Abstract

Power flow (PF) study, which is performed to determine the power system static states (voltage magnitudes and voltage angles) at each bus to find the steady state operating condition of a system, is very important and is the most frequently carried out study by power utilities for power system planning, operation and control. In this project, a ewton raphson method is proposed to solve power flow problem under different loading!contingency conditions for computing bus voltage magnitudes and angles of the power system. "he composition of the input variables for the proposed neural networ# has been selected to emulate the solution process of a conventional power flow program. "he effectiveness of the proposed $ based approach for solving power flow is demonstrated by computation of bus voltage magnitudes and voltage angles for different loading conditions and single line%outage contingencies in I&&& '(%bus system.

'

CONTENTS
Page o.

CHAPTER1: INTRODUCTION '.' )oad flow analysis CHAPTER-2: LOAD FLOW STUDIES +.' Introduction to load flow studies , +.+ -lassification of buses . +./ Formulation of the )oad Flow Problem '' *

CHAPTER-3: NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD /.'. 0eneral 1pproach /.+. 1pplication of the ewton%$aphson 3ethod to the 4pecific Problem '. /./. 4ample $esults for the ewton%$aphson 3ethod /.( )oad Flow 1lgorithm + 21 ++ '2

/.(.' Formation of the 5acobian 3atri6

++

/+

CHAPTER-67 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB *.'7 Introduction *.+7 3%files *./ $unning 31")19 (* (8 (8

CHAPTER- : INTRODUCTION TO SIMULIN! 8.'7 Introduction (, 8.+7 :ey Features (, 8./7 -reating and ;or#ing with 3odels CHAPTER-"7 SUMMAR# OF RESULTS AND S#STEM CALCULATIONS 2< CHAPTER-$: CONCLUSION REFERENCES 28 2, (.

LIST OF FI%URES
Page no. F&'1: 4ingle%line diagram of a simple e6ample power system '<

F&'2: &quivalent circuit for one phase of the system shown in fig'

'<

F&'3: Flow chart for 9ac# Propagation eural etwor#s (9P

+*

F&'(: =oltage magnitude at bus no.8

+,

F&'): =oltage magnitude (p.u) at bus no.''

+,

F&'6: =oltage angle at bus no.(

+.

F&' : =oltage angle at bus no.'/

+.

CHAPTER-1 I*tr+,-ct&+*

1.1 L+a, /0+1 a*a02s&s:

)oad flow studies are used to ensure that electrical power transfer from generators to consumers through the grid system is stable, reliable and economic. -onventional techniques for solving the load flow problem are iterative, using the ewton%$aphson or

the 0auss%4eidel methods. $ecently, however, there has been much interest in the application of stochastic search methods, such as 0enetic 1lgorithms, to solving power system problems. "he increasing presence of distributed alternative energy sources, often in geographically remote locations, complicates load flow studies and has triggered a resurgence of interest in the topic.

"he principles of power system load flow studies are taught within elective modules in the later years of undergraduate electrical engineering courses, or as essential components of specialist masters Programmes in electrical power engineering. From the educational viewpoint, therefore, the topic is important, yet a complete coverage presents some significant challenges. Pre%requisites include fundamental concepts from a.c. circuit analysis, such as phasor notation, impedance and admittance, powser and reactive power, three%phase and per%unit systems, all of which are regarded as >difficult? by many students. "he load flow solution techniques bring e6tra mathematical hurdles, including
2

matri6 representation (with comple6 number coefficients), iterative methods and probability functions.

"o assist in the teaching of load flow analysis techniques we illustrates four different methods of solving a simple load flow problem, which nevertheless has all of the features to be found in a larger%scale system. to vary both the problem being solved, by adjusting the power or voltage levels and line impedances, and also the parameters of the solution methods, such as numerical acceleration factors. "hese notes present an overview of the general power system load flow problem and describe its solution using four techniques7 ewton%$aphson, 0auss%4eidel, eural

networ#s 1lso included are illustrative numerical results relating to the particular power system configuration analysed in the ;or#boo#.

CHAPTER-2
LOAD FLOW STUDIES

2.1 I*tr+,-ct&+* t+ L+a, /0+1 st-,&3s

)oad flow studies are one of the most important aspects of power system planning and operation. "he load flow gives us the sinusoidal steady state of the entire system % voltages, real and reactive power generated and absorbed and line losses. 4ince the load is a static quantity and it is the power that flows through transmission lines, the purists prefer to call this P+13r F0+1 st-,&3s rather than load flow studies. ;e shall however stic# to the original nomenclature of load flow. In power engineering, the power flow study (also #nown as load%flow study) is an important tool involving numerical analysis applied to a power system. @nli#e traditional circuit analysis, a power flow study usually uses simplified notation such as a one%line diagram and per% unit system, and focuses on various forms of 1- power (ie7 reactive, real, and apparent) rather than voltage and current. It analyses the power systems in normal steady%state operation. "here e6ist a number of software implementations of power flow studies. In addition to a power flow study itself, sometimes called the base case, many software implementations perform other types of analysis, such as short%circuit fault analysis and economic analysis. In particular, some programs use linear programming to find the optimal power flow, the conditions which give the lowest cost per #ilowatt generated.

"he great importance of power flow or load%flow studies is in the planning the future e6pansion of power systems as well as in determining the best operation of e6isting systems. "he principal information obtained from the power flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in each line.

"hrough the load flow studies we can obtain the voltage magnitudes and angles at each bus in the steady state. "his is rather important as the magnitudes of the bus voltages are required to be held within a specified limit. Ance the bus voltage magnitudes and their angles are computed using the load flow, the real and reactive power flow through each line can be computed. 1lso based on the difference between power flow in the sending and receiving ends, the losses in a particular line can also be computed. Furthermore, from the line flow we can also determine the over and under load conditions.

"he steady state power and reactive power supplied by a bus in a power networ# are e6pressed in terms of nonlinear algebraic equations. ;e therefore would require iterative methods for solving these equations. In this chapter we shall discuss two of the load flow methods. ;e shall also delineate how to interpret the load flow results.

2.2 C0ass&/&cat&+* O/ B-s3s

For load flow studies it is assumed that the loads are constant and they are defined by their real and reactive power consumption. It is further assumed that the generator terminal voltages are tightly regulated and therefore are constant. "he main objective of the load flow is to

find the voltage magnitude of each bus and its angle when the powers generated and loads are pre%specified. "o facilitate this we classify the different buses of the power system shown below.

'. )oad bus +. 4lac# bus /. =oltage controlled bus

L+a, B-s3s:

In these buses no generators are connected and hence the generated real power PGi and reactive power QGi are ta#en as Bero. "he load drawn by these buses are defined by real power PLi and reactive power %QLi in which the negative sign accommodates for the power flowing out of the bus. "his is why these buses are sometimes referred to as P%C bus. "he objective of the load flow is to find the bus voltage magnitude DViD and its angle i.

4+0ta'3 C+*tr+003, B-s3s:

"hese are the buses where generators are connected. "herefore the power generation in such buses is controlled through a prime mover while the terminal voltage is controlled through the generator e6citation. :eeping the input power constant through turbine%governor control and #eeping the bus voltage constant using automatic voltage regulator, we can specify constant PGi and D Vi | for these buses. "his is why such buses are also referred to as P%= buses. It is to be noted that the reactive power supplied by the generator QGi depends on the system .

configuration and cannot be specified in advance. Furthermore we have to find the un#nown angle i of the bus voltage.

S0ac5 +r S1&*' B-s:

@sually this bus is numbered ' for the load flow studies. "his bus sets the angular reference for all the other buses. 4ince it is the angle difference between two voltage sources that dictates the real and reactive power flow between them, the particular angle of the slac# bus is not important. Eowever it sets the reference against which angles of all the other bus voltages are measured. For this reason the angle of this bus is usually chosen as <F. Furthermore it is assumed that the magnitude of the voltage of this bus is #nown.

