DEVELOPMENT OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FROM 1000 B.C. TO 600 B.C.

A STUDY

M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly

Thesis
Submitted to M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly For the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
in ANCIENT HISTORY AND CULTURE
Supervised by: Dr. U.P. Arora Greek Chair Professor Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Submitted by Priya Saxena

DEPARTMENT OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND CULTURE, M.J.P. ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY, BAREILLY

2012

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Development of Arts and Crafts from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. A Study is an original work carried out by Priya Saxena, in the Department of Ancient History and Culture under my guidance. She has fulfilled all the requirements, relating to the ordinance, prescribed under the regulations of the university for submitting the thesis, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of Ancient History and Culture of M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly.

Date : (Dr. U.P. Arora) Greek Chair Professor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To convert the object into the subject to be seen by our eyes imagination, Subject knowledge, Proper initiation, firm determination, hard work and accumulation of all above concepts play an important role to achieve the desired aim and to reach the required destination. Although it is a certain facts that Proposals are decided in the world of eternity. Our proposals may be granted, if we analyze and observe these means in a Practical wave of truth and facts, related to the particular concept. The real picture of these proposals seems to be finalize in their real shapes on this earth of different views by some special creations of God who may be our Parents, Our Teachers, Our friends and any other near and dear helping us as our guide and well wisher to proceed further and to reach the approach. These special creations of God make our mind competent and bring us in the magic world of different colours to fulfill these blank but proposed pictures. Regarding my thesis, Thank you sounds so formal and inadequate when I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the most valuable guidance provided by my esteemed guide Dr. U.P Arora. He not only shepherded me so deftly through the maze of research but also taught me to sift wheat from the chaff. How to convert the seemingly meaningless data into meaningful information and how to turn that meaningful information into a powerful vehicle to arrive at my conclusions, nobody else could have taught me better. On my painstakingly long and arduous

journey, his kindly, soothing and presence never deserted me. It would possibly not cover the magnitude of his kindness, patience and help to extended to me. I am very thankful to the Ex. Head of the dept. of Ancient History and Culture, M.J.P Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, Dr. R.P Yadev and A.k Sinha sir for providing me the valuable suggestions which were helpful in my thesis. I am greatly indebted to the present Head of the dept. Dr. Abhey kumar Singh and my other teachers Dr. Shayam Bihari Lal, Dr. B.B. Yadev, and Dr. Pankaj Sharma for providing me the valuable suggestions. I express my deepest sense of gratitude to Dr. Anoop Ranjan Mishra for their constructive guidance and encouragement which have made this work well documented. I am extremely grateful to Prof. J.N. Pal, Allhabad University, Allhabad and Prof. R.C. Takran, Delhi University, Delhi for their enlightening discussions that were a part of my thesis. I also thanks to Dr. Aparna Mathur (Assit. Professor in North Eastern Hill University, Shillong) and Dr. Renu Shukla (Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, K.G.M, Dehradun) has been a great source of inspiration for initiation of this work and throughout the period of study. She never turned me down whenever I needed her help on a short notice. I express my most genuine and sincere gratitude to both of them. I am particularly thankful to Arora aunty for her kind co-operation and familiar attitude. My heartfelt thanks to the library of National Museum, A.S.I., I.C.H.R., J.N.U at New Delhi, A.S.I. Dehrdun, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar, Farook Collage, (Kozikode,Kerala) and Rohilkhand University, Bareilly for providing me access to the world of books and relevant material.

I would like to special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Pandey and Mr. Neeraj Verma, ASI, Dehradun. I am thankful to Dr. Dilip (Assistant Professor, Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar), for his valuable assistance, my senior colleagues at Kanya Gurukul Mahavidyalaya Campus, Dehradun Dr. Neha Datta, Dr.Prena, and other staff faculties. In connection with the present study, I consulted the National Museum, New Delhi, Gurukul Kangari University Museum, Haridwar and Panchala Museum in Rohilkhand University, Bareilly. I am grateful to the authorities and staff of these Museums and Institutions for allowing me to study the material. I wish to express my grateful thanks to ICHR, New Delhi for granting me research scholarship. My sincere thanks to Kulpreet Kaur, Dr. Deepak not only treated me like younger sister but always encouraged me with their kind and positive words. I shall be failing in my duty if I do not thank to my husband Mr. Mohit, and my child Aanya. I have no words to express my gratitude and indebtedness to my mother, Inlaws and friends, who always encouraged me to achieve the desired goal. Ms. Monika typed out the manuscript and Mr. Manoj Kumar Gupta (Typing Zone) Suresh Sharma Nagar, Bareilly helped me in typed stage of this work. My sincere gratitude to both of them.

Priya Saxena

ABBREVIATIONS
AA AB AHNE AI AN Ap. DS Ap. GS Asta ASI As. SS AV Br. BU Ch. CU DN Ed. Eng. Tr. GB Govt. Hindi tr. IA I. Ant. IHQ JBORS Aitareya Aranyaka Aitareya Brhmaa The Ancient History of the Near-EASt Ancient India Anguttara Nikya pastamba Dharma Stra pastamba Ghya Stra Astdhyy Archaeological Survey of India valyana rauta Stra Atharva Veda Brhmaa Brhadryanka Upanis ad Chapter Chndogya Upanihad Digha Nikya Editior English translation Goptha Brahmana Government Hindi Translation Indian Aechaeology (A review) Indian Antiguary Indian Historical Quarterly Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research

JBRS JAOS JIH JNSI JBAI JRAS JUB KA KS KU KSS KU MS

Journal of the Bihar Research Society Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal l of Indian History Journal of the Numismatic Society of India Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Jaiminiya Upanis ad Brhmaa Kautilya Arthasastra Kathaka Samhit Kausitaki Upanis ad Ktyyana rauta Stra Katha Upanis ad Maitraya Samhit

Mundaka Up Mundaka Upanis ad MU OCP PAI PB Pd. PGW PGS Proc. SB Sad.Br TA TB Tr. Mandukya Upanis ad Ochre Coloured Pottery Potteries in Ancient India Pancavimsa Brhmaa Period Painted Grey Ware Praskara Ghya Stra Proceedings. atapatha Brhmaa Sadvinsa Brhmaa Taittirya Aranyaka Taittirya Brhmaa Translation

TS TU VI Vinaya Vol. VS

Taittirya Samhit Taittirya Upanis ad Vedic Index Vinaya Pitaka Volume Vajasaneyi Samhit

CONTENTS

Chapter Topic No. I Introduction: Source Material, Preview of Previous Work, Present Approach. II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X State Formation and Urbanization in Ganga Valley Trade and Commerce Arts and Crafts A Brief Survey Metal Textile Beads Potteries & Terracottas Miscellaneous & Other Craft Conclusion Appendix Bibliography Map Plate

Page No. 1-22

23-41 42-57 58-76 77-103 104-123 124-134 135-179 180-194 195-201 202-205 206-219

INTRODUCTION
The history of artistic advancement of the Vedic people may be started with an examination of sources in which many enormous examples were mentioned. The region of the Kuru Pachla (The fertile land of Western U.P., Haryana and Modern Delhi) provides us legendry accounts of archaeology. In Geographical terms this area covers the Indo-Gangetic divide and upper Gangetic plains. The Indo Gangetic divide, if the northern most portion of the Bari doab is included in it, is about 35,0000 sq. miles. The soil of the plains of Punjab and Haryana is generally alkaline, which helps to preserve organic and inorganic material including iron artifacts. The whole region has thrown valuable light on various aspects of life of Vedic ryans. The region figured among the sixteen great political units called Mahjanapadas into which the whole country was divided at the dawn of the historical period1. The compilation of the later Vedic literature was the most glorious epoch in the history of Pachla. The advent of iron marks the technological advancement which was affected the agricultural pursuits, mode of production and material perspective of Vedic economy. The archaeological aspects of the Kuru-Pachla region is marked by the presence of the Painted Grey Ware2 (PGW) which could be describe as the Kuru- Pachla ware because this area is its epicenter. Stability in the settlement pattern of Vedic ryans must be changed the economic life of later Vedic people. From the archaeological point of

view, PGW and NBP deposits can largely be utilized for the study of material and cultural development of the people during this period. Besides agriculture, the discovