Pore diameter (A)
CI)
E

(,.)
.5

-
C
+--------".---I------IIIIlIIII---I-.-cumulative
_II__ incremental 0.8

0.6

0.4
______
(,.)
+-_______ 0.2 .5
....
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
Pore diameter (A)
Figure 7-9- Effect of adding order on pore size distribution and overall porosity of sand
pastefill specimens made with adding order 1 (a) and 2 (b), and 9 wt% of
binder (SSS)
Figure 7-9(a) shows that the pore diameters are between 100 and 1 000 .
Furthermore, the contribution of pores with diameters greater than 1 000 A to overall
porosity is low. For adding order 2, Figure 7-9(b) shows that there are two pore types
with larger pore diameters than those of samples made with adding order 1. There is no
significant difference in overall porosity between both samples (around 30%). Hence,
93
samples made with adding order 1 have smaller pore diameters, compared to samples
made with adding order 2.
5. Sodium Silicate Concentration
To study the effect of sodium silicate on the microstructure of sand pastefill
specimens, two samples were made with 9 wt% of binder (SSS), and 2 % (total binder
weight) (Figure 7-10a) and 4 % (Figure 7-lOb) of sodium silicate. For testing, samples
with 56 days of curing time were chosen.
35 3.5
30 3

25
iii
e
20
0
Il.

--+- cumulative

-il-incremental
2.5
iii
2
e
0
Il.
CI)
15 >
;
CIl
1.5
CI)
:l
10
E
E
I!!
::s u
(.)
.E
5 0.5
0 0
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000.000 10,000,000
a Pore diameter (A)
3.5
3

--+- cumulative
2.5
-il-incremental
UI
0
2
..
0
Il.

o
Il.
1.5
CI)
E

:l
E
::s u
(.) 5 +------------ 0.5 .E
o +---,.-----.. 0
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
b
Pore diametres (A)
Figure 7-10- Effect of sodium silicate concentration on pore size distribution and overall
porosity of sand pastefill specimens made with 2 (a) and 4% (b) of sodium silicate,
and 9 wt% ofbinder (SSS)
94
These figures show that the sodium silicate concentration influences the overall
porosity and pore size distribution of sand pastefill samples. The higher the concentration
of sodium silicate, the greater the overall porosity of sand pastefill sampI es becomes. As
shown in Figure 7-10, when 2 % (by total binder weight) of sodium silicate is used, both
the pore size and the overall porosity decrease. Renee, increasing the concentration of
sodium silicate does not improve the microstructure of sand pastefill samples. Possibly,
for sand pastefill samples, there is not enough water to complete the reaction of sodium
silicate and dry binders, when high dosage of sodium silicate is used. Rowever, further
investigation seems to be required.
Sand Pastefill Materials
Among the samples that were tested to determine their uniaxial compressIve
strength, two samples (cured for 56 days and dried at 50 OC) were chosen for further
mineralogical and mcrostructural investigations. These investigations were conducted on
samples with 2 % (total binder weight) of sodium silicate, and 7 and 9 wt% binder (SSS).
The samples were dried before the SEM and XRD analyses. This step accelerates the
curing and results in the formation of more cementitious phases within the specimen
(Benzaazoua et al., 2006). Rence, the samples can be considered as well-cured sand
pastefill. Furthermore, the SEM analyses were conducted to determine the differences
between microstructures of sand pastefill samples.
The strength acquisition in backfill material plays a very important role in the
mining cycle as it may extend or shorten the mining sequences. A sample's
microstructure is strongly tied to its strength (Benzaazoua et al., 2006; Ouellet et al.,
2003). The microstructures of backfill materials are constructed by the formation of
cementitious phases in between sand partic1es. The network of cementitious phases
characterizes the microstructure. As for more abundant cementitious matrices, the
sample's porosity is finer and it is stronger. Figures 7-11 and 7-12 show sorne BSE-SEM
images from two samples at different magnifications.
95
Figure 7-11- SEM backscatiered images of sand pastefill (7 wt% ofbinder) with an
addition of2% sodium silicate (by total binder weight)
96
Figure 7 Il illustl'ates the SEM images of a sand pastefill sample that developed
a compressive strength (UeS) of 4.68 MPa using. 7 wt% of binder type SSS (slaglsodium
silicate). Figure 7-12 aIso shows the SEM images for a sand pastefiII sample consisting of
9 ~ of binder (8SS) with 2% of sodium silicate. The sand grains and cementitous
phases between the sand grains are clearly observable. Figures 7-1 1 (a) and 7-12(a) show
the areas that have been investigated.
Figure 7-12- SEM backscattered images of sand pastefill (9 wt% binder) with an addition
of 2% sodium silicate
97
Figures 7-11 (b) and 7 -12(b) show the magnified part of studied areas from Figures
7-11(a) and 7-12(a), respectively. For each sample, two sections are selected for study
and in each section four to five spots were investigated. The EDS (Energy Dispersive
Scanning) analyses were performed to get sorne idea of the chemical composition of the
cementitious phases. Due to the probe size, proximal grains usually hinder the analysis of
these phases.
Table 7-1- Mean EDS Analyses of 17 Spots on SEM-BSE Images of Sand Pastefill (7
wt% of Binder) With 2% of Sodium Silicate

0 Na Al Si S K Ca Ti Fe Cu Mg
Points (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt)
1 40.37 0.72 4.37 18.15 0.63 0.24 32.87 0.37 1.21 0.58 NIA
2 22.93 0.79 6.11 23.42 0.88 0.74 40.59 0.59 2.06 0.89 NIA
3 57.82 0 0 28.55 0.13 0 9.59 0 3.39 0.43 NIA
4 58.09 0 0 18.96 0.51 0 20.41 0 0.48 0.24 NIA
5 63.09 0 0.44 1.23 0 0.18 21.24 0 0.36 0.29 13.0
6 52.21 0 3.54 8.18 0 1.77 28.33 0.21 3.75 0 1.92
7 60.88 0 0.51 1.28 0 0.58 36.24 0 0.28 0 0.23
8 60.77 0 3.09 5.23 0 0.65 24.01 0 2.67 0 3.50
9 52.71 0 2.03 25.21 0.1 1.20 16.39 0 1.17 0.47 0.57
10 55.43 0 4.71 21.40 0.48 0.30 12.09 0 0 NIA 5.17
11 50.43 0 6.53 19.22 0.89 0.50 18.40 0.48 0 NIA 2.93
12 51.14 0.24 8.93 27.8 0 Il.63 0 0.10 0.15 NIA 0
13 47.17 1.52 5.08 12.89 0.49 0.77 29.06 0.l8 0.76 NIA 1.94
14 39.01 0 6.30 17.64 1.04 0.46 28.17 0.45 0.28 NIA 6.09
15 60.25 0 0.19 0.74 0 0 38.32 0 0.13 NIA 0.29
16 46.61 2.73 10.24 23.23 0.22 2.37 4.66 0.41 6.86 NIA 2.56
17 56.42 0.30 2.26 19.92 0.24 0.82 15.77 0.19 1.91 NIA 1.88
98
This problem anses when the consolidated material is fine and an X-ray
spectrometry (based on an electron primary source signal) is equipped (Benzaazoua et al.,
2006). Nevertheless, the EDS analysis provides some information about the chemical
composition of binding phases. The cementitious matrices are made of silicon, calcium,
aluminium, iron, and sulphur. Tables 7-1 and 7-2 outline the results of EDS analyses for
17 and 15 spots in two different parts of sand pastefill samples with 7 and 9 wt% of .
binder, respectively.
Table 7-2- Mean EDS Analyses of 17 Spots on SEM -BSE Images of Sand Pastefill (9
wt% ofBinder) with 2% of Sodium Silicate
h
0 Na Al Si S K Ca Ti Fe Cu Mg
(%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt)
Points
1 56.08 9.08 0 34.84 0 0 0 0 0 NIA 0
2 50.58 7.68 0 40.61 0.14 0.54 0.45 0 0 NIA 0
3 56.30 4.82 0 32.38 0.15 6.15 0 0 0.19 NIA 0
4 38.60 0.68 4.80 23.31 3.00 0.77 23.23 2.23 1.57 NIA 1.82
5 38.64 0 8.14 26.84 0 0.08 0.17 0 15.97 NIA 10.1
6 56.34 0 3.55 26.03 0.47 0 4.13 0 4.74 NIA 4.73
7 53.69 0 13.40 20.96 0 5.56 0 0.18 4.66 NIA 1.54
8 51.89 0 7.97 33.95 0 4.06 0 0.15 1.59 NIA 0.38
9 45.62 5.22 11.92 32.82 0 1.44 0.55 0 2.02 NIA 0.40
10 51.81 2.74 8.33 25.52 0 3.71 0.46 0 6.94 NIA 0.49
11 43.12 0.12 4.85 18.25 0.80 0.54 25.54 0.31 0.21 NIA 5.73
12 25.08 0.52 11.74 40.07 0.81 19.49 1.36 0.23 0.29 NIA 0.39
13 37.39 0.56 Il.37 25.29 1.87 1.11 9.98 0.34 3.99 NIA 7.39
14 39.94 0.27 7.21 30.81 1.68 1.00 11.43 0.34 1.43 NIA 5.37
15 52.31 0 17.84 20.79 0 7.48 0 0 1.43 NIA 0
It should be noted that the oxygen was quantified by stoichiometry using other
elements' oxides. For further investigation ot' these samples, some XRD tests were
99
conducted. Similarly, much like the problem associated with the EDS test regarding the
precision of the punctual probe, XRD anaIysis is only able to detect the crystallized
phases. Hence, the cementitious phases that are amorphous cannot be identified and'
quantified with XRD. The minerais identified for both sand pastefill samples by XRD are
shown in Table 7-3 (Appendix 3). As shown in this table, none of the hydrated phases are
distinguishable in the cemented material. It means that the phases are amorphous and/or
at very low grades.
Table 7-3- Detailed XRD Analyses Data and Quantification Results Obtained for Sand
Pastefill Samples Made with SSS Binder.
Minerais
Formula
Sample
7wt% 9wt%
Quartz Si0
2
55.27 51.31
Albite NaAIShOg 16.76 17.99
Calcite CaC0
3
3.36 4.71
Muscovite }(J\13Si3010(OH)2 4.37 7.70
Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe+2)sSig022(OH)2 0.67 0.97
Anorthite CaAhSi0
2
0g 7.02 7.51
Chlorite (Mg,Al)6(Si,AI)40 1O(OH)g 3.38 2.39
Microcline }(J\IShOg 9.17 7.43
Among the samples that were studied with SEM-EDS and XRD, it is obvious that
the SEM is more effective than XRD in terms of the cementitious phase's identification.
For further investigation of the analysed surface, two X-ray mappings, each one
localised by a picture, were performed. Each map represents the distribution of one
chemical element on the analysed surface. Figures 7-13, 7-14, 7-15 and 7-16 show the
mapping surfaces of samples made with 7 and 9 wt% ofbinder (SSS), respectively.
100
Figure 7-13- X-Ray mapping of sand pastefill samples with 7 wt% binder (SSS)
(Window 1)
Figure 7-13(b) shows the enlarged area of Figure 7-13(a). It is clear that the main
chemical composition of the material on top-Ieft of the window. which appears white.
is made of AI, Na, 0, Si. When the chemical composition is compared with XRD data on
the same samples, this area can be distinguished as Albite (NaA1ShOg). The white
sections that are common in the Si and windows show the presence of Quartz (Si0
2
) in
the studied area.
101
Figure 7-14- X-Ray mapping of sand pastefiII samples with 7 wt% binder (SSS)
(Window2)
Figure 7-14 shows the second mapping area of the sample with 7 wt% ofbinder
(888). The gray areas indicate the prevalence of Al, K, 0 and Si, thus showing the
presence of Microcline (KAISi3s), a mineraI. in that area. Similarly, upon examination
of the right hand side area of each image, the presence of Al, Na, 0 and Si shows the
presence of Albite (NaAlShOs) in thatarea. Moreover, the Si and 0 images show the
presence of Quartz (Si0
2
) in the studie4 area. Moreover, the mapping provides yery
102
useful information on the chemical composition of the studied samples, thus showing that
no hydrated phases are evident.
(Window 1)
Figures 7-15 and 7-16 show the mapping of a sand pastefill sample at 9 wr>/o of
binder (888). In Figure 7-15(c), some greyareas are conunon in the images for Al, K, 0
and 8i, which show the presence of Microcline (KA18ijOg) in that area. Also, the
presence of Albite (NaA18hOg) is clear when the gray areas are compared from the Al,
103
Na, Si, and 0 images. Moreover, common areas in the 0 and Si images show the
presence of Quartz (Si Oz) in the specific area. Figure 7-15(c) also confirms the presence
of Muscovite (KAi)ShOlO(OH)Z) as weIl as Actinolite (Ca2(MgFe+z)sSisOzz(OH)z) in the
sample.
(Window2)
Figure 7 -16c shows the existence of 0 and Si in the investigated sample. which
confIrms the presence of Quartz (Si Oz). The results confIrm the contribution of sodium
silicate to binding metric by formation of C-S-H gel withln the cementitious phase.
104
7-2- ResuIts of Phase II of the Study
During Phase II of the thesis, mechanical behaviour and microstructures of
cemented backfill specimens were investigated after a short terin (3, 7 and 28 days of
curing). Both Tl and T2 tailings were used for making slurry and sand pastefill samples.
Phase II binders consist of slag/cement (90/10) and slag/cementlsodium silicate. The
sodium silicate content was 0.3 wt% (total dry weight) and was added gradually. With
regards to both tailings, the binder amount varied from 3 to 7 wt%. Tailings Tl and T2
had pulp densities varying from 81 to 85% and 68 to 72%, respectively.
7-2-1- Mechanical Behaviour
.' Uniaxial compressive strength test results
Certain results of the UCS testing conducted during Phase II are presented here,
whilst a complete listing of individual results is given' in Appendix 2. The ues values
obtained from trials can be analyzed from various perspectives. With regards to Phase II,
the UCS results are analyzed on the basis of:
1. Binder type and content
For a given curing time, mixes made with either tailings displayed considerable
similarities between triplicatesamples and, thus, indicated adequate sample homogeneity.
Results can be interpreted in terms of two different properties: binder type and binder
content. Figure 7-17 depicts the evolution of the UCS as a function of curing time and
binder type for tailings Tl and T2. This figure clearly suggests a disparity between the
mode of strength acquisition of sand pastefill and slurry backfill samples when composed
of two different binders. Such evidence proposes that unique binders solidify sand
pastefill and slurry backfill,in distinctive manners.
105
The presence of sodium silicate displays a negative effect on the ues values of
sand pastefill samples (T 1), regardless of pulp density and binder dosage (Section 7-1-2-
1). Slurry backfiU results, however, were reversed and adding the sodium silicate to the
mixture increased the ues of specimens (Figure7-17b). The effect can be attributed to
the presence of a sufficient amount of water (28 to 32 wt %) in slurry backfill samples.
Regardless of the fill type, with an increase in curing time, the ues of specimens rises.
a
2.5 -.---------,---,

lU
g 1.5
1
::J
9.5
o
3 7
Curing time (days)
28
fCsCl

1.5 -.------------,
lU 1+--------------
Q.
S
(f)
g 0.5+-----
o
3 7 28
b
Curing time (days)
fCsCl

Figure 7-17- Effect ofbinder type on ues evolution of sand pastefill (a)and slurry
backfill (b) mixtures containing 5% binder at 83(T1)
and 70 wt% (T2)pulp density.
Figures 7-18 and 7-19 show the effect of binder dosage on the ues of sand
pastefill and slurry backfill samples, respectively.
3.5
3
3
..A.
lU 2.5
,/"
/
, .....
B=3wt%
Q.
2 - .. -B=5wt%
S
/ ,..,'"
(f)
1.5
.-'ilr-B=7wt%
()
.
.. ' ...
::J
1
.
.
0.5
.. ... , .
0
.'
0 10 20 30
2.5
...

10
2
..... 'B=3wt%
Q.

:E
- .. - B=5wt%
en 1.5
,;,;
.,.
-'ilr-B=7wt%
()
1
.
.
.
::J
t;fIII ....
..
0.5
. .
0
."....,
0 10 20 30
a Curing time (days) b
Curing time(days)
Figure 7-18- Effect of binder dosage on strength development of sand pastefill samples
produced from Tl using (a) binder se and (b) binder sess at different binder
dosages 7wt%).
106
The DeS results of both" sand pastefill and siurry backfill samples increased
proportionally to the binder content, irrespective of the type of binder and tailings sample.
Over a curing period of 28 days, the cemented backfill samples of tailings Tl and T2 at
pulp densities of 83 and 70wt%, respectively, and 7 wt% binder se produced Des
values of 3.16 and 1.15 MPa. The strength acquisition for both tailings accelerated with
curing time"and the Des values after 28 days of curing increases proportionally to binder
dosage, regardless ofbinder and tailings type.
1.4 ,-----------,
1.2
m 1 ,---------1
a. ...... 'S;3wt%
:lE 0.8 -l--__ _ .. _ S;5wt%
B 0.6 -l--F=----::--"""'--____4 ---.t.--S;7wt%
::> 0.4 +--" .....
0.2 +--'1 ....... -----____4

o 10 20 30
a
Curing time(days)
1.4
1.2
m
1
0.8
B 0.6
::> 0.4
0.2
0
0
b
A

/'"
....
.......
...... 'S;3wt%

.....
....
- .. - S;5wt%
.....
,,-
---.t.--S;7wt%
....
Il
. . . . . . . . . .....
......
10 20 30
Cu ring time(days)
Figure 7-19- Effect of binder dosage on strength development of slurry backfill samples
produced from T2 using (a) binder se and (b) binder sess at different binder
dosages (3-5-7wt%).
2. Pulp density
Figures T20 and 7-21 present the effect of the pulp density (water content) on the
mechanical strength of Sand pastefill and slurry backfill samples with 5 wt% binder.
Water to binder ratio plays a very important role in terms of backfill materials' strength
acquirement. This property controis aIl the hydration and precipitation reactions that
affect the hardening process within paste backfill (Benzaazoua et al., 2004b). For both
backfill materials studied, an increase in water content results in negative effects on
strength. Figures 7-20 and 7-21 clearly show that a decrease in pulp density (i.e. an
increase in water content) results in lower DeS values.
107
3.5...---------...,
3 +---------:71II1H
<il 2.5 .---:-------1
Cl.. 2 ..... 'PD=81wt%
::2 - -II - PD=83wt%
1.5 --.t:-PD=85wt%
:J 1
a
0.5 +--1111---------;
o -1------,----,..---1
o 10 20 30
Curing time(days)
3,...----------.
2.5 +-------:;;6-1
......
::2
ii 1.5
g 1+---h.III!9--------j
0.5 +-lII1F----------j
0-1------,..---,----1
o 10 20 30
b
Curing time(days)
...... 'PD=81wt%
- .... - PD=83wt%
__ PD=85wt%
Figure 7-20- Effeet ofpulp density on strength development of sand pastefill samples
produeed from Tl using (a) binder se and (b) binder sess
at 5 wt% binder dosage.'
1
0.8

<il -..
..... PD=68wt%
Cl.. 0.6
::2
..
- -II - PD=7Owt%
ii

--.t:-PD=72wt%
0.4
If
:J
0.2
1.2
/
1

Ci! 0.8 ."
Cl.. .'
...... PD-68wt%
0.6
/ .........
- -II - PD=70wt%
en If .. '
--.a,-PD=72wt%
U
0.4
:J
f
0.2
0
0
0 10 20 30
a
Curing time(dys)
b
0 10 20 30
Curing time(days)
Figure 7-21- Effect ofpulp density on strength development of slurry backfill samples
produeed from T2 using (a) binder se and (b) binder sess
at 5 wt% binder dosage.
3. Stress-Strain relationship
In Figures 7-22 and 7-23, uniaxial compressIOn stress- strain curves of sand
pastefill (Tl) and slurry backfill (T2) samples after 28 days of curing are plotted. Figure
7-22 demonstrates the effect of varying pereentages and types of binder on the strain
characteristics of paste backfill samples. The values of DeS, as weIl as the elasticity
modulus obtained from DeS tests, are provided in Table 7-4 and 7-5 for sand pastefill
and slurry baekfill, respectively.
108
4
Cil 3.5
Cl. 3
52.5
IJI
2
t 1.5
1
0.5
o
a
4
3.5
III
3
-;; 2.5
2
t 1.5
T 1
0.5
o
b
" 7
,
.....
.. - .
- ._-
.-Y
41* .".. - ..... :>.wt'

...
o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Axial strain(*100) %
7 0
.......
...
.. .:.".. ...
."..
-
-
3wt%
...
r...?"
o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

Figure 7-22- Dniaxial compression stress-strain relationships of paste backfill samples
with (a) se and (b) sess binder after 28 days of curing.
Table-7-4- DeS and Young's modulus values for 28 days cured sand pastefill samples
with se and sess binder.
Binder proportion DeS Elasticity modulus
Tailings Bindertype
(wt%) (MPa) (MPa)
Tl se 3 1.45 ' 0.34
Tl se 5 2.87 0.62
Tl se 7 3.16 0.67
Tl sess 3 1.35 0.28
Tl sess 5 2.29 0.38
Tl sess 7 2.58 0.42
109
For a given percentage of binder added, the elasticity modulus of resulting sand
pastefill samples with sess binder are lower than se binder. ues values and elasticity
modulus are also seemingly highly dependent on the percentages and type of binder
added. Furthermore, it can be concluded that, for the fixed binder doses tested, the
elasticity modulus depends much more on the type ofbinder.
1.4
Cil 1.2
a.
6
' 1
fi)
0.8 fi)
~
Vi 0.6
(ij
0.4
~
0.2
0
"7
.....
... -..
o
...
.
..
.
.
.-----
-....
.
.
.
.
.
..,,'
.... 5
.
.
.---
.... - ~ .....
--
3
~
o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
a
1.4
7
Cil 1.2
a.
6
fi)
0.8 fi)
~
Vi 0.6
(ij
0.4
~
0.2
0
..
. ...
.
..
.
.
.
"'*,- ""'
.
0
... ~
,-0-
.. /'
"'
.
.... /
--
-
3
-
,---
o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
b
Figure 7-23- Uniaxial compression stress-strain relationships of slurry backfill samples
with (a) se and (b) sess binder after 28 days of curing.
When pre-established percentages of binder are added to slurry backfill samples,
graphical results contradict those of sand pastefill specimens in that the elasticity modulus
of slurry backfill with sess binder are higher than with se binder. The experimental
outcomes also suggest that UeS values and elasticity modulus are highly dependent on
the percentage and type ofbinder implemented.
110
Table-7-5- ues and Young's modulus values for 28 days cured slurry backfill samples
with se and sess binder.
Binder proportion Des Elasticity modulus
Tailings Bindertype
(wt%) (MPa) (MPa)
T2 se 3 0.45 0.17
T2 se 5 0.75 0.34
T2 se 7 1.19 0.62
T2 sess 3 0.39 0.19
T2 sess 5 0.97 0.55
T2 sess 7 1.22 0.67
Furthermore, it can be conc1uded that for given percentages of binder, the
e1asticity modulus depends much more on the binder type than the binder content.
Triaxial compression test results
A total of 24 samples, made from either tailings T1(sand pastefill) or T2(slurry
backfill) and cured for 28 days, were subjected to consolidated-drained triaxial
compression tests in order to study the response of samples to confining pressure. Triaxial
tests were performed under confining pressures ranging from 0 to 600 kPa and a constant
axial deformation rate of 1mm1min. The effect of binder type was studied on sand
pastefill and slurry backfill samples.
Figures 7-24 and 7-25 show the effect ofbinder type on cohesion (c) and angle of
friction (<p) of sand pastefill and slurry backfill samples, respectively. The sand pastefill
samples consist of 5 wt % binder (Se and sess) at 83 wt% pulp density. Slurry backfill
samples, also, are made of se and sess binder at 5 wt% binder content and 70 wt% pulp
density. Obtained results from different trials are tabulated in Table 7-6. As shown in
these figures and the table, the cemented backfill specimens respond differently to
confining pressure. It can be noted that the higher is the cohesion, the high,er is elastic
modulus E (Section 4) and the lesser the angle of friction.
111
a
b
3
2.5
!il
a.
.
2
VI
VI
1.5
jg
VI
ro
1
Ql
oC
(J) 0.5
0
3
2.5
!il
a.
. 2
VI
1.5
i
ro 1
Ql
oC
(J) 0.5
0 2 3 4
Effective normal stress (MPa)
2 3 4
Figre 7-24- Mohr circ1es of stress for sand pastefill (Tl) samples with SC (a) and SCSS
(b) binder at 83 wt% pulp density and 5 wt% binder after 28 days of curing
Table 7-6- Mohr parametersc and <p for sand pastefill and slurry backfill samples at 28
days of curing
Binder proportion Cohesion InternaI angle of
Tailings Bindertype
(wt%) (MPa) friction (<p)( degree)
Tl SC 5 1.57 14
Tl SCSS 5 1.48 16
T2 SC 5 0.78 24
T2 SCSS 5 0.91 20
112
a
b
3
2.5
co
a..

2
II)
II)
1.5

II)
L.
1 co
Q)
.r::
U) 0.5
0
3
2.5
C
a..
2
II)
.1.5
iii
li; 1
Q)
.r::
U)
0.5
o
0 0.5 1.5 2
o 0.5 1.5 2
Effective normal stress (Mpa)
Figure 7-:-25- Mohr circ1es of stress for slurry backfill (T2) samples with SC (a) and SCSS
(b) binder at 70 wt% pulp density and 5 wt% binder after 28 days of curing
The data of Table 7-6 and Figures 7-24 show that the sand pastefill sample (using the
same amount of binder) made with SC binder has stronger cohesion (c = 1.57 MPa) than
the sample made with SCSS binder (c = 1.48 MPa). In addition, the internaI angle of
friction for the sample made with SCSS (<p = 16) is higher than the sand pastefill sample
made with sc binder (<p =14). For the slurry backfill sample (Figure 7-25), the cohesion
of the sample with sc (c = 0.78 MPa) is lower than for the corresponding sample made
with SCSS binder (c= 0.91 MPa) .In terms of the angle of friction, the slurry backfill
sample made withSC binder (<p = 24) has higher value than sample made with SCSS
binder (<p = 20). In order to explain the differences between cohesion and angle of
friction values, more tests on samples made with different binder types and dosages are
required.
113
7-2-2- Microstructure and Mineralogical Results
7-2-2-1- Mercury Intrusion Porosimetery results
During Phase II of the study, a total number of 4 samples were subjected to MlP
testing for the purpose of investigating effects of several variables on the porosity and
associated microstructure of cemented backfill material. Results of such tests were
analyzed in terms ofbinder type. Figures 7-26 and 7-27 show the MlP curves of observed
cemented sand pastefill and slurry backfill material after 28 days of curing time,
respectively ..
30 1.2
-
25

-

20
'iii
0
...
0
a.
15
(1)

cv
10
'5
E
0.8

'iii
E!
0
0.6,
a.
ni
-
s::
(1)
0.4 E
I!!
::s u
0
5 0.2
.E
0 0
a
10 100

100000 1000000 10000000
40 1.8
1.6
-
1.4

1.2 iii
0
..
0
a.
0.8 S
s::
0.6
(1)
E
I!!
0.4 u
.5
0.2
-
35
e
30

iii
25 0
...
0
a.
20
(1)
>
i
15
'5
E 10
::s
0
5
0 0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1000000
0
Pore diameter (A)
b
Figure 7-26- Effect ofbinder type on pore size distribution and overall porosity of sand
pastefill samples with 5 wt% binder SC (a), SCSS (b).
114
The effeets of binder type on pore size distribution as weIl as total porosity of
sand pastefill and slurry baekfill samples are, henee, suggested via the plots above. The
binders consist of sc (slaglcement) and SCSS (slag/cement/sodium silicate). With
regards to the experiments conducted, binder type strongly influences both overall
porosity and the pore size distribution of stabilized sampI es.
40
35

30

ii
25
e
0
Cl.
!!!
20

15
"3
E 10
:1
0
5
0
a
40
35
30

iii
25
e
0
Cl.
!!!
20
15
"3
E
10
::s
0
5
0
b
4.5
4
3.5
3

2.5
0
Cl.
2 S
c
1.5
CIl
E
e
I.l
.5
0.5
0
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1000000
0
Pore diameter (A)
-y----------------------..,. 3.5
t-------..

2.5

2 2-

1.5
CIl
+-----------------=-f_lllf_------.... I111_-----------'f 0.5
__ ----to
10 100
P
1000d. 1
t
OOOO) 100000 1000000 10000000
ore lame er (A
E
e
I.l
.5
Figure 7-27- Effeet of binder type on pore size distribution and overall porosity of slurry
backfill samples with 5 wt% binder SC (a), SCSS (b).
The MIP result indieates the sand pastefill specimen with SC binder (Figure
7-26a) is eharacterized by two distinct pore size distributions. Among these pore families,
the second pore size range of 1000 to 10 000 A, represented by the histogram's peak,
contributed most strongly to overall por:osity of the sand pastefill sample (28.05%). The
115
sample with SCSS binder (Figure 7-26b) has two different families of pore sizes.
Compared to SC binder results, the families of pore size are larger and vary between 1
000 and 100 000 A .Two pore size diameters are approximately 2 000 and 30 000 A and
the overall porosity is 34.31 %.
The MIP results indicate that slurry backfill specimens with SC binder (Figure 7-
27a) are characterized by one major pore size distribution. For this pore family, the pore
diameters vary between 10 000 and 100 000 A , contribute more to the overall porosity of
the slurry backfill sample (35.90%) and represents the peak of the plotted histogram. the
sample with SCSS binder (Figure 7-27b) has one family ofpore sizes, as weIl. The family
ofpore sizes is in the same'range (between 10 000 and 100000 A) comparable to samples
with SC binder type. The main pore size has an approximate 4 000 A diameter and
overall porosity of 34.49%. With regards to sand pastefill samples, SCSS binder has
negative effects on material microstructure. In contrast, slurry backfill samples made with
the SCSS binder have displayed improvements in microstructure through pore diameter
reduction.
Sand Pastefill and Slurry Backfill Materials
Among the samples that were broken during uniaxial compressive tests, two
samples from both sand pastefill and slurry backfill mixes (cured for 28 days and dried at
20 OC) were chosen for further mineralogy and microstructure investigations. These
enquiries were conducted oh samples with 7 wt% binder and 0.3 wt%(total dry weight)
sodium silicate (SCSS) binder or with slag/cement (SC). The sampi es were dried before
SEM and XRD analysis. This step accelerates the curing and results in formation of more
cementitious phases within the specimens. Samples can, thus, be considered as well-cured
sand pastefill and slurry backfill specimens upon investigation.
Figures 7-28 and 7-29 show selected BSE-SEM images from two sand pastefill
samples at different magnifications. Figure 7-28 illustrates the SEM images of a sand
116
pastefill sample that developed a compressive strength,. ues, of 3.03 MPa when made
with 7 wt% binder of type se (slag/cement). Figure 7-29 also displays the SEM iInages
for sand pastefill samples consisting of 7 wt<J/o binder (SCSS) with 2% sodium silicate.
The sand grains and cementitous phases between the sand grains are clearly visible.
Figures 7-28a and 7-29a show the windows that have been investigated.
Figure 7-28- SEM backscattered images of sand pastefill . at 7 wt% binder (SC).
117
Figure 7-29- SEM backscattered images of sand pastefill at 7 wt% binder (SeSS).
Figure 7-29 illustra tes the SEM images of sand pastefill samples that established a
compressive strength, ues, of 2.46 MPa. Figures 7-28b, c and 7-29b, c show the
magnified images of investigated widows. As tabulated in Table 7-6, spots 3 and 5 have
maximum concentrations of Na and Si, respectively. With regards to sand pastefill
samples with sess binder (Figure 7-29 and Table 7-7), spots 1 and 9 show the maximum
concentrations of Na and Si, respectively.
118
with 7 wt% SC binder

0 Na Al Si S K Ca Ti Cl Fe Cr Mg
(%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt)
Points
1 59.84 0.53 3.39 12.87 0.25 0.47 5.92 0.19 0.77 Il.79 1.78 2.15
2 58.66 1.51 3.54 21.03 0 0.38 11.02 0.39 2.22 .0.78 0 0.79
3 57.22 1.70 8.10 20.42 0 0.35 6.03 0.15 0.49 2.82 0.13 2.55
4 69.01 1.15 3.27 14.33 0.41 0.43 8.15 0.09 1.24 0.67 0.02 1.20
5 55.97 0.40 1.76 33.03 0.21 0.49 5.93 0.03 0.67 0.50 0.11 0.86
6 62.55 0.54 3.94 19.74 0.22 0.49 7.78 0.06 0.56 1.91 0.11 2.03
7 65.00 0.60 4.23 18.74 0.24 3.40 5.63 0.14 0.90 0.45 0.03 0.57
8 63.20 0.65 4.12 16.72 0.46 0.54 9.66 0.06 0.76 0.74 0.05 2.96
9 62.01 0.56 4.44 16.18 0.37 0.85 9.07 0.34 0.69 1.86 0.06 3.69
10 66.65 0.65 3.94 14.54 0.46 0.58 7.53 0.22 0.94 0.65 0.08 3.69
with 7 wt% SCSS binder
:s::
0 Na Al Si S K Ca Ti Cl Fe Cr Mg
(%wt) (%wt) (%wt). (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt)
Points
1 58.88 1.14 4.45 18.76 0.33 0.78 9.07 . 0.14 0.80
2.76 0 2.86
2 65.58 0.90 2.50 16.68 0.34 0.56 9.84 0.09 0.95 0.71 0 1.84
3 62.46 0.87 3.98 21.45 0.11 4.52 4.05 0.25 1.29 0.49 0 0.55
4 62.79 0.83 4.14 17.54 0.41 0.34 9.14 0.19 1.06 0.86 0 2.69
5 71.37 0.91 2.30 16.54 0.32 0.52 4.27 0 2.40 0.76 0 0.60
6 64.53 0.54 4.71 14.33 0.74 0.38 7.01 0.15 0.83 0.73 0.03 5.96
7 63.24 0.60 2.56 21.46 0.39 0.43 8.03 0.08 0.74 0.88 0.13 1.41
8 62.53 0.58 3.18 18.71 0.42 0.34 10.03 0.21 0.98 0.53 0.08 2.34
9 53.01 0.41 10.16 23.37 0.14 5.76 3.42 0.26 0.24 1.61 0 1.58
10 58.64 0.39 5.11 14.09 0.98 0.37 13.89 0.18 0.20 0.43 0.03 5.63
119
Figure 7-30- SEM backscattered images of slurry backfill :sample at 7 wt% binder (SC)
Figures 7-30 and 7-31 show sorne BSE-SEM images from two slurry backfill
samples at different magnifications. Figure 7-30 iIlustrates the SEM images of a slurry
backfill sam pIe that developed a compressive s t r n ~ ues, of 0.95 MPa at 7 wt%
binder type SC. 70 wt% pulp density and 28 days of curing. Figure 7-31 shows the SEM
images for a slurry backfill sample at 7 wt% binder (SeSS), 70 wt% pulp density and 28
days of curing, which developed a ues of 1.29 MPa. In bath cases, the taiIings grains
120
and cementitious phases are clearly observed. Figure 7-30a and 7-31a show the windows
that have been investigated.
Figure 7-31- SEM backscattered images of slurry backfill sample at 7 wt% binde.r
(SCSS).
The chemical compositions of areas that have been investigated are listed below.
As tabulated in Table 7-9, spot 2 bas the maximum concentrations of Na and Si.
121
Table 7-9- Mean EDS analyses of 10 spots on SEM-BSE images of slurry backfill sample
at 7 wt% SC binder,70 wt% pulp density and 28 days of curing.
:s:
0 Na Al Si S K Ca Ti Cl Fe Mg
Points
1 65.51 0.78 4.40 13.48 1.55 0.48 7.38 NA 1.88 3.09 1.40
2 56.65 2.39 6.91 21.20 0.32 0.41 5.75 NA 0.92 3.74 1.66
3 62.92 0.83 4.35 14.76 0.37 0.56 10.33 NA 1.10 2.23 2.51
4 61.76 0.57 3.02 23.63 0.39 0.39 3.97 NA 1.77 3.24 1.21
5 62.98 0.82 5.01 14.90 0.44 0.27 2.88 NA 3.06 7.20 2.40
6 58.91 0.27 8.44 10.54 2.13 0.36 4.56 NA 0.46 1.59 12.37
7 59.53 0.65 6.14 13.56 1.14 0.48 7.60 NA 0.75 2.65 7.21
8 64.58 0.62 4.74 13.63 0.78 0.41 8.39 NA 1.00 1.85 3.54
9 61.01 0.50 3.93 15.76 0.40 0.62 10.76 NA 1.08 2.67 3.12
10 61.12 0.41 4.05 14.63 2.23 0.55 9.88 NA 1.23 3.39 2.27
Table 7-10- Mean EDS analyses of 10 spots on SEM-BSE images of slurry backfill
sample at 7 wt% SCSS binder,70 wt% pulp density and 28 days of curing.
:s:
0 Na Al Si S K Ca Ti Cl Fe Mg
Points
1 67.25 1.01 4.09 14.90 0.42 0.61 4.02 0 2.85 3.35 1.44
2 68.91 0.66 3.87 15.33 0.20 0.33 3.59 0 2.39 3.48 1.18
3 56.41 0.70 5.88 16.08 1.05 0.56 6.23 0 0.95 9.54 2.56
4 56.11 3.45 9.83 22.25 0.14 1.41 4.14 0 0.22 1.82 0.57
5 50.85 1.86 4.90 15.04 0.25 0.35 Il.20 4.58 0.85 8.57 1.50
6 67.96 0.68 4.14 13.70 0.67 0.66 6.99 0 1.00 2.89 1.27
7 21.84 1.48 8.42 29.71 1.50 1.87 17.99 0.52 3.18 9.00 4.42
8 50.23 0.32 5.14 15.98 1.11 0.37 18.88 0.30 0.16 1.06 6.38
9 28.78 1.31 7.32 27.33 2.50 0.83 17.45 0.47 2.38 7.40 4.17
10 46.24 1.20 6.40 20.90 1.49 1.34 9.84 0.26 1.31 6.51 4.47
122
Areas 4 and 7 show the maximum concentration of Na and Si, respectively with
regard to the slurry backfill samples with SCSS binder (Figure 7-31 and Table 7-9).
For further investigations on these samples, sorne XRD tests were conducted. As
with the EDS test and due to complications regarding precision of the punctual probe,
XRD analysis is restricted to detecting crystallized phases only. The cementitious phases
that are amorphous, hence, cannot be identified or quantified with XRD. The mineraIs
identified by XRD in slurry backfill and sand pastefill samples are listed in Tables 7-11
and 7-12, respectively. As shown in the table below, no hydrated phases are
distinguishable in the cemented material. The phases can, thus, be assumed to be
amorphous and/or of very low grade.
Table 7-11- Detailed XRD data analyses and quantification results obtained for slurry
backfill samples made of SC and SCSS binder.
Sample (%)
MineraIs Formula
SC
SCSS
Quartz Si0
2
15.77 23.18
Albite NaAIShOs 14.99 16.81
Calcite CaC03 10.12 6.30
Muscovite FCJ\13Si30 1o(OII)2 2.76 2.14
Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe+2)sSis022(OII)2 9.45 7.52
Anorthite CaAhSiOs 24.21 17.87
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 0.84 0.22
K2(
Fe
2.786
M
g2.321 Tio.sso)
Biotite
(Ah.413Sis.s870 2o)(OII)4
13.17 10.34
Pyrrhotite Fe7SS 1.91 3.77
Ca2Alo.93F eo.osAI
Epidote
Alo.24Feo.76Si30131I
0.84 1.24
Cholorite Mg
2
Ah(ShAI)OlO(O)8
6.30 . 10.62
123
Table 7-12- Detailed XRD data analyses and quantification results obtained for sand
pastefill samples made of SC and SCSS binder.
Sample (%)
MineraIs
Formula
SC SCSS
Quartz Si0
2
57.90 47.53
Albite NaAIShOg 17.58 23.98
Calcite CaC0 3 1.61 2.09
Muscovite KAhShOlO(OH)2 6.99 9.75
Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe+2)sSig022(OH)2 0.84 1.11
Rhodochrosite MnC03 0.10 0.10
Anorthite CaAhSi0
2
0
8
2.92 5.01
Chlorite (Mg,AI)6(Si,AI)40 1o(OH)8 3.47 2.07
Microcline KAISh0 8 8.59 8.35
7-2-3- Rate and Amount of Released Water
In order to investigate the effect of sodium silicate on amount and rate of water
release, the water in 12 mixed samples was collected and monitored for 60 minutes.
Figure 7-32 shows the rate and amount of water release for sand pastefill samples at 7
wt% binder (type SC and SCSS) and, pulp densities of 81, 83 and 85 wt%. Although the
general trend of water release is similar for aIl samples tested, the rate and amount of
water released for samples with SC binder is higher than ones that were made with SCSS
binder. An overall commonality exists between all samples in that the major portion of
water release was within the first 30 minute interval. Following this initial release, the
rate ofwater loss becomes roughly constant.
Figure 7-33 displays the results ofwater release tests for slurry backfill samples at
7 wt% binder (SC and SCSS) and 68, 70 and 72 wt% pulp densities. Due to their higher
water content, slurry backfill samples release more water than sand pastefill samples.
AIthough the trend of water release in sand pastefill and slurry backfill samples is similar,
124
the rate of water release in slurry backfill samples is higher than in pastefill samples.
After 30 minutes, the rate ofwater re1ease for slurry backfill samples becomes constant.

60+--------------------------------= __
_
40
-m 30 t
;: 20
10
O+-__
o 10 20
--SC-81
-SCSS-83
30 40
Time(minutes)

--+-SC-85
50 60
--SC-83

70
Figure 7-32- Rate and amount ofwater re1ease for sand pastefill samples at 7 wt% binder
(SC and SCSS), and 81,83 and 85 wt% pulp density.
180
160
140
_ 120
100
-m 80
;: 60
40
20
o
o

10
-'"
fi"

___
#f/
-
-

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-+-SC-68 -10- SCSS-68 -*-SC-70
-+-SCSS-70 -SC-72 __ SCSS-72
Figure 7-33- Rate and amount ofwater re1ease for slurry backfill samples at 7 wt% binder
(SC and SCSS), and 68, 70 and 72 wt% pulp density.
125
CHAPTER 8 - CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK
8-1- Conclusions
The preceding thesis has evaluated use of sodium silicate as a partial replacement
for cement in stabilised backfill. In order to compare sodium silicate-fortified binders and
sI ag/cement types, the thesis has focused on strength properties of the backfills. The
thesis demonstrated that a wide range of binders containing sodium silicate can produce
the strength specification of 1 MPa. The abovementioned research also confirmed that the
strength of sodium silicate-fortified backfills is influenced by:
Mixing time .
Mixing order
Binder dose
Binder type
Proportion of sodium silicate in binder
Pulp density of the mixture
Curing time
Backfill type (slurry and paste backfill)
Individualized testing is, therefore, required at each specific mine site in order to
determine the optimum amount of sodium silicate required in targeting a desired strength.
Mixing time and adding order play crucial roles in strength development of sand
pastefill. Regardless of binder type applied, the 8-minute mixing time has a unanimous
negative influence on sand pastefill's strength. It. appears, therefore, that the length of
mixing time prior to transportation must be carefully controlled. Furthermore, the role of
ingredient adding order is also of utmost importance for strength acquisition of sand
pastefill samples. Adding order trials revealed that adding order 1 produced higher
strength than adding order 2.
126
Strength development of sand pastefill is directly related to the type and amount
of binder applied, as weIl as the concentration of sodium silicate in the mix. In this regard
it can be concluded that:
Sand pastefill cannot reach desired strengths within 28 days of curing without
cement (SSS binder). In contrast, SCSS binder is able to gain necessary strength within
28 days of curing. The latter ccimbination of binder components, compared with cement,
would therefore provide a more rapid mining cycle.
. In regards to long-term examination, sodium silicate of adequate concentration
has beneficial influences on strength development. Sand pastefills made with sodium
silicate-fortified binder develop higher strength after 56 days of curing than those
composed of binders without sodium silicate.
Finding the adequate amount of sodium silicate presents a considerable challenge
because; first, sodium silicate is much more expensive than cement and second, testing
concerning effects of sodium silicate percentages revealed that sand pastefill samples
with both 4% (total binder weight) and 0.3 wt% (total dry weight), have less strength
values compared with sand pastefill samples made of 2 % (total binder weight) sodium
silicate. Results also exposed that, in order to take advantage of valuable influences of
sodium silicate, 2% cement content (total binder weight) is required.
X-ray diffraction testing is not an adequate method to use for' detection of
cementitious phases within backfill samples. Amorphous structures of the binding matrix
within tailing grains and/or the amount of cementitious phases in a detected sample may
explain th XRD diffraction testing's irrelevance. The SEM-EDS analysis was performed
to provide sorne information about chemical composition of binding phases. Among the
samples that were studied with both SEM-EDS and XRD, SEM was proven to be highly
more effective than XRD in terms of cementitious phase' s identification.
The elastic modulus of sand pastefills and slurry backfills made with sodium silic-
127
ate demonstrate conflicting trends. The elastic modulus of sand pastefiIl samFlles made
with sc binder is higher than corresponding samples made with SCSS binder. In contrast,
slurry backfill samples made with sc binder exhibit an elastic modulus smaller than
samples containing SCSS binder.
The strength of slurry backfiIl samples is highly affected by the presence of
sodium silicate. Regardless of pulp density and binder dose, slurry backfill samples with
sodium silicate develbp higher strength values compared to those generated by slag-based
backfiIls when the specimens undergo 28 days of curing. Slurry backfill samples with
sodium silicate would, therefore, pro vide il faster mine cycle.
Porosity can significantly affect the strength of silicate-fortified backfiIls. Results
from MIP tests indicate that, for sand pastefiIl, an increase in the concentration of sodium
silicate can result in a higher porosity and pore size. In contrast, upon considering slurry
backfiIl, the presence of sodium silicate pro duces lower porosity and pore size.
Testing concemmg the amount and rate of water release demonstrated that
backfiIl mixtures made with sodium silicate have lower rates of water release relative to
un-fortified slag-based samples. AIl backfill samples underwent most water release within
the [Ifst 30 minutes. After this interval, the rate of water release of slurry backfiIl samples
reached a constant rate, but remained high for sand pastefiIl samples. AIl backfill samples
made with sodium silicate released less water, compared to slag-based samples.
Backfilling with sodium silicate would, thus, provide savings in drainage costs.
The use of sodium silicate as a backfill binder or additive is a relatively new
concept. Results from this research endeavour indicate that backfiIls with sodium silicate
can produce the strength required to allow more extensive and rapid mining to develop
around a mining area. Several applications of the technique, however, require further
investigation prior to any final conclusions being drawn. The main factor goveming use
of sodium silicate as a binding agent or additive is an economic one, in terms of
shortening the mine cycle and simultaneously reducing cement requirements.
128
8-2- Further Work
In order to provide a more comprehensive understanding of sodium silicate's role
as a backfill binder or additive, further work should include:
1. In this thesis, a wide range of variables affecting the performance of minefill has
been investigated. However, in order to exp Iain the differences in mechanical
behaviours on minefill materials govemed by different variables, an in depth
chemical investigation seeIi1s to be required .To gain a better understanding of
different stages of hydration process within the backfill material.
2. Additional analysis conceming the strength and related properties of silicate-
fortified backfills cured at temperatures between 20 to 35 oC, and humidities
between 70 to 100%.
3. Investigations into the effect of grading on strength behavior and microstructure
of stabilized backfill containing sodium silicate. Furthermore, the effect of
oxidized tailings on the mechanical behaviour of silicate-fortified backfill should
also be studied.
4. In order to validate the performance of silicate-containing samples, in-situ
specimens should be obtained from stopes (lumps, or preferably cores drilled from
a filled stope) so as to evaluate their physical and mechanical properties. These
results would be compared with the previously discussed laboratory work.
5. An investigation into effects of sodium silicate on the flotation process is required.
Simulation of dilution should, hence be conducted within a lab environment.
6. In the case of sulphide-rich tailings, further research into capabilities of sodium
silicate to retain sulphides, stabilize heavy metals and prevent acid mine drainage
would be required.
129
REFERENCES
AI-Harthy, A.S., Taha, R., Abu-Ashour, AI-Jabri, K, AI-Oraimi, S., 2005. Effect ofwater
quality on the strength of flowable fill mixtures. Cement and Concrete Composites 27,
33-39.
Amaratunga, L. M. and Annor, A., 1989. A concept of agglomeration of fine mill tailings
for backfill and preliminary experimental studies. Tailings and effluent management. 229-
238. (The hydrometallurgical Society ofCIM).
Amaratunga, L.M., 1995. Cold-bond agglomeration of reactive pyrrhotite tailings for
backfill using low cost binders: gypsum and cement. Minrals
Engineering. 8(12), 1455-1465.
Amaratunga, L. M. and Hmidi, N., 1997. Cold-bond agglomeration of gold mill tailings
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Johannesburg, South Africa. 169-172. (Johannesburg: SAIMM)
Vickery, J.D. and Boldt, C.M.K., 1989. Total tailings backfill properties and pumping, in
Proceedings: Fourth International Symposium, Innovations in Mining with Backfill,
Montreal, Canada, Publication, A.A. Balmema, pp. 275-278.
Wang, S.D., Scrivener, K.L., Pratt, P.L., 1994. Factors affecting the strength of alkali-
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Weaver, W.S. and Luka, R., 1970. Laboratory studies of cemented-stabilized mine
tailings, CIM Bulletin, VoI6J, No. 701, pp.988-IOO1.
Wilson, J.e., 1979. Fill technology in underground metalliferous mmes. Foreword.
(Ontario: International Academic Services Ltd.)
Wingrove, A.C., 1993. The Tailings-Aggregate Backfilling Project at South-Deep Mine.
In: Minefill 93, proceeding of the fifth international symposium on mining with backfill,
held in Johannesburg. Glen H.W., ed. Johannesburg: South African IMM, pp. 275-288.
Wittreich, e.D., 1988. Analysis of fiber reinforcement in cemented backfill. Min. Eng.
Apri1.259-262.
Yu, T.R and Counter, D.B., 1983. Backfill practice and technology at Kidd Creek Mines.
CIM - Bulletin. August. 56-65.
Yu, T.R, and Counter, D.B., 1986. Use of fly ash in baekfill at Kidd Creek Mines, in:
88
th
Annual General Meeting of CIM, held in Montreal.
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Bulletin, Vol 81, No. 909, pp.44-50.
141
Yu, T.R., 1989. Sorne factors relating to the stability of consolidated rockfill at Kidd
Creek, Innovations in Mining Backfill Technology, Hassani et al. (eds), Balkerna,
Rotterdam, pp. 279-286.
Zhou, H., Wu, X., Xu, Z., Tang, M., 1993. Kinetic study on hydration of alkali activated
slag, Cern. Concr. Res. 23 (6), 1253- 1258.
142
Label A: Garson Sand. Mag.X200. 15keV
c
-+>-
w o
AI
LOO 2.00 3.00
D:\Hassani\Mehdi\2005-11-30\Garson sand Mag200 15keV.spc
Fe
4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
Figure A 1-1- SEM spectrum of Garson sand (Tl)
9.00 10.00

S<

1
\J).

(j
1-3

o

2

\J).

\J).

\J).
1-3

......

Label A: Garson Sand. Mag.x200. 15keV
c
o
AI
1.00 2.00 3.00
D:\Hassani\Mehdi\2005-11-30\Garson sand Mag200 15keV.spc
Ca
Fe
4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
Figure A 1-1- SEM spectrum of Garson sand (Tl)
9.00 10.OU
>

tr1

S<

1
rJ1

tr1
Cl

o

Cl
rJ1

rJ1
tr1

rJ1

.....

VI
D:\Hassani\Mehdi\2005-11-30\Creighton tailings Mag200 15keV.spc
Label A: Creighton Tailings. Mag.X:WO. 15keV
Si
o
AI
Fe
._ ......
LOO 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 1.00 8.00 9.00 10.on
Figure A 2-1- SEM spectrum of Creighton tailings (T2)
......
..J::.
0',
APPENDIX 2 - RECIPES AND USC VALUES OF PHASE 1 AND II OF STUDY
Table A 2-1- Recipes and Des values for sand pastefill samples after 28 days of curing.(Phase I)
Sample #
Pulp density Mixing Adding
Binder (wt%)
Binder proportion(%B)
(wt%) time(min) order Cement Slag Sodium silicate
1 83 5 1 7 100 0 0
2 83 5 1 7 98 0 2
3 83 5 1 7 9 89 2
4 83 5 1 7 0 98 2
5 83 5 1 7 10 90 0
6 83 5 2 7 100 0 0
7 83 5 2 7 98 0 2
8 83 5 2 7 9 89 2
9 83 5 2 7 0 ~ L . __ 2
10 83 8 1 7 100 0 0
11 83 8 1 7 98 0 2
12 83 8 1 7 9 89 2
13 83 8 1 7 0 98 2
14 83 8 1 7 10 90 0
15 83 8 2 7 100 0 0
16 83 8 2 7 98 0 2
17 83 8 2 7 9 89 2
18 83 8 2 7 0 98 2
19 83 5 1 7 96 0 4
20 83 5 1 7 8 88 4
21 83 5 1 7 0 96 4
22 83 5 2 7 96 0 4
23 83 5 2 7 8 88 4
24 83 5 2 7 0 96 4
25 83 8 1 7 96 0 4
26 83
~
1 7 8 88 4
- -- -
W=wet
UCS(Mpa)
1.44
1.42
3.19
W
3.16
1.42
1.4
3.05
w
------
1.33
1.4
3.02
W
3.06
1.3
1.39
2.87
W
1.36
3.09
W
1.3
2.96
W
1.32
3
......
.j:::..
-....l
Table A 2-1- Recipes and DeS values for sand pastefill samples after 28 days of curing continued. (Phase 1)
" Pulp density ,- Mixing 1 Adding l Binder ,-- --I3iildefproportion(%B) 1 UCS(M a)
1 Sample # (wt%) 1 time(min) 1 order 1 (wt%) 1 Cement 1 Slag 1 Sodium silicate 1 p
1 27 83 1 8 1 1 7 1 0 1 96 l ' 4 1 w
1 28 83 1 8 1 2 1 7 1 96 1 0 1 4 1 1.27
1 29 83 1 8 1 2 1 7 1 8 1 88 1 4 1 2.8
1 30 83 1 8 1 2 1 7 1 0 1 96 1 4 1 w
,- 31- r- ""83 5TI " -9 _ ..... - 0 0 2.44
1 32 83 5 1 1 1 9 98 0 2 2.4
1 33 83 5 1 1 9 9 89 2 4
1 34 83 5 1 1 9 0 98 2 W
1 35 83 5 1 1 9 10 90 0 3.665
1 36 83 5 1 2 1 9 100 0 0 2.4
1 37 83 5 1 2 1 9 98 0 2 2.38
1 38 83 5 1 2 1 9 9 89 2 3.53
1 39 83 5 1 2 1 9 0 98 2 W
,- "--8- - 0 0
41 83 8 9 98 0 2 2.29 1
42 83 8 1 9 9 89 2 3.95 1
43 83 8 1 9 0 98 2 W 1
44 83 8 9 10 90 0 3.485 1
45 83 8 2 9 100 0 0 2.33 1
46 83 8 2 9 98 0 2 2.24 1
47 83 8 2 9 9 89 2 3.45 1
48 83 8 2 9 0 98 2 W 1
l' 49 83 5'1'-9 '-T- 96'----0- '-T- 41 2.39 l
1 50 83 5 1 9 1 8 1 88 1 4 1 3.92 1
1 51 83 5 1 1 9 l ' 0 1 96 1 4 1 W 1
1 52 83 5 2 1 9 1 96 1 0 . 1 4 1 2.26 1
.......

00
Table A 2-1- Recipes and ues values for sand pastefill samples after 28 days of curing continued. (Phase 1)
Sample #
Pulp density Mixing Adding Binder Binder proportion(%B)
(wt%) time(min) order (wt%) Cement Slag
53 83 5 2 9 8 88
54 83 5 2 9 0
L----- __ 96
------
55 83 8 1 9 96 0
56 83 8 1 9 8 88
57 83 8 1 9 0 96
58 83 8 2 9 96 0
59 83 8 2 9 8 88
60 83 8 2 9 0 96
61 80 5 1 7 100 0
62 80 5 1 7 98 0
63 80 5 1 7 9 89
64 80 5 1 7 0 98
65 80 5 1 7 10 90
66 80 5 2 7 100 0
67 80 5 2 7 98 0
68 80 5 2 7 9 89
69 80 5 2 7 0 98
70 80 8 1 7 100 0
71 80 8 1 7 98 0
72 80 8 1 7 9 89
73
'80
8 1 7 0 98
74 80 8 1 7 10 90
75 80 . 8 2 7 100 0
76 80 8 2 7 98 0
77 80 8 2 7 9 89
78 80 8 2 7 0 98
---- --- -- ---
Sodium silicate
UCS(Mpa)
4 3.47
4 W
4 2.19
4 3.9
4 W
4 2.18
4 3.39
4 W
0 1.35
2 1.3
2 2.72
2 W
0 2.97
0 1.37
2 1.27
2 2.6
2 W
0 1.42
2 1.37
2 2.61
2 W
0 2.745
0 1.4
2 1.33
2 2.58
2 W
,.....
..j:::..
\0
Table A 2-1- Recipes and DeS values for sand pastefill days of curing continued. (Phase I)
Sample #
Binder (wt<>/o)
Binder proportion (%B)
79 80 5 1 7 96 . 0 4
80 80 5 1 7 8 88 4
81 80 5 1 7 0 96 4
82 80 5 2 7 96 0 4
83 89 5 2 7 8 88 4
84 80 5 2 7 0 96
_'- ____ -.i_ -_ ..... _- -- --- -- - --- -- -----------_ .. -
85 80 8 1 7 96 0 4
86 80 8 1 7 8 88 4
87 80 8 1 7 0 96 4
88 80 8 2 7 96 0 4
89 80 8 2 7 8 88 4
90 80 8 2 7 0 96 4
91 80 5 1 9 100 0 0
92 80 5 1 9 98 0 2
93 80 5 1 9 9 89 2
94 80 5 1 9 0 98 2
95 80 5 1 9 10 90 0
96 80 5 2 9 100 0 0
97 80 5 2 9 98 0 2
98 80 5 2 9 9 89 2
99 80 5 2 9 0 98 2
100 80 8 1 9 100 0 0
101 80 8 1 9 98 0 2
102 80 8 1 9 9 89 2
103 80 8 1 9 0 98 2
104 80 8 1 9 10 90 0
105 80 8 2 9 100 0 0
106 80 8 2 9 98 0 2
UCS(Mpa)
1.25
2.68
W
1.18
2.52
w
_ .. _-
1.19
2.56
W
1.11
2.49
W
2.43
2.11
3.17
W
3.07
2.37
2.05
3.1
W
2.07
1.84
3.08
W
2.72
2
1.75
......
Vl
o
Samp1e#
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
~
Pulp density
(wfOlo)
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
83
83
83
83
80
80
80
80
83
83
83
83
Mixing
time(min)
8
8
5
5
5
5
5
5
_._._--
8
8
8
8
8
8
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
~ ~ .
Adding Binder
order (wt%)
2 9
2 9
1 9
1 9
1 9
2 9
2 9
2 9
- -- ~ -
1 9
1 9
1 9
2 9
2 9
2 9
1 5
1 5
1 5
1 5
...
1 5
1 5
1 5
1 5
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
-
,
UCS(Mpa)
Cement Slag Sodium silicate
9 89 2 3
0 98 2 W
96 0 4 2.05
8 88 4 3.14
0 96 4 W
96 0 4 2
8 88 4 3.02
0 96 4 Vi
-- ~ -
96 0 4 1.78 _
8 88 4 2.97
0 96 4 W
96 0 4 1.71
8 88 4 2.92
0 96 4 W
--
100 0 0 1.22
90 10 0 2.37
9 89 2 2.07
2 96 2 2.90
-- - ---_.- --- - _ ..._- -
100 0 0 0.88
90 10 0 1.89
9 89 2 1.93
2 96 2 2.12
100 0 0 0.66
90 10 0 1.47
9 89 2 1.25
2 96 2 0.84
Sam le # Pulp density 1 M i x i n ~ 1 Addh;.g 1-. Binder- r- - .... - Binderproportion (%B) UCS(M a)
p (wt%) 1 bme(mm) 1 order 1 (wt%) 1 Cement 1 Slag . Sodium silicate p
133 80 1 5 1 1 1 3 1 100 1 0 0 0.55
134 80 1 5 1 1 1 3 1 90 1 10 0 1.19
135 80 1 5 1 1 3 1 9 1 89 2 1.16
136 80 1 5 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 96 2 0.63
......
V1
......
......
Ul
N
Table A 2-2- Recipes and DeS values for sand pastefill samples after 56 days of curing. (Phase 1)
Sample #
Binder (wt%)
UCS(Mpa)
1 83 5 1 7 100 0 0 1.69
2 83 5 1 7 98 0 2 1.54
.
3 83 5 1 7 9 89 2 3.24
4 83 5 1 7 0 98 2 4.68
5 83 5 1 7 10 90 0 3.94
:
6 83 5 2 7 100 0 0 1.55
7 83 5 2 7 98 0 2 1.51
8 83 5 2 7 9 89 2 3.08
9 83
--
5 2 _7 __ __ _ 0 98
------
_ ~ ____ 2
4.62
----- --- -- - -- ---- -- ------
10 ~ 83 8 1 7 100 0 0 1.6
11 83 8 1 7 98 0 2 1.47
12 83 8 1 7 9 89 2 3.09
13 83 8 1 7 0 98 2 4.64
14 83 8 1 7 10 90 0 3.77
15 83 8 2 7 100 0 0 1.52
16 83 8 2 7 98 0 2 1.35
17 83 8 2 7 9 89 2 3.05
18__ 8 _ ~ ~ _L__ __ 8 ____ 2 _______ 7 ____ __ 0 _ ___ _98 ___ _ ___ 2_____ _ 4.49
19 83 5 1 -- 7 96 0 4 1.51
20 83 5 1 7 8 88 4 3.13
21 83 5 1 7 0 96 4 4.54
22 83 5 2 7 96 0 4 1.47
23 83 5 2 7 8 88 4 3
24 83 5 2 7 0 96 4 4.55
--- --
25 83 8 1 7 96 0 4 1.45--J
26 83 8 1 7 8 88 4 3
>-'
Vl
W
Table A 2-2- R . dues values fi

Samp1e #
Pu1p density Mixing
(wt%) , time(min)
27 83 8
28 83 8
29 83 8
30 83 8
31 83 5
32 83 5
33 83 5
34 83 5
35 83 5
36 83 5
37 83 5
38 83 5
39 83 5
40 83 8
41 83 8
42 83 8
43 83 8
44 83 8
45 83 8
46 83 8
47 83 8
48 83 8
49 83 5
50 83 5
51 83 5
52 83 5
d oastefill after 56 d
~
Adding Binder
order (wt%)
1 7
2 7
2 7
2 7
1 9
1 9
1 . 9
1 9
1 9
2 9
2 9
2 9
2 9
1 9
1 9
1 9
1 9
1 9
2 9
2 9
2 9
2 9
1 9
1 9
1 9
2 9
f tinued. (Phase 1)

UCS(Mpa)
0 96 4 4.42
96 0 4 1.31
8 88 4 2.9
0 96 4 4.48
--~ -_.- _._- -_ .. -
100 0 0 2.54
98 0 2 2.44
9 89 2 4.44
0 98 2 5.94
10 90 0 4.61
100 0 0 2.47
98 0 2 2.3
9 89 2 3.95
0 98
------ ~
5.82
---- ---- -- ~ _ . ~
100 0 0 2.39
98 0 2 2.4
9 89 2 3.96
0 98 2 5.78
10 90 0 4.24
100 0 0 2.33
98 0 2 2.26
9 89 2 3.76
0 98 2 5.76
96 0 4 2.38
8 88 4 4.15
0 96 4 5.91
96 0 4 2.12
.......
v-.
.j:;:.
1- Samole # PUIpdensi.iY--IM1Xillii Binder Binder propOrtlOn(%B) UCS(Mpa)

1

1
omer
1

1
Cement
1
Slag 1 Sodium silicate
53 83
1
5
1
2 - 1 9
1
8
1
88
1
4 3.8
54 83
1
5
1
2
1
9
1
0 96 4 5.51
------
55 83 8 1 9 96 0 4 2.36
56 83 8 1 9 8 88 4 3.78
57 83 8 1 9 0 96
-4
5.53
58 83 8 2 9 96 0 4 2.08
59 83 8 2 9 8 88 4 3.66
60 83 8 2 9 0 96 4 5.48
-------- -- -------- - ---- ---- ---
61 80 5 1 7 100 0 0 1.47
62 80 5 1 7 98 0 2 1.49
63 80 5 1 7 9 89 2 3.03
64 80 5 1 7 0 98 2 4.6
65 80 5 1 7 10 90 0 3.19
66 80 5 2 7 100 0 0 1.38
67 80 5 2 7 98 0 2 1.47
68 80 5 2 7 9 89 2 2.97
69 80 5 2 7 0 98 2 4.55
------ -- --- -- _ .. _-- -- -- ---
70 80 8 1 7 100 0 0 1.42
71 80 8 1 7 98 0 2 1.44
72 80 8 1 7 9 89 2 2.95
73 80 8 1 7 0 98 2 4.54
74 80 8 1 7 10 90 0 2.97
75 80 8 2 7 100 0 0 1.34
76 80 8 2 7 98 0 2 1.39
77 80 8 2 7 9 89 2 2.85
78 80 8 2 7 0 98 2 4.44
------
,
1
,
,
1
-
1
i
.......
VI
VI
Table A 2-2- Recipes and DeS values for sandpastefill samples after 56 days of cUfing continued. (phase 1)
Sample#
Binder (wt%)
(wt%) tirne(min) order Cement Slag
79 80 5 1 7 96 0
80 80 5 1 7 8 88
81 80 5 1 7 0 96
82 80 5 2 7 96 0
83 80 5 2 7 8 88
84 80 5 2 7 0 96
85 80 8 1 7 96 0
86 80 8 1 7 8 88
87 80 8 1 7 0 96
88 80 8 2 7 96 0
89 80 8 2 7 8 88
90 80 8 2 7 0 96
91 80 5 1 9 100 0
92 80 5 1 9 98 0
93 80 5 1 9 9 89
94 80 5 1 9 0 98
95 80 5 1 9 10 90
96 80 5 2 9 100 0
97 80 5 2 9 98 0
98 80 5 2 9 9 89
99 80 5 2 9 0 98
100 80 8 1 9 100 0
101 80 8 1 9 98 0
102 80 8 1 9 9 89
103 80 8 1 9 0 98
10 80 8 1 9 10 90
105 80 8 2 9 100 0
106 80 8 2 9 98 0
Sodium silicate
UCS(Mpa)
4 1.44
4 3
4 4.56
4 1.33
4 2.91
4.5
4 1.4
4 2.93
4 4.43
4 1.28
4 2.83
4 4.43
0 2.49
2 2.33
2 3.8
2 5.37
0 3.61
0 2.37
2 2.27
2 3.69
2 5.27
0 2.45
2 2.28
2 3.76
2 5.24
0 3.21
0 2.31
2 2.19
-
v..
0\
Table A 2-2- R, .

dues values fc
Sample #
Pulp density Mixing
(wt%) time(min)
107 80 8
108 80 8
109 80 5
110 80 5
111 80 5
112 80 5
113 80 5
114 80 5
--_ .. -
115 80 8
116 80 8
117 80 8
118 80 8
119 80 8
~ _ 1 2 0 80 8
121 83 5
122 83 5
123 83 5
124 83 5
---- -------------- -----
125 80 5
126 80 5
127 80 5
128 80 5
129 83 5
130 83 5
131 83 5
132 83 5
d oastefill les after 56 d

-
Adding Binder
order (wt%)
2 9
2 9
1 9
1 9
1 9
2 9
2 9
__ 2 _
~ - ~ ..
1 9
1 9
1 9
2 9
2 9
2 9
1 5
1 5
1 5
1 5
-----
1 5
1 5
1 5
1 5
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
f tinued. (Phase 1)

Binder prol'ortion(%B)
UCS(Mpa)
9 89 2 3.64
0 98 2 5.15
96 0 4 2.3
1
8 88 4 3.77 1
0 96 4 5.3 i
96 0 4 2.24
1
8 88 4 3.54
1
0
-
L-___
96 4 5.19
1 ------ --- --------- ----------- -
96 0 4 2.21
8 88 4 3.71
0 96 4 5.18
96 0 4 2.15
8 88 4 3.49
0 96 4 5.1
100 0 0 1.44
90 10 0 2.96
9 89 2 2.50
2 96 2 3.57
100 0 0 1.16
90 10 0 2.83
9 89 2 2.31
2 96 2 3.01
100 0 0 0.69
90 10 0 1.76
9 89 2 1.59
2 96 2 2.37
-V1
-.....)
Table A 2-2- Recipes and ues values for sand pastefill samples after 56 days of curing continued.(Phase 1)
-
SampIe#
(wt%) time(min) order (wt%) Cement Slag
133 80 5 1 3 100 0
134 80 5 1 3 90 10
135 80 5 1 3 9 89
136 80 5 1 3 2 96
Sodium silicate
UCS(Mpa)
0 0.57
0 1.47
2 1.51
2 2.02
.......
Vi
00
Table A 2-3- Recipes and ues values for sand pastefill samples after 120 days of curing. (Phase 1)
ISarnole# Pulpdensity Mixing Binder(wt%) " _______ L 1 CL"um _,,'uL UCS(Mpa)
1
.
1
twt"/o)
1
llmetmm)
1
oroer L-emenl
1
>:Itag 1 >:IOOlUffi SlHca
1 1
1 83 5 1 7 100 0 0 2.51
2 83 5 1 7 98 0 2 2.44
3 83 5 1 7 9 89 2 4.63
4 83 5 1 7 0 98 2 6.83
5 83 5 1 7 10 90 0 4.79
6 83 5 2 7 100 0 0 2.44
7 83 5 2 7 98 0 2 2.24
8 83 5 2 7 9 89 2 4.57
9 83 5 2 7 0 98 2 6.02
10 83 8 1 7 100 0 0 2.16
Il 83 8 1 7 98 0 2 2.3
12 83 8 1 7 9 89 2 4.47
13 83 8 1 7 0 98 2 6.63
14 83 8 1 7 10 90 0 4.22
15 83 8 2 7 100 0 0 2.08
16 83 8 2 7 98 0 2 2.12
17 83 8 2 7 9 89 2 4.46
1-8 83 8 2 7 0 98 2 5.66
r- r- 5- -T T 7- 1 -6- -- 1 4 2.35
1 20 ! 83 1 5 1 1 7 1 8 ! 88 ! 4 4.55
21 83 5 7 0 96' 4 6.73
--- - - -
22 83 5 2 7 96 0 4 2.14
23 83 5 2 7 8 88 4 4.52
24 83 5 2 7 0 96 4 5.92
25 83 8 7 96 0 4 2.li-J
26 83 8 7 8 88 4 3.65
........
VI
1,0
Table A 2-3- R, . cl ues values D cl oastefill

Sample#
(wt%) time(min) order
27 83 8 1
28 83 8 2
29 83 8 2
30
... _____ 8L_
--- -- ~ --
2
--
31 83 5 1
32 83 5 1
33 83 5 1
34 83 5 1
35 83 5 1
36 83 5 2
37 83 5 2
38 83 5 2
39 83 5 2
40 83 8 1
41 83 8 1
42 83 8 1
43 83 8 1
44 83 8 1
45 83 8 2
46 83 8 2
47 83 8 2
48 83 8 2
49 83 5 1
50 83 5 1
51 83 5 1
52 83 5 2
- - - --- --------
.fier 120 cl

Binder
(wt%)
7
7
7
7
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
f tinuecl. (Phase 1)
-
~
UCS(Mpa)
0 96 4 6.27
96 0 4 2.02
8 88 4 3.63
0 96 4 5.39
100 0 0 3.48
98 0 2 3.38
9 89 2 5.74
1
0 98 2 9.87
10 90 0 4.82
100 0 0 3.45
98 0 2 3.31
9 89 2 5.59
0 98 2 9.74
__ o. __
-----
100 0 0 3.46
98 0 2 3.25
9 89 2 5.71
0 98 2 9.45
10 90 0 4.58
100 0 0 3.4
98 0 2 3.21
9 89 2 5.57
0 98 2 9.25
96 0 4 3.27
8 88 4 5.66
0 96 4 9.76
96 0 4 3.24
.....
0\
o
--- ----- _... --- -
S 1 # Pulp density Mixing Adding Binder Binder proportion(%B) UCS(M )
amp e (wt%) time(min) order (wt%) Cement Slag Sodium silicate pa
53 83 5 2 9 8 88 4 5.53
54 83 5 2 9 0 __ L-- __ 96 _ 4 9.59
55 83 8 1 9 96 0 4 3.18
56 83 8 _ 1 9 8 88 4 5.63
57 83 8 1 9 0 96 4 9.35
58 83 8 2 9 96 0 4 3.13
59 83 8 2 9 8 88 4 5.52
60 83 8 2 9 _Q ____ .. L...--- _ 96 _ 4 9.18
61 80 5 1 7 100 0 0 1.98
62 80 5 1 7 98 0 2 2.02
63 80 5 1 7 9 89 2 4.2
64 80 5 1 7 0 98 2 6.23
65 80 5 1 7 10 90 0 3.95
66 80 5 2 7 100 0 0 1.9
67 80 5 2 7 98 0 2 1.77
68 80 5 2 7 9 89 2 4.09
69 80 5 2 7 0 98 2 5.49
------
70 80 8 1 7 100 0 0 1.97
71 80 8 1 7 98 0 2 1.96
72 80 8 1 7 9 89 2 3.78
73 80 8 1 7 0 98 2 5.95
74 80 .8 1 7 10 90 0 3.67
75 80 8 2 7 100 0 0 1.85
76 80 8 2 7 98 0 2 1.75
77 80 8 2 7 9 89 2 3.47
78 80 8 2 7 0 98 2 5.45
Table A 2-3- Recipes and Des values for sand pastefill samples after 120 days of curing continued. (Phase 1)
Sample #
Binder (wt%)
UCS(Mpa)
79 80 5 1 7 96 0 4 1.96
80 80 5 1 7 8 88 4 4.12
81 80 5 1 7 0 96 4 6.14
82 80 5 2 7 96 0 4 1.72
83 80 5 2 7 8 88 4 4.06
84 80 5 2 7
- '----
0 96 4 5.37
---------- -------- -- - - ~
85 80 8 1 7 96 0 4 1.91
86 80 8 1 7 8 88 4 3.73
87 80 8 1 7 0 96 4 5.88
88 80 8 2 7 96 0 4 1.69 ~
-----_ ... -
~ ~ : ~ ,__ : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ : ~ ~ . u __ 1
......
0\
......
91 80 5 1 9 100 0 0 2.99
92 80 5 1 9 98 0 2 2.98
93 80 5 1 9 9 89 2 4.92
94 80 5 1 9 0 98 2 8.52
95 80 5 1 9 10 90 0 3.86
96 80 5 2 9 100 0 0 2.9
97 80 5 2 9 98 0 2 2.63
98 80 5 2 9 9 89 2 4.68
99 80 5 2 9 0 98 2 8.4
-----_ ... - -------
100 80 8 1 9 100 0 0 2.7
101 80 8 1 9 98 0 2 2.73
102 80 8 1 9 9 89 2 4.9
103 80 8 1 9 0 98 2 7.54
104 80 8 1 9 10 90 0 3.74
105 80 8 2 9 100 0 0 2.45
106 80 ____
'---
8 2 9
-
98 0 2 2.58
- ---- ~ - - - - - --------- --------------- ---- ---- --
.......
0'\
N
Sample#
UCS(Mpa)
(wt%) time(min) order (wt%) Cement Slag Sodium silicate
107 80 8 2 9 9 89 2 4.66
108 80 8 2 9 0 98 2 7.46
1 ----_ .. _--- ----------- - -------
109 80 5 1 9 96 0 4 2.91
110 80 5 1 9 8 88 4 4 ~ 8
111 80 5 1 9 0 96 4 8.46
112 80 5 2 9 96 0 4 2.53
113 80 5 2 9 8 88 4 4.61
114 0
80 5 2 9 0 96 4 7.31
115 80 8 1 9 96 0 4 2.7
116 80 8 1 9 8 88 4 4.72
117 80 8 1 9 0 96 4 7.18
118 80 8 2 9 96 0 4 2.5
119 80 8 2 9 8 88 4 4.51
120 80 8 2 9 0 96 4 7.28
- ------------- ---_ .... _----- ------ ------------ -
121 83 5 1 5 100 0 0 1.45
122 83 5 1 5 90 10 0 3.28
123 83 5 1 5 9 89 2 3.13
124 83 5 1 5 2 96 2 3.93
125 80 5 1 5 100 0 0 1.43
126 80 5 1 5 90 10 0 2.98
127 80 5 1 5 9 89 2 2.79
128
_ O _____ 00
5 1 5 2 96 2 3.01
129 83 5 1 3 100 0 0 0.65
130 83 5 1 3 90 10 0 2.04
131 83 5 1 3 9 89 2 1.93
132 ____ 83 __ _ __ _ 5 1 3 2 96 2 2.44
. .
-
,
SampIe#
UCS(Mpa)
(wt%) time(min) order (wt%)
133 80 5 1 3 100 0 0 0.62
134 80 5 1 3 90 10 0 1.75
135 80 5 1 3 9 89 2 1.68
136 80 5 1 3 2 96 2 2.19
- - - - ------
- 0\
w
- 0\
+>-
Table A 2-4- R .

Sample #
Pulp density
(wt%)
1 81
2 81
3 83
4 83
5 85
6 85
7 81
8 81
9 83
10 83
Il 85
12 85
13 81
14 81
15 83
16 83
17 85
18 85
19 81
20 81
21 83
22 83
23 85
24 85
25 81
26 81
27 83
28 83
dues values TI d oastefill
Binder Binder
(wt%) Cement Slag
3 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
5 10 90
5 10 90
5 10 90
5 10 90
5 10 90
5 10 90
7 10 90
7 10 90
7 10 90
7 10 90
7 10 90
7 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
3 10 90
5 10 90
5 10 90
5 10 90
- - - - - ~ - - ----
10 _9() __
- -
~
(Phase II)
Sodium silicate DCS
Tailings Curing time
(wt%) (MPa)
0 0.21 Tl 3
0.3 0.11 Tl 3
0 0.23 Tl 3
0.3 0.18 Tl 3
0 0.28 Tl 3
0.3 0.23 Tl 3
0 0.54 Tl 3
0.3 0.49 Tl 3
0 0.58 Tl 3
0.3 0.53 Tl 3
0 0.61 Tl 3
0.3 0.57 Tl 3
0 0.73 Tl 3
0.3 0.66 Tl 3
0 0.76 Tl 3
0.3 0.68 Tl 3
0 0.81 Tl 3
0.3 0.73 Tl 3
0 0.51 Tl 7
0.3 0.34 Tl 7
0 0.59 Tl 7
0.3 0.38 Tl 7
0 0.63 Tl 7
0.3 0.58 Tl 7
0 0.93 Tl 7
0.3 0.84 Tl 7
0 0.97 Tl 7
0.3 0.91 Tl 7
--_. _.-
.......
0\
VI
Table A 2-4- Recipes and Des values for sand pastefill samples continued (Phase II)
'-S - 1 # Pulp density--j- -Bmder- , Binder r---Sodium silicate UCS T '1' C"
1
amp e 1 al mgs urmg tune
(wt%) (wt%) 1 Cement 1 Slag 1 (wt%) (MPa)
29 1- 85 5 10 90 0 1.35 Tl 7
30 1 85 5 10 90 0.3 1.21 \ Tl 7
,.... 31 81- --7----T 10 . , 90 0 1.16 Tl 7
1 32 81 7 1 10 1 90 0.3 1.13 Tl 7
1 33 83 7 1 10 1 90 0 1.35 Tl 7
) 34 83 7 1 10 1 90 0.3 1.31 Tl 7
1 35 85 7 1 10 1 90 0 1.48 Tl 7
1 36 85 7 1 10 1 90 0.3 1.43 Tl 7
,- 37 81---T--i- 10 90-r ---- 0 1.38 Tl 28 -1
1 38 81 1 3 10 90 0.3 1.14 Tl 28 1
1 39 83 1 3 10 90 0 1.45 Tl 28 1
1 40 83 1 3 10 900.3 1.35 Tl 28 1
1 41 85 1 3 10 90 0 1.52 Tl 28 ,
1 42 85 1 3 10 90 0.3 1.46 Tl 28 1
1 43 81 1 5 10 90 0 2.56 Tl 28 1
1 44 811 5 10 90 0.3 2.11 Tl 28
1 45 83 1 5 10 90 0 2.87 Tl 28
1 46 83 1 5 10 90 0.3 2.29 Tl 28
1 47 85 1 5 10 90 0 3.01 Tl 28
1 48 85 1 5 10 90 0.3 2.53 Tl 28
1 49 81 1 7 10 90 0 3.03 Tl 28
1 50 81 , 7 10 90 0.3 2.46 Tl 28
1 51 83 1 7 10 90 0 3.16 Tl 28
1 52 83 1 7 10 90 0.3 2.58 Tl 28
1 53 85 1 7 10 90 0 3.83 Tl 28
1 54 85 1 7 10 90 0.3 2.90 Tl 28
-0'\
0'\
Table A 2-5- Recipes and DeS values for slurry backfill samples (phase II)
Sample#
Pulp density Binder Binder Sodium silicate
(wt%) (wt%) Cement Slag (wt%)
55 68 3 10 90 0
56 68 3 10 90 0.3
57 70 3 10 90 0
58 70 3 10 90 0.3
59 72 3 10 90 0
60 72 3 10 90 0.3
61 68 5 10 90 0
62 68 5 10 90 0.3
63 70 5 10 90 0
64 70 5 10 90 0.3
65 72 5 10 90 0
66 72 5 10 90 0.3
67 68 7 10 90 0
68 68 7 10 90 0.3
69 70 7 10 90 0
70 70 7 10 90 0.3
71 72 7 10 90 0
72 72 7 10 90 0.3
73 68 3 10 90 0
74 68 3 10 90 0.3
75 70 3 10 90 0
76 70 3 10 90 0.3
77 72 3 10 90 0
78 72 3 10 90 0.3
79 68 5 10 90 0
80 68 5 10 90 0.3
81 70 5 10 90 0
82 70 5 10 90 0.3
ues
Tailings Curingtime
(MPa)
0.12 T2 3
0.07 T2 3
0.15 T2 3
0.09 T2 3
0.18 T2 3
0.12 T2 3
0.22 T2 3
0.26 T2 3
0.25 T2 3
0.30 Tl 3
0.27 T2 3
0.33 T2 3
0.40 T2 3
0.41 T2 3
0.45 T2 3
0.43 T2 3
0.50 T2 3
0.45 T2 3
--
0.21 T2 7
0.12 T2 7
0.24 T2 7
0.15 T2 7
0.28 T2 7
0.19 T2 7
0.41 T2 7
0.45 T2 7
0.43 T2 7
0.54 T2 7
-- --
.......
0'1
-...).
Table A 2-5- Recipes and ues values for slurry backfill samples continued (Phase II)
1 S 1 # 1 Pulp density
Binder Binder Sodium silicate UCS
1 Tailings Curingtime
1 amp e 1 (wt%)
(wt%)
Cement Slag (Wt%) (MPa)
1
83
1
72 5 10 90 0 0.47
1
T2 7
1
84
1
72 5 10 90 0.3 0.57
1
T2 7
85 68 7 10 90 0 0.59 T2 7
86 68 7 10 90 0.3
,
0.70 T2 7
87 70 7 10 90 0 0.63 T2 7
88 70 7 10 90 0.3 0.73 T2 7
89 72 7 10 90 0 0.70 T2 7
90 72 7 10 90 0.3 0.76 T2 7
---- ---------- - --
91 1--- 68 . 1 3 T 10 90 0 0.37 ___ I2_J . C 2 8 ~
--
92 68 3 10 90 0.3 0.34 T2 28
93 70 3 10 90 0 0.41 T2 28
94 70 3 10 90 0.3 0.38 T2 28
95 72 3 10 90 0 0.45 T2 28
96 72 3 10 90 0.3 0.39 T2 28
97 68 5 10 90 0 0.72 T2 28
98 68 5 10 90 0.3 0.81 T2 28
99 70 5 10 90 0 0.75 T2 28
100 70 5 10 90 0.3 0.97 T2 28
101 72 5 10 90 0 0.77 T2 28
102 72 5 10 90 0.3 1.14 T2 28
103 68 7 10 90 0 0.95 T2 28
104 68 7 10 90 0.3 1.29 T2 28
105 70 7 10 90 0 1.19 T2 28
106 70 7 10 90 0.3 1.22 T2 28
107 72 7 10 90 0 1.32 T2 28
108 72 7 10 90 0.3 1.36 T2 28
1
1
1
:
1
_1
1
APPENDIX 3- X-RAY DIFFRACTION PATTERNS OF STABILIZED
1700
1600
1500
1'00
1300
1200
1100
21000
<=
::>
09(}()