2.3 F+r6-0at&+* +/ t73 L+a, F0+1 Pr+b036

)oad flow studies are based on a nodal voltage analysis of a power system. 1s an e6ample, consider the very simple system represented by the single%line diagram in Fig. '. Eere two generators (' and +) are interconnected by one transmission line and are separately connected to a load (/) by two other lines. If the phasor currents injected into the system are I', I+, and I/, and the lines are modeled by simple series admittances, then it is possible to draw the equivalent circuit for one representative phase of the balanced three%phase system, as shown in Fig. +.

'<

For the circuit in Fig. + the nodal voltage equations can be written directly. For e6ample, at node '7

(')

In general, for a system with r nodes, then at node n7

(+) ;here7 Gnn H sum of all admittances connected to node n Gn# H % (sum of all admittances connected between nodes n and #) H G#n In H current injected at node n For the complete system of r nodes7

''

(/)

;here [Y] is the nodal admittance matri6. Formulation of the load flow problem is most conveniently carried out with the terms in the nodal admittance matri6 e6pressed in polar notation7 YknH Ykn I kn to enter series impedance data for the three lines and then automatically calculates the terms in the nodal admittance matri6.

-onventional circuit analysis proceeds directly from equation (/) by inverting the nodal admittance matri6 and hence solving for the nodal voltages [V]. Eowever, the load flow problem is complicated by the lac# of uniformity in the data about electrical conditions at the nodes. "here are three distinct types of nodal data, which relate to the physical nature of the power system7

a) )oad nodes, where comple6 power 4nsH Pns JjCns ta#en from or injected into the system is defined. 4uch nodes may also include lin#s to other systems. 1t these load nodes, the voltage magnitude D=nD and phase angle Kn must be calculated.

b) 0enerator nodes, where the injected power, Pns, and the magnitude of the nodal voltage D=nD are specified. "hese constraints reflect the generator?s operating characteristics, in which power

'+

is controlled by the governor and terminal voltage is controlled by the automatic voltage regulator. 1t the generator nodes the voltage phase angle Kn must be calculated

c) 1t least one node, termed the >floating bus? or >slac# bus?, where the nodal voltage magnitude D =nD and phase angle Kn are specified. "his node acts as the reference node and is commonly chosen to have a phase angle Kn H <o. "he power and reactive power delivered at this node are not specified.

In the system configuration of Fig. ', each type of node is represented with node ' being a floating bus, node + being a generator node and node / being a load node. -onsequently values must be specified for the power (P+s) injected at node +, and the power (P/s) and reactive power (C/s) injected at node /. 1ll three of these power values may be changed by the user, though default values are provided (P+s H '.<L P/s H %'.2L C/s H %<.+), with negative values indicating that power or reactive power is being drawn from the system. "he magnitude of the voltage at node ' can be specified, with the default value being '.< pu, while the phase angle is fi6ed at < o

< ( V1 H '.<< ). 1t the generator node (node +), the voltage magnitude can be set by the user with the default value being '.' pu ( 4+ H' . ' K +),and the phase angle K2 is calculated during the load flow solution. 1t the load node (node /) the voltage magnitude and phase angle have to be calculated ( V 3H V/ K / ). 4o the complete load flow problem for this particular power system configuration involves the calculation of the voltage magnitude V/ and the phase angles K + ,K / . '/

CHAPTER-3 NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD

3.1. %3*3ra0 A88r+ac7

"he

ewton%$aphson method is an iterative technique for solving systems of simultaneous

equations in the general form7

(()

where f',....fn....fr are differentiable functions of the variables 6',....6n ,....6r and :', ....:n....:r are constants. 1pplied to the load flow problem, the variables are the nodal voltage magnitudes and phase angles, the functions are the relationships between power, reactive power and node voltages, while the constants are the specified values of power and reactive power at the generator and load nodes.

Power and reactive power functions can be derived by starting from the general e6pression for injected current (&qn. +) at node n7

'(

so the comple6 power input to the system at node n is7

M

(2)

where the superscript

denotes the comple6 conjugate. 4ubstituting from (+) with all comple6

variables written in polar form7

(*)

"he power and reactive power inputs at node n are derived by ta#ing the real and imaginary parts of the comple6 power7

(8) N (,)

'2

"he load flow problem is to find values of voltage magnitude and phase angle, which, when substituted into (8) and (,), produce values of power and reactive power equal to the specified set values at that node, Pns and Cns.

< < "he first step in the solution is to ma#e initial estimates of all the variables7 Vn , Kn where the

superscript < indicates the number of iterative cycles completed. @sing these estimates, the power and reactive power input at each node can be calculated from (8) and (,). "hese values are compared with the specified values to give a power and reactive power error. For node n7

(.) N ('<)

"he power and reactive power errors at each node are related to the errors in the voltage
< < magnitudes and phase angles, e.g. O Vn , OK by the first order appro6imations7

'*

'')

where the matri6 of partial differentials is called the 5acobian matri6, P5Q. "he elements of the 5acobian are calculated by differentiating the power and reactive power e6pressions (8,,) and substituting the estimated values of voltage magnitude and phase angle.

1t the ne6t stage of the ewton%$aphson solution, the 5acobian is inverted. 3atri6 inversion is a computationally%comple6 tas# with the resources of time and storage increasing rapidly with the order of P5Q. "his requirement for matri6 inversion is a major drawbac# of the ewton%$aphson

method of load flow analysis for large%scale power systems. Eowever, with the inversion completed, the appro6imate errors in voltage magnitudes and phase angles can be calculated by pre%multiplying both sides of ('')7

'8

('+)

"he appro6imate errors from ('+) are added to the initial estimates to produce new estimated values of node voltage magnitude and angle. For node n7

('()

9ecause first%order appro6imations are used in ('') the new estimates (denoted by the superscript
')

are not e6act solutions to the problem. Eowever, they can be used in another iterative cycle,

involving the solution of &quations (.%'(). "he process is repeated until the differences between successive estimates are within an acceptable tolerance band.

"he description above relates specifically to a load node, where there are two un#nowns (the voltage magnitude and angle) and two equations relating to the specified power and reactive power. For a generator node the voltage magnitude Vnand power reactive power is not specified. ',
n

P are specified, but the

"he order of the calculation can be reduced by '. "here is no need to ensure that the reactive power is at a set value and only the angle of the node voltage needs to be calculated, so one row and column are removed from the 5acobian. For the floating bus, both voltage magnitude and angle are specified, so there is no need to calculate these quantities.

3.2. A880&cat&+* +/ t73 N31t+*-Ra87s+* M3t7+, t+ t73 S83c&/&c Pr+b036

For the e6ample system shown in Fig. ' and analysed in the &6cel ;or#boo#, there are three un#nowns ( V/ ,K + ,K / ) and three set values of power and reactive power (P +s, P/s, C/s). 0eneral e6pressions for power and reactive power input at nodes + and / can be derived from (8) and (,)7

('2),('*),('8)

'.

In the iterative solution process, ('2%'8) are used to calculate the power and reactive power inputs from latest estimates of node voltages and then using (.,'<) to calculate the power errors. "he terms in the 5acobian are obtained by partial differentiation of ('2%'8). For e6ample7

(',) N ('.) Inversion of the /6/ 5acobian with scalar elements is easily accomplished in &6cel. ('+) can be used to derive the appro6imate errors in the three variables and new estimates formed from ('/,'(). "hese new estimates are applied in the subsequent iterative cycle.

3.3. Sa6803 R3s-0ts /+r t73 N31t+*-Ra87s+* M3t7+,

For the default system inputs, defined in 4ection +, the

ewton%$aphson method,

implemented in the /rd sheet of the &6cel ;or#boo#, produces the results shown in "able '. In this simple e6ample, only 2 iterations are needed to generate results which are stable to three decimal places, even though the initial estimates of all three un#nowns are far from the correct value. ;hen ma#ing comparisons with other methods of solution, it is important to realise that +<

each iterative cycle of the

ewton% $aphson method involves considerable computational effort,

notably to invert the 5acobian. 3.( L+a, F0+1 A0'+r&t76 "he ewton%$aphson procedure is as follows7 St38-1: -hoose the initial values of the voltage magnitudes D VD (<) of all np load buses and n R ' angles (0) of the voltages of all the buses e6cept the slac# bus. St38-2: @se the estimated DVD(<) and (0) to calculate a total n R ' number of injected real power Pcalc(0) and equal number of real power mismatch SP (<) . St38-3: @se the estimated DVD (<) and (0) to calculate a total np number of injected reactive power Qcalc(0) and equal number of reactive power mismatch SQ (<) . St38-3: @se the estimated DVD (<) and (0) to formulate the 5acobian matri6 J (0) . St38-(: 4olve ((./<) for (0) and S DVD (<) T DVD (<).

+'

St38-) 7 Abtain the updates from

St386: -hec# if all the mismatches are below a small number. "erminate the process if yes. Atherwise go bac# to step%' to start the ne6t iteration with the updates given by ((./*) and ((./8).

3.(.1 F+r6at&+* +/ t73 9ac+b&a* Matr&:

;e shall now discuss the formation of the submatrices of the 5acobian matri6. "o do that 13 s7a00 -s3 t73 r3a0 a*, r3act&;3 8+13r 3<-at&+*s +/ =(.6> a*, =(. > . )et us rewrite them with the help of ((.+) as

++

((./, ) ((./. )

A. F+r6at&+* +/ 911 )et us define J11 as ((.(< )

It can be seen from ((./+) that LikUs are the partial derivatives of Pi with respect to k. "he derivative Pi ((./,) with respect to k for i V k is given by ((.(' ) +/

4imilarly the derivative Pi with respect to k for i H k is given by

-omparing the above equation with ((./.) we can write ((.(+ )

B. F+r6at&+* +/ 921 )et us define J21 as ((.(/ )

From ((./() it is evident that the elements of J21 are the partial derivative of Q with respect to +(

((.((

C7a8t3r-(

INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB 6.1: I*tr+,-ct&+*

31")19 is a numerical computing environment and fourth generation programming language. Weveloped by "he 3ath ;or#s, 31")19 allows

3atri6 manipulation, Plotting of functions and data, Implementation of algorithms, -reation of user interfaces, and Interfacing with programs in other languages.

1lthough it is numeric only, an optional toolbo6 uses the 3uP1W symbolic engine, allowing access to computer algebra capabilities. 1n additional pac#age, 4imulin#, adds graphical multidomain simulation and 3odel%9ased Wesign for dynamic and embedded systems.

31")19 is a high%performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualiBation, and programming in an easy%to%use environment where problems and solutions are e6pressed in familiar mathematical notation. 31")19 features a family of add%on application%specific solutions called toolbo6es. "oolbo6es are comprehensive collections of 31")19 functions (3%files) that e6tend the 31")19 environment to solve particular classes of problems. +2

31")19, the application, is built around the 31")19 language. "he simplest way to e6ecute 31")19 code is to type it in at the prompt, XX , in the -ommand ;indow, one of the elements of the 31")19 Wes#top. In this way, 31")19 can be used as an interactive mathematical shell. 4equences of commands can be saved in a te6t file, typically using the 31")19 &ditor, as a script or encapsulated into a function, e6tending the commands available.

31")19 is a Y3atri6 )aboratoryY, and as such it provides many convenient ways for creating vectors, matrices, and multi%dimensional arrays. In the 31")19 vernacular, a vector refers to a one dimensional ('Z or Z') matri6, commonly referred to as an array in other

programming languages. 1 matri6 generally refers to a +%dimensional array, i.e. an mZn array where m and n are greater than or equal to '. 1rrays with more than two dimensions are referred to as multidimensional arrays.

6.2: M-/&03s
1n 3%file is a 31")19%e6ecutable file that consists of a sequence of statements and commands. 1n 3%file can be created in any te6t editor, but it should be saved in a dis# file with the 6tension .m. "here are two types of 3%files, scripts and functions. 1 script is nothing else but a file containing series of statements.

3atrices can be defined by separating the elements of a row with blan# space or comma and using a semicolon to terminate each row. "he list of elements should be surrounded by square brac#ets7 PQ. Parentheses7 () are used to access elements and sub arrays (they are also used to denote a function argument list). +*

6.3 R-**&*' MATLAB

"o start 31")19 on a 3icrosoft ;indows platform run [le matlab.e6e (this can be done by simply double%clic#ing the 31")19 shortcut icon which is usually located on ;indows des#top). "o start 31")19 on @ni6, type matlab at the operating system prompt. "his will open the 31")19 des#top.

+8

CHAPTER-) INTRODUCTION TO SIMULIN! .1: I*tr+,-ct&+*

4imulin#, developed by "he 3ath ;or#s, is a commercial tool for modeling, simulating and analyBing multidomain dynamic systems. Its primary interface is a graphical bloc#

diagramming tool and a customiBable set of bloc# libraries. It offers tight integration with the rest of the 31")19 environment and can either drive 31")19 or be scripted from it. 4imulin# is widely used in control theory and digital signal processing for multidomain simulation and design.

4imulin# is an environment for multidomain simulation and 3odel%9ased Wesign for dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical environment and a customiBable set of bloc# libraries that let you design, simulate, implement, and test a variety of time%varying systems, including communications, controls, signal processing, video processing, and image processing.

.2: !32 F3at-r3s

&6tensive and e6pandable libraries of predefined bloc#s Interactive graphical editor for assembling and managing intuitive bloc# diagrams 1bility to manage comple6 designs by segmenting models into hierarchies of design components 3odel &6plorer to navigate, create, configure, and search all signals, parameters, properties, and generated code associated with your model +,

 1pplication programming interfaces (1PIs) that let you connect with other simulation programs and incorporate hand%written code.

.3: Cr3at&*' a*, W+r5&*' 1&t7 M+,30s

;ith 4imulin#, you can quic#ly create, model, and maintain a detailed bloc# diagram of your system using a comprehensive set of predefined bloc#s. 4imulin# provides tools for hierarchical modeling, data management, and subsystem customiBation, ma#ing it easy to create concise, accurate representations, regardless of your systemUs comple6ity.

.(: A880&cat&+*s +/ s&6-0&*5

3odel%9ased Wesign -ontrol 4ystems Wigital 4ignal Processing -ommunications 4ystems Image and =ideo Processing &mbedded 4ystems

3echatronics

+.

CHAPTER-6 S-66ar2 +/ R3s-0ts a*, S2st36 Ca0c-0at&+*s

"he I&&&%'( bus system, which is composed of '( buses and +< lines, has been used to test the proposed methodology. "he data for I&&&%'(%bus system were ta#en from P+<Q with buses renumbered to ma#e bus%' as slac# bus having prespecified voltage as '.<* <F p.u., buses +%2 as PV buses and buses *%'( as load (PQ) buses.

"he total number of inputs is +*, including diagonal values of 0 and 9, real and reactive loads, real bus power generation at bus no. +, bus voltage magnitudes at ( P= and the slac# buses. For training and testing of , +< load scenarios were generated by perturbing the load at all the

buses in the range of 2<\ to '2<\, PV bus voltage magnitude between <.. to '.'<, real power generation between ,<\ to '+<\,transformer tap setting between <.. to '.'<. 4ingle%line outages were considered as contingencies. conte6t. Eence load flow analysis is successfully analysed on I&&& '( bus system ewton%$aphson ( $) power flow program was used in this

o of busesH'( /<

o of linesH+<

L&*3 Data:
)p

)q + / ( 2 2 ( 2 * 8 , . . '< '' '+ '/ '( '' '/ '(

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] <.<2.'8 <.'.8.8 <.'8*/+ <.++/<( <.'8/,, <.'8'</ <.<(+'' <.+2+<+ <.+<.'+ <.'8*'2 <.22*', <.''<<' <.<,(2< <.'.,.< <.+22,' <.'/<+8 <.+8</, <.'.+<8 <.'..,, <./(,<+

Gcp <.<+*(< <.<+'.< <.<',8< <.<+(*< <.<'8 <.<'8/ <.<<*( <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.<

Gcq <.<+*(< <.<+'.< <.<',8< <.<+(*< <.<'8 <.<'8/ <.<<*( <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.< <.<

tap '.< '.< '.< '.< '.< '.< '.< <../+ <..8, '.< <..*. '.< '.< '.< '.< '.< '.< '.< '.< '.<

' + + ' + / ( 2 ( 8 ( 8 . * * * . '< '+ '/

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9us Wata7
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