ABSTRACT

A cylinder block is an integrated structure comprising the cylinder(s) of a reciprocating engine and often some or all of their associated surrounding structures (coolant passages, intake and exhaust passages and ports, and crankcase). The term engine block is often used synonymously with "cylinder block"

In the basic terms of machine elements, the various main parts of an engine (such as cylinder(s), cylinder head(s), coolant passages, intake and exhaust passages, and crankcase) are conceptually distinct, and these concepts can all be instantiated as discrete pieces that are bolted together. Such construction was very widespread in the early decades of the commercialization of internal combustion engines (1880s to 1920s), and it is still sometimes used in certain applications where it remains advantageous (especially very large engines, but also some small engines). However, it is no longer the normal way of building most petrol engines and diesel engines, because for any given engine configuration, there are more efficient ways of designing for manufacture (and also for maintenance and repair). These generally involve integrating multiple machine elements into one discrete part, and doing the making (such as casting, stamping, and machining) for multiple elements in one setup with one machine coordinate system (of a machine tool or other piece of manufacturing machinery). This yields lower unit cost of production (and/or maintenance and repair).

Today most engines for cars, trucks, buses, tractors, and so on are built with fairly highly integrated design, so the words "mono block" and "en bloc" are seldom used in describing them; such construction is often implicit. Thus "engine block", "cylinder block", or simply "block" are the terms likely to be heard in the garage or on the street.

INTRODUCTION

The first successfully working internal combustion engine used in an automobile was built by Siegfried Marcus in approximately 1864 [1]. It was an upright single-cylinder, two-stroke petroleum-fuelled engine that also utilized a carburettor to deliver fuel to the engine. The engine was placed on a cart with four wheels and successfully ran under its own power. Not only has Marcus produced the first engine that is the direct predecessor to todays engines, he had also built the first automobile in history, some 20 years before Gottlieb Daimlers automobile.

Todays engines are an integral component of an automobile that are built in a number of configurations and are considerably more complex than early automotive engines.

Technological innovations such as electronic fuel injection, drive-by-wire (i.e., computer-controlled) throttles, and cylinder-deactivation have made engines more efficient and powerful.

The use of lighter and stronger engineering materials to manufacture various components of the engine has also had an impact; it has allowed engineers to increase the power-to-weight of the engine, and thus the automobile.

Common components found in an engine include pistons, camshafts, timing chains, rocker arms, and other various parts. When fully stripped of all components, the core of the engine can be seen: the cylinder block. The cylinder block (popularly known as the engine block) is the strongest component of an engine that provides much of the housing for the hundreds of parts found in a modern engine. Since it is also a relatively large component, it constitutes 2025% of the total weight of an engine [2]. Thus there is much interest in reducing the blocks weight.

Many early engine blocks were manufactured from cast iron alloys primarily due to its high strength and low cost. But, as engine designs became more complicated, the weight of the engine (and the vehicle) had increased. Consequently, the desire among manufacturers to use lighter alloys that were as strong as cast irons arose. One such material that was being used as a substitute was aluminium alloys. Used sparingly in the 1930s (due to problems with durability) [3], aluminium alloy use in engine blocks increased during the 1960s and 1970s as a way to increase fuel efficiency and performance. Together, these two metals were used exclusively to fabricate engine blocks. As of late, however, a new material process has made magnesium alloy suitable for use in engines. The alloy, called AMC-SC1, weighs less than both cast iron and aluminium alloys and represents new possibilities in engine manufacturing.

A new manufacturing process have made compacted graphite cast iron (CGI) a viable alternative to gray cast iron for the manufacture of diesel engine blocks. Like magnesium alloys, this material offers a higher strength and lower weight than gray cast iron.

In this paper, materials used to manufacture engine blocks for passenger vehicles will be discussed. The discussion of the component, its functional requirements, and the materials used to manufacture the part are included. The mechanical properties of the individual alloys will be incorporated, as well as the manufacturing processes used to fabricate the component.

DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT
The move from extensive use of discrete elements (via separate castings) to extensive integration of elements (such as in most modern engine blocks) was a gradual progression that passed through various phases of monobloc engine development, wherein certain elements were integrated while others remained discrete. This evolution has occurred throughout the history of reciprocating engines, with various instances of every conceptual variation coexisting here and there. (This is an example of how the history of technology is a profusion of scattered data points with the waxing and waning of themes and trends, as opposed to any simplistic linear progression from "bad" to "good".) The increase in prevalence of ever-more-integrated designs relied on the gradual development of foundry and machining practice for mass production. For example, a practical low-cost V8 engine was not feasible until Ford developed the techniques used to build the Ford flathead V8

engine, which soon also disseminated to the larger society. (Such technological dissemination tends to happen via a zeitgeist of independent, competitive development just as much as via technology transfer or reverse engineering). Today the foundry and machining processes for manufacturing engines are usually highly automated, with a few skilled workers to manage the making of thousands of parts.

Cylinders integrated into one or several cylinder blocks

A cylinder block is a unit comprising several cylinders (including their cylinder walls, coolant passages, cylinder sleeves if any, and so forth). In the earliest decades of internal combustion engine development, monobloc cylinder construction was rare; cylinders were usually cast individually. Combining their castings into pairs or triples was an early win of monobloc design.

Each cylinder bank of a V engine (that is, each side of the V) typically comprised one or several cylinder blocks until the 1930s, when mass production methods were developed that allowed the modern form factor of having both banks plus the crankcase entirely integrated.

A wet liner cylinder block features cylinder walls that are entirely removable, which fit into the block by means of special gaskets. They are referred to as "wet liners" because their outer sides come in direct contact with the engine's coolant. In other words, the liner is the entire

wall, rather than being merely a sleeve. Wet liner designs are popular with European manufacturers, most notably Renault and Peugeot, who continue to use them to the present. Dry liner designs use either the block's material or a discrete liner inserted into the block to form the backbone of the cylinder wall. Additional sleeves are inserted within, which remain "dry" on their outside, surrounded by the block's material. With either wet or dry liner designs, the liners (or sleeves) can be replaced, potentially allowing overhaul or rebuild without replacement of the block itself; but in reality, they are difficult to remove and install, and for many applications (such as most late-model cars and trucks), an engine will never undergo such a procedure in its working lifespan. It is likelier to be scrapped, with new equipmentengine or entire vehicle replacing it. This is sometimes rightfully disparaged as a symptom of a throw-away society, but on the other hand, it is actually sometimes more cost-efficient and even environmentally protective to recycle machinery and build new instances with efficient manufacturing processes (and superior machine performance and emission control) than it is to overvalue old machinery and craft production.

Cylinder blocks and crankcase integrated

Casting technology at the dawn of the internal combustion engine could reliably cast either large castings, or castings with complex internal cores to allow for water jackets, but not both simultaneously. Most early engines, particularly those with more than four cylinders, had their cylinders cast as pairs or triplets of cylinders, then bolted to a single crankcase. As casting techniques improved, an entire cylinder block of 4, 6, or 8 cylinders could be cast as one. This was a simpler construction, thus less expensive (unit-wise) to make. For straight engines, this meant that

one engine block could now comprise all the cylinders plus the crankcase. Monobloc straight fours, uncommon when the Ford Model T was introduced with one in 1908, became common during the next decade, and monobloc straight sixes followed soon after. By the mid1920s, both were common, and the straight sixes of General Motors (along with other features that differentiated GM's various makes and models from the Model T) were prying market share away from Ford. (These were all flathead designs.) During that decade, V engines retained a separate block casting for each cylinder bank, with both bolted onto a common crankcase (itself a separate casting). For economy, some engines were designed to use identical castings for each bank, left and right. The complex ducting required for intake and exhaust was too complicated to allow the integration of the banks, except on a few rare engines, such as the Lancia 22 narrow-angle V12 of 1919, that did manage to use a single block casting for both banks. The hurdles of integrating the banks of the V for common, affordable cars were first overcome by the Ford Motor Company with its Ford flathead V-8, introduced in 1932, which was the first V-8 with a single engine block casting, putting an affordable V-8 into an affordable car for the first time. The communal water jacket of monobloc designs permitted closer spacing between cylinders. The monobloc design also improved the mechanical stiffness of the engine against bending and the increasingly important torsional twist, as cylinder numbers, engine lengths, and power ratings increased. Most engines made today, except some unusual V or radial engines, are a monobloc of crankcase and all cylinders. In such cases, the skirts of

the cylinder banks form a crankcase area of sorts, which is still often called a crankcase despite no longer being a discrete part.

CYLINDER BLOCK WITH CRANKCASE INTEGRATED

Combined block, head, and crankcase

Light-duty consumer-grade Honda GC-family small engines use a monobloc design where the cylinder head, block, and half the crankcase share the same casting, termed 'uniblock' by Honda. One reason for this, apart from cost, is to produce an overall lower engine height. Being an air-cooled OHC design, this is possible thanks to current aluminum casting techniques and lack of complex hollow spaces for liquid cooling. The valves are vertical, so as to permit assembly in this confined space. On the other hand, performing basic repairs becomes so time-

consuming that the engine can be considered disposable. Commercialduty Honda GX-family engines (and their many popular knock-offs) have a more conventional design of a single crankcase and cylinder casting, with a separate cylinder head.

Honda produces many other head-block-crankcase monoblocs under a variety of different names, such as the GXV-series. They may all be externally identified by a gasket which would bisect the crankshaft on an approximately 45 angle.

Exhaust valve failure is common and, owing to the monobloc design, so labour-intensive to repair that the engine is normally discarded.

Engine block, transmission case, and rear axle housing as frame members
Many farm tractor designs have incorporated their engine block, transmission case, and rear axle housing as frame members. Probably the first was the Fordson tractor, but many others followed. As with many other instances of integration of components into fewer castings, lower unit cost of production was the driver.

Cylinder head

The head gasket is the most highly stressed static seal in an engine and was a source of considerable trouble in early years. The monobloc cylinder head forms both cylinder and head in one unit, thus avoiding the need for a seal.

Along with head gasket failure, one of the least reliable parts of the early petrol engine was the exhaust valve, which tended to fail by overheating and burning. A monobloc head could provide good water cooling, thus reduced valve wear, as it could extend the water jacket uninterrupted around both head and cylinder. Engines with gaskets required a metalto-metal contact face here, disrupting water flow.

The drawback to the monobloc head is that access to the inside of the combustion chamber (the upper volume of the cylinder) becomes difficult. Access through the cylinder bore is restricted for machining the valve seats, or simply for inserting angled valves. An even more serious restriction is that for the maintenance task of de-coking and re-grinding the valve seats, a regular task on older engines. Rather than removing the cylinder head from above, the mechanic must now remove pistons, connecting rods and the entire crankshaft from beneath.

One solution to this for side-valve engines was to place a screwed plug directly above each valve, and to access the valves through this

(illustrated). The tapered threads of the screwed plug provided a reliable seal. For low-powered engines this was a popular solution for some years. It was difficult to cool this plug, as the water jacket didn't extend into the plug. As performance increased, it also became important to have better combustion chamber designs with less "dead space". One solution was to place the spark plug in the centre of this plug, which at least made use of the space. However this also placed the spark plug further away from the main combustion chamber, leading to long flame paths and slower ignition.

During World War I, development of the internal combustion engine progressed enormously. After the war, as civilian car production recommenced, the monobloc cylinder head was required less frequently. Only high-performance cars such as the Leyland Eight of 1920 persisted with it. Bentley and Bugatti were other racing marques who notably adhered to them, through the 1920s and into the 1930s, most famously being used in the purpose-built American Offenhauser straightfour racing engines, first designed and built in the 1930s.

Aircraft engines at this time were beginning to use high supercharging pressures, increasing the stress on their head gaskets. Engines such as the Rolls-Royce Buzzard used monobloc heads for reliability.

The last engines to make widespread use of monobloc cylinder heads were large air-cooled aircraft radial engines, such as the Wasp Major. These have individual cylinder barrels, so access as a monobloc is less

restricted than on inline engine. As they are also of high specific power and require the utmost reliability, the advantages of the monobloc remained attractive.

The difficulties of machining, and maintaining, a monobloc cylinder head were always a severe drawback to it. As head gaskets became able to handle the heat and pressure necessary, the technique went out of use. It is almost unknown today, but has found a very few "niche" uses, as the technique of monobloc cylinder heads was adopted by the Japanese model engine manufacturer Saito Seisakusho for their glow fueled and spark ignition model four-stroke engines for RC aircraft propulsion needs.

Technology used engine block manufacturing

Casting technology at the dawn of the internal combustion engine could reliably cast either large castings, or castings with complex internal cores to allow for water jackets, but not both simultaneously. Most early engines, particularly those with more than four cylinders, had their cylinders cast as pairs or triplets of cylinders, then bolted to a single crankcase.

As casting techniques improved, the entire cylinder block of four, six or even eight cylinders could be cast as one. This was a simpler construction, thus cheaper to make, and the communal water jacket permitted closer spacing between cylinders. This also improved the mechanical stiffness of the engine, against bending and the increasingly important torsional twist, as cylinder numbers and engine lengths increased. In the context of aircraft engines, the non-monobloc precursor to monobloc cylinders was a construction where the cylinders (or at least their liners) were cast as individuals, and the outer water jacket was applied later from copper or steel sheet. This complex construction was expensive, but lightweight, and so it was only widely used for aircraft. V engines remained with a separate block casting for each bank. The complex ducting required for inlet manifolds between the banks were too complicated to cast otherwise. For economy, a few engines, such as the V12 Pierce-Arrow, were designed to use identical castings for each bank, left and right. Some rare engines, such as the Lancia 22 narrow-angle V12 of 1919, did use a single block casting for both banks. Modern cylinders, except for air-cooled engines and some V engines, are now universally cast as a single cylinder block. Until recently, cast iron and aluminium alloys have been the preferential materials used to manufacture most diesel and conventional gasolinepowered engine blocks. However, with a greater emphasis on increasing the efficiency of the engine via weight reduction, manufacturers have began to look for alternative alloys that are lighter than cast iron and aluminium alloys, while retaining the necessary strength to withstand the forces of an engine. As of late, new manufacturing processes have been developed that have engendered two new alloys suitable for use in an engine block, magnesium alloy AMC-SC1 and compacted graphite cast

iron (CGI). In this paper, the functional requirements of the engine block, the processes used to manufacture the part, and the mechanical properties of the alloys will be discussed.

Functional Requirements of a Cylinder Block

Because engine blocks are a critical component of an engine, it must satisfy a number of functional requirements. These requirements include lasting the life of the vehicle, housing internal moving parts and fluids, ease of service and maintenance, and withstand pressures created by the combustion process.

In order for an engine block to meet the functional requirements listed above, the engineering material(s) used to manufacture the product must possess high strength, modulus of elasticity, abrasion resistance, and corrosion resistance. High strength is a particular concern in diesel engines, since compression ratios

are normally 17.0:1 or higher (compared to about 10.0:1 for conventional engines). The material should also have a low density, thermal expansion (to resist expanding under high operating temperatures), and thermal conductivity (to prevent failure under high temperatures). Good machinability and castability of the metal alloy are also important factors in selecting the proper material, as the harder it is to machine the product, the higher the costs of manufacturing. In addition to the previously mentioned properties, the alloys must possess good vibration damping to absorb the shuddering of the moving parts.

Based on the functional requirements of the cylinder block and the material properties required to meet the functional requirements, industries have used cast iron and aluminium alloys to manufacture the blocks. Cast iron alloys are used because of the combination of good mechanical properties, low cost, and availability. Certain aluminium alloys combine the characteristics of iron alloys with low weight, thereby making the material more attractive to manufacturers who are seeking a competitive edge. Compacted graphite cast iron is lighter and stronger than gray cast iron, making the alloy a more attractive alternative to the latter in the production of cylinder blocks, particularly in diesel engines. Magnesium alloys, which were previously unsuited for use as an engine block material, have the advantage of being the lightest of all the mentioned metals, yet still retains the required strength demanded by a block.

MANUFACTURING OF CYLINDER BLOCK

3.1 - Mechanical Properties of the Alloys

Both conventional and diesel-fueled cylinder blocks are subjected to thermal strains, aggressive wear conditions, and high fatigue stresses that an alloy must be able to endure.

Engineers must be able to select the proper material that meets the mechanical requirements previously set. For example, the required mechanical properties for a typical aluminium engine block includes an ultimate tensile strength of 245 MPa, yield stress of 215 MPa, and fatigue strength of 60 MPa [7]. Listed in the following sections are alloys that are current being used to cast engine blocks and their mechanical properties.

3.1.1 Gray Cast Iron Alloys

Gray cast iron alloy have been the dominant metal that was used to manufacture conventional gas-powered engine blocks. Though extensive use of aluminium alloys has diminished the popularity of this material, it still finds wide use in diesel-fuelled blocks, where the internal stresses are much higher. Gray cast iron alloys typically contains 2.5-4 wt.% carbon and 1-3 wt.% silicon, 0.2-1.0 wt.% manganese, 0.02-0.25 wt.% sulphur, and 0.02-1.0 wt.% phosphorus [8]. It has excellent damping capacity, good wear and temperature resistance, is easily machinable, and is inexpensive to produce. However, gray cast irons are relatively weak and are prone to fracture and deformation. Due to these

problems, compacted graphite iron has recently begun to compete with gray cast iron as the choice material to produce diesel engine blocks. Figure 2 shows the BMW S54 inline-6 used in their high performance M3 coupe. It is interesting to note that the cylinder block for this engine is constructed from gray cast iron, whereas the block for the BMW M54 engine, the basis of architecture of the S54, was made of aluminium alloy. One possible reason why the S54 block was made from gray cast iron was the need for a stronger material that could tolerate the higher performance levels (the S54 produces 333 brake horsepower and has a maximum engine speed of 8000 rpm, whereas the M54 produces 184-225 brake horsepower with a maximum engine speed of 6500 rpm).

Figure 2: BMWs S54 inline-6 engine, which uses a gray cast iron engine block

3.1.2 Compacted Graphite Cast Iron

Compacted graphite cast iron (CGI), which was accidentally discovered while trying to produce ductile cast iron, possesses higher tensile strength and elastic modulus than gray cast iron due to the compacted graphite found on the microstructure of CGI. Table 1 shows the comparison between the strengths and modulus of elasticity of gray cast iron and CGI. As seen in Table 1, gray cast iron has a lower tensile strength than CGI, despite its higher weight.

Table 1: Comparison of tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of gray cast iron and compacted graphite cast iron

Like gray cast iron, compacted graphite cast iron has good damping capacity and thermal conductivity, but its difficulty to machine has limited the widescale use of CGI. A new manufacturing process, however, has opened the way for larger applications of CGI. The development of rotary insert tools has increased the life of the tools used to machine the metal, thus allowing manufacturers to use CGI without worrying about purchasing new tools [10].Initial projections of 150,000 diesel engines produced (by Ford and Peugeot) per year are an indication that manufacturers are embracing the use of CGI as the material to produce cylinder blocks [11]. Figure 3 shows Ford/Peugeots diesel engine that contains a block made of compacted graphite cast iron.

Figure 3: Ford/Peugeots 2.7-liter V6 uses a cylinder block manufactured out of compacted graphite cast iron

3.1.3 Aluminium Alloys

One of the key weight saving features in the engine design is the use of a cast aluminium cylinder block with cast iron cylinder liners. The cast iron liners (with ground outside-diameter) are press-fit into the precision bored aluminium cylinder block. This provides optimal heat transfer into the cylinder block.

The iron liners provide the wear resistance needed for improved durability.

The installation process for the liners includes chilling the liner prior to placement and sophisticated precision force monitoring to ensure proper installation.

After installation, the ID of the iron liner is bored to a mass-saving 1.5 millimetre wall thickness.

Aluminium alloy use has gained popularity since the 1960s as a way to reduce the overall weight of the vehicle. There are two practical implications: improved performance-to-weight ratio and increased fuel efficiency. The drawbacks of using aluminium in engine blocks are that they are more expensive to manufacture than cast iron alloys.

However, the strength-to-weight ratio of aluminium alloys is hard to ignore, and manufacturing processes developed throughout the years have minimized the cost disparity between aluminium and cast iron.