.!:
800
..J
700
600
500
'00
300
200
100
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
806
j 400
0
200
-600:
BACKFILL BY DIFFERENT BINDERS
#13-sand (phase 1)
10 20 30
'"
50 50
2-Theta - Scale
(phase - #13-sand (phase I).raw- 2ThITh locId -SI.,t 4.001' -End: 69.973' - S
Operations: Oisplacement O.062llmport
r) Quartz, syn Si02- Y: 68.07 % -d x by: 1. WL: 1.78897 - Hexagonal- a4.91344-b 4.
[!jQ()..()()9...0466 (.) - Albite, ordered NaAlSi308 Y: 5A9 %. cl x by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Tricl1nic - a 8.14400
l!I01-083-1381 (C) -Chiante, chromian- MgS.0JIJ0.75CrO.25AItOOSI3.00010(OH)8- Y: 1.07%-dxby: 1.
';::'00-036-1494 r) -Lead Chcide Sulfate- "pha-Pb302(S04) - Y: 2.08 % - d xbr. 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Monodl
[illOl-074-2428 (C) - Muscovite lMl - KAI3&010(0H)2 - Y: 1.51 % - d x by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 -
:. ;OI-OS9Sl78 (C) - ktlnolite - (Fe3.112MnO.088flGl.954Cel.814N.0.018)Si7.988022.12(0H)1.1l6OFO.0
il -CristobaUte, syn - Si02 -Y: 3.17 % -dxby.1. -WL: 1.788'51 - Tetragonal- a 4.97320-
L;jQO..041-1486 (") -AnClthite, ordered - CaAl2Si208- V: 3.25 % - dx by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Triclinic-a8.1
C:!X>037-0471 (0) -Chalcopyrite _ CuFeS2 -Y: 1.47 % - dxby: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - TelJagonaJ - a 5.28930-
J()Q{)24-0027 (0) -Cetcite - CaC03 - Y: 1.56 % - d x br. 1. - WL: 1.76897 - Hexagomi (Rh) - a 4.99000 - b
0Q.019-0926 (*) - M'lCI'ocline, ordered - V: 2.48 % -cl x by.1. -WL: 1.78897 - Triclinic a 8.581
#13-sand (phase Il).raw:1
Quartz 57.90%
Albite 17.58%
1.61%
MU!ic(l<te2M1 6.%%
Actinoli!e 0.64%
m:ud'::f!lo$.i!e 0.10%
Anorthlte 2.92%
Chforitellb 3.47%
Mk:fQ.c!ln:.!' 8.59%
Il
8 7 6
Figure A 3 -1- X-Ray diffraction pattern of stabilized sand pastefill with SC binder
168
900
BOO
700
600

c:
::>500
o
:..>
!::
...J4OO
300
200
100
900
800
700
600'
500.
400
200
100
#14-sand (phase 1)
2-Thela - Scale
fliI#l4-sand (phase Q- File: #14-sand (phase Il).raw- Type: 2ThlTh locked- Start 4.958' - End: 69.985'-
Operations: Displacemenl 0.080 1 Displacement 0.0541Import
1!ioo-o46-1045 (1- Quartz, syn -Si02 -Y: 83.80 % -dxby: 1. -Wl.: 1.78897 - H8Xallonal- a4.91344-b 4.
1B1JO.OO9-0466 (1-Albite, ondered -NaAlSi308 -Y: 13.54 %- dx by: 1. -Wl.: 1.78897 - Todinie -a 8.1440
!!I01-074-2428 (C) - Muscovile 2Ml -KAl3Si3010(OH)2 -Y: 4.19 % -d x by: 1. -Wl.: 1.78897 - Monodinie
l!Joo-OO5-0586 (')- Calcite, syn- CaC03 -Y: 3.24 % -dx by.1. - Wl.: 1.78897 - Hexagonal (Rh) - a 4.9890
[!J01-089-5378 (C) - - (Fe3.112Mno.o88Mgl.954Cal.814NaO.018)Si7.988022.12(OH)1.860FO.0
]00-041-1466 (') -Anonhite, ordered - CaAl2Si208- Y: 5.50 % - dxby.1. -Wl.: 1.78897 -Todinie- a 8.1
iBJ01-083-1381 (C) - Chloote, chromian - Mg5.0AI0.75CrO.25A11.ooSi3.00010(0H)8 -Y: 2.61 % -d x by: 1.
:':;.100-039-1425 (') -Cos1Dbalite, syn -Si02- Y: 10.00 % -d xby.1. - Wl.: 1.78897 - Tel'agonal- a 4.97320
,H,:00-037-0518 (C) - Lead Oxide Sulfate -alpha-Pb302S04 - Y: 2.86 % -d x by: 1. -Wl.: 1.78897 -Monodi
':00-019-0826 (') - Micnodine, ordered - KAlSi308- Y: 6.25 %-dx by: 1. - Wl.: 1.78897 - Toclinie-a 8.581
#14-sand (phase Il).raw:1
Quartz
A1tite
Calcite
M!1S.ti);Jte7.M1
Actinollte
47.53 %
23.98,%
200%
975%
1.11%
RMdc.r.hro$ita 0 10 %
Anorthite 5.01 %
Chrorite lib 2.07 %
M\elO.iiofj imerme.:!li!l:ffi 1:1 3$ %

U 1 1
200
1 Il
-300
Il
Il 1 III III Il!II
5 6 7 8
Figure A 3-2- X-Ray diffraction pattern of stabilized sand pastefill with SCSS binder
169
j
(.)
3S!}
300:
251f.
15 .
100
5If:
0
-50
-100:
-150
-200
-25If
.;
#13-T ailings (phase Il)
10 20 30 40 50 60
2-Theta - Scale
f1J#l3-Tailings (phase IQ - File: #l3-Tailings (phase Il).1lIW-Type: 2ThlTh locked -SM 4.967 - End: 69.9
DisplaoementO.062lln1>ort
I!lOO.()(J5.()5S6 (1 -Calci, syn - CaCD3 -Y: 6.26 % - d x br. 1. -WL: 1.76697 - Hexagonal (Rh)- a 4.9890
[!)1JO.046-1045 (1 -Quartz, syn- 5i02 -Y: 89.78 % -d xby: 1. -WL: 1.78697 -Hexagonal-a 4.91344- b 4.
l!101.oa5-2157 (C) - kinolne - (NaO.11KO.04XCa1.6BNaO.04FeO.28)(Mg3.65Fe1.14A10.21XSi7.38AI0 -Y:
I!lQO.OO9-0466 (') ordered - NaAlSi308 -Y: 22.92 %-dxby: 1. -WL: 1.78897 - Tndinie-a 8.1440
[!)00.()13-0003 (0) - Chlonte- Mg2AI3(Si3AI)01O(0)8- Y: 11.72 % - dxby: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Monodinie-
r:;j{)().()37.Q518 (C)-lead Oxid, Sulfate -alpha-Pb302S04 -Y: 8.33 %-d x br. 1. -WL: 1.78897 - Monodi
!BJ01.()B4..1300IC)-Muscovite2M1-KAl3Si3010(QH)2- Y: 6.25 %-dxby: 1. -Wl: 1.78897 - Monodinie
@!)OHlS9-1954(C)-Pyrrholte4C-Fe7S8- Y: 8.33 %- dx by: 1. -WL: 1.78897 - Monodinie-a 11.90200-
n:01'()71-23B7 (C) - - Ca2AIO.93FeO.05AIAI0.24FeO.76Si3013H -Y: 4.17 % -dxby: 1. -WL: 1.788
!:]1JO.041-14B6 l') -Anorlhite, ordered - CaAl2Si208 -Y: 22.92 % -d x by: 1. -WL: 1.76697 -Tndinie -a 8.
. !01.()83-1366 (C) - Biotite - K2IFe2.786Mg2.321Ti0.550XAl2,413SiS.587020)IOH)4 -Y: 20.83 % - dx by:
1!I{)().()37.()471 (') -Chalcopynte -CuFeS2'- Y: 4.17 % - d xby: 1. -WL: 1.78697 -TeiragonaJ - a S.2893O-
#13-Tailings (phase Il).raw
Il l ,
1,11
1
1 11111111111
1
i 1
Quartz lS.n%
AIDte 14.99%
Calcite 10.12%
M!.t'$cC'.!te 2,"70%
Actinolite 9.45%
Anorthite 24.21 %
ChaJeopynte 0.48 %
Biotite 1M Mica 13.17 %
P'irrno:ite ST 1.91 %
Epidot. 0.84 %
Chlonte lib 6.30 %
-35If
5
\.. "'8-9", .... 10-1""1.... 12-;""'3""14""1",'5"";6-1""7.... 18-''"'9.,.20.... 2""'1'\'22/,.l23,..l,..l24.... 25,..l26.,..l.27""28.\,...,2,!,931,,0""3'*;3"'2..,lia""34"""':'5+"36"'" 4.,.!0.!!4,\-!.4"'2.11
43
'\\44+"1.,4S..I,4,J.1611+
47
';' 4J!,a'*49",s,.IO"fSl,!..52"1,,I,,1S3.... 54>=+5S+..56,.4.J!.ii7.,1s"""'69"'6"""66'"ll1!l62.f,',6ll13'\"64,1)6i.lS'h66/"'fi/.Jl..168,1,.69Ml.
14
70
2Th Degrees
Figure A 3-3- X-Ray diffraction pattern of stabilized slurry backfill with SC binder
170
#14-Tailings (phase Il)
300
!::
-'200
100
450
400'
350:
300,
250:
200
150'
-250
2-Theta - Scale
Taillngs (phase Il) - Ale: #14-Tamng. (phase IQ.l1lw- Type: 2ThlTh locId - S1art: 5.000 ' - End: 70.0
Operations: Import
[!]1J().{)05-0586 r) -Calcite,'1' - CaC03- Y: 4.90 %-d, by: 1. - WL: 1.7B997 - Hexagonal (Rh)- a 4.9890
[!)OO.Q46-1045I'l-Quarlz, syn-5102- Y: 70.35 % -d,by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Hexagonal-a 4.91344- b4.
Actinol!te -(NaO.ll KO.04)(C.l.6BNaO.04Feo.28)(Mg3.65Fel.14PJO.21 - Y:
[!!OQ.()Il9-0466(') - OIdered - NaPJSi308 - Y: 17.96 % - d, by: 1. - WL: 1.7B897 -Tridlnlc -a 8.1440
[!j0Q.()13.()1J03 (D)- Chlorite - Mg2PJ3(Si3PJ)OlO(0)8- Y: 9.18 %- d, by: 1. -WL: 1.7B997 -
j'J0Q.()37.()51B (C)- Le.d OXide Sulfate - alph.-Pb302S04 - Y: 6.53 %- d, by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 - Monodl
Lii)01.()84-1306(C)- Muscovite 2Ml - Kl'J35i3010(OH)2 - Y: 4.90 % - d ,by: 1. -WL: 1.7B997 - Monodinic
@jOl.9-1954(C)-pyrmotite4C-Fe7SB-Y:6.53%-d'by:l.-WL:l.7B997 - Monodinic- a 11.90200-
:,Ol.()71-23B7 (C) - Epidote - Ca2PJ0.93Feo.05PO'JO.24Feo.76Si3013H - Y: 3.27 % - d, br 1. -WL: 1.7B9
;'..!0Q.()41-1486 (') -Anortl!te, ordered - CaPJ2Si2OB- Y: 17.96 %-d ,br 1. -WL: 1.78897 - Tridinic-a B.
::: 01.3-13B6(C) - Biotite - K2(Fe2.786Mg2.321TI0.550)(PJ2.4135i5.587020)(OH)4 - Y: 16.32 % -d, by:
[!]oo.7.()471 (')-Chalcopyrite -CuFe52 - Y: 3.27 % - dx by: 1. - WL: 1.78897 -Tetragonal-a 5.28930-
#14-Tailings (phase Il).raw:1
11111
1 !
Quanz 23.18 %
Albite 16.81 %
Calcite 6.30 %
Actlnctite 7.52 %
Anorthite 17.87 %
Chalcopyrite 0.22 %
Biotite 1M'Mica 10.34 %
Py!rhotitti 3'- J. Tl %
Epidofe 1.24%
Chlonte lib 10.62 %
-3005 6 7 8' 9'10 li 1213 141'5161718192021 iji4 is'2627'2S29'30'31 ii3334 35 36 3738 39 40 4'1'4243444546 47'4849'5'05152535455 Se'57 58 59'606162 63 646566'67 686970
2Th Degrees
Figure A 3-4- X-Ray diffraction pattern of stabilized slurry backfill with SCSS binder
171

An Investigation Into The Influence of Sodium Silicate On The Physical and Mechanical Properties of Minefill by Seyed Mehdi Razavi.

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An Investigation Into The Influence of Sodium Silicate On The Physical and Mechanical Properties of Minefill by Seyed Mehdi Razavi.

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ANINVESTIGATION INTO THE INFLUENCE OF

SODIUM SILICATE ON THE PHYSICAL AND

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