There are two aluminium alloys that are mainly used in the manufacture of cylinder blocks: 319 and A356. Aluminium alloy 319 has a composition of 85.8-91.5 wt.% aluminium, 5.5-6.5 wt.% silicon, 3-4 wt.% copper, 0.35 maximum wt.% nickel, maximum 0.25 wt.% titanium, maximum 0.5 wt.% manganese, maximum 1% iron, maximum 0.1 wt.% magnesium, and maximum 1 wt.% zinc.

The alloy has good casting characteristics, corrosion resistance, and thermal conductivity. When heat treated with the T5 process, it possesses high strength and rigidity for engine block use. The LS1 engine of the 5th generation Chevrolet Corvette (1997-2004) is an example of an engine that utilizes aluminium alloy 319-T5 as its block, shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The Chevrolet Corvette LS1 V8 engine which utilizes an aluminium alloy 319-T5 cylinder block

Aluminium alloy A356 has a composition of 91.1-93.3 wt.% aluminium, 6.5-7.5 wt.% silicon, 0.25-0.45 wt.% magnesium, and maxima of 0.2 wt.% copper, 0.2 wt.% titanium, 0.2 wt.% iron, and 0.1 wt.% zinc [13]. Mechanical properties are similar to that of aluminium alloy 319. However, when heat treated with a T6 treatment, it possesses higher strength than 319. Table 2 compares the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of both alloys. Note the lower elastic modulus of A356-T6 compared to that of 319-T5. Figure 3 demonstrates an example of an engine using A356-T6 for its block.

Table 2: Comparison of strength and elastic modulus of aluminum alloys 319-T5 and A356-T6

Figure 3: General Motors inline-5 engine which uses aluminium alloy A356-T6 as its engine block

3.1.4 Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium alloys have been used in engines before, but not for cylinder blocks. Rather, they were used as valve covers, cylinder head covers, intake manifolds, rocker arm covers, air intake adaptors, induction systems, and accessory drive brackets.

The biggest attraction for manufacturers is that the material is much lighter than cast iron and aluminium alloys and has the same strength as cast iron and aluminium alloys. Material scientists and engineers were determined to exploit these characteristics of magnesium alloy and use it to fabricate engine blocks.

There were a number of magnesium alloys available that met or exceeded the requirements demanded by manufacturers for an engine block, but insufficient material stability at high temperatures hindered their actual use. However, in 2003 material scientists and engineers from the Cooperative Research Centre

for Cast Metals Manufacturing and the Australian Magnesium Corporation presented their discovery of sand-cast AMC-SC1 magnesium alloy.

This grade of magnesium alloy contains two rare earth elements, lanthanum and cerium, and was heat-treated with T6. This stabilizes the strength of the alloy at high engine operating temperatures, which is a necessary requirement for a cylinder block material. Bettles et al. had performed experiments to determine the yield and creep strengths of AMC-SC1 and their results are shown in Table 3. From Table 3, the most significant point is that the yield strength of AMC-SC1 essentially stays the same at 177C as it does at room temperature.

This means that the material is able to tolerate a wide range of operating temperatures without a loss in strength. Other properties of the magnesium alloy include good thermal conductivity, excellent machining and casting qualities, and excellent damping characteristics.

To demonstrate the significant weight savings of magnesium alloy over cast iron and aluminium alloy, consider BMWs inline-6 R6 (shown in Figure 4), which replaced the companys M54 aluminium engine. Its cylinder block is made of AMC-SC1 and is said to have decreased the weight of a comparablybuilt gray cast iron and aluminium alloy block by 57% and 24% [18]. So far, BMW is the only company to have used magnesium alloy cylinder blocks in production vehicles. But, with a significant weight advantage over the current alloys used today and negligible increase in cost, other manufacturers will begin to consider the use of AMC-SC1 and possibly other grades of magnesium alloys for engine blocks.

Table 3: Yield and creep strengths of magnesium AMC-SC1 at room temperature, 150C, and 177C

Figure 4: BMWs 6-cylinder R6 power plant uses a magnesium alloy AMC-SC1fabricated cylinder block

3.2 - Casting Processes

There are two methods used to cast engine blocks for all materials: green sand moulding or lost foam casting. The latter, pioneered by General Motors for their Saturn vehicles, have become more popular due to its capability to produce near net shape components, provide tight tolerances for critical components, and reduce machine maintenance and cost.

Green sand moulding, however, is still widely used in industry as material costs are low and most metals can be cast by this method.

3.2.1 - Green Sand Moulding

Apart of the sand casting family that also includes dry-sand moulds and skindried moulds, green sand moulding the common method to cast engine blocks. The term green denotes the presence of moisture in the moulding sand. Figure 2 demonstrates the first stage of green sand moulding. From Figure 2, a combination of silica sand, clay, and water poured in one-half of the block pattern with a wood or metal frame. The mould is then compacted by squeezing or jolting, and the process is repeated for the other half of the mould. A core consisting of hardened sand is used for support. Then, molten cast iron, aluminium, or magnesium alloy is poured into the combined moulds and solidifies. Once the latter part has been completed, the moulds are removed, and the cylinder block is cleaned and inspected. Heat treatment of the block is then undertaken to improve the mechanical properties of the alloy for suitable use.

Figure 4: The first stage of green sand moulding, a mixture of silica sand, clay, and water is poured into a defined pattern framed with metal

3.2.2 - Lost Foam Casting

Lost foam casting is a more reliable and efficient casting technique of the manufacture of engine blocks than green sand moulding. The technique begins with the use of polystyrene beads placed in pre expanders for wet expansion to control bead size and density to produce four separate block mouldings to be glued together to form the final mould. Next, the metal tool is preheated to remove any moisture and then filled with the beads. The tool is then heated via steam and placed in an autoclave, where it is subjected to high pressures in order to create the moulds.

The tool is removed from the autoclave and immersed in water to finish the mouldings. Precise control over the heating and cooling aspect ensures dimensionally accurate, smooth and strong moulds.

If the tool was not heated before the beads were injected, the results would be rough finishes in the moulds with low-strength sections. If the tool and beads stay heated for an extended period of time, or is not cooled enough, the beads become overused, which produces surface variations in the mouldings.

If the tool has been inadequately cooled, the moulds will contain variations in dimensions. Figure 3 shows the final half stages of the lost foam casting method.

Figure 6: Graphical description of the last 6 of 7 methods of the lost foam casting method

From Figure 3, once the individual moulds are glued together, the assembly is placed in a vat with water-based ceramic liquid to prevent molten metal from destroying the mould, stiffen the assembly, and provide a smooth finish. The assembly can also be sprayed with the ceramic liquid, but is a time-consuming

process. Next, the coated foam engine block is filled with sand, compacted, and immersed in the molten metal alloy. Once cooled, sand is removed from the metal casting, cleaned, and undergoes heat treatment to increase the mechanical properties of the block. Finally, coolant and oil passages are machined into the block.

SUMMARY
While aluminium and cast iron alloys have dominated the market for engine block materials for many years, new materials that were either once impossible or too expensive to consider have now become reality.

Over the past couple of years, new machining processes and material fabrication have increased the use of compacted graphite cast iron over gray cast iron as the material of choice to produce cylinder blocks for diesel- and regular petroleumfuelled vehicles.

But perhaps the greatest innovation in engine block technology is the production of a magnesium alloy that is able to perform under the difficult conditions an engine is put through. AMC-SC1 magnesium alloy will be able to increase fuel efficiency and power-to-weight ratios of automotive engines while decreasing emission levels. Though this may be a significant impact for the internal combustion engine, it faces new challenges.

Engines powered by fuel cells, hydrogen, and electricity are extremely efficient vehicles that have become viable within the last decade. As automobiles advance further into the 21st century, the role of the internal combustion engine may possibly diminish due to these new advances, despite the use of lighter alloys.

REFERENCES
1. ASME Landmark: Additional Information on Marcus car, [Online], 20 March 2005-last update, Available: http://www.asme.org/history/attachments/marcus1.html 2. Keay, Sue: Diet of Australian metal lightens cars and pollution, Media release, 14 October 2002. 3. Anyalebechi, P.N., Private Communication. 4. Anatomy of an Engine the New North star V8, [Online], 7 April 2005last visited, Available: http://www.autospeed.com/cms/A_1569/article.html. 5. In Search of Light-Weight Components, [Online], 6 April 2005-last update, Available: http://www.moderncasting.com/archive/WebOnly/1102/AL1102.asp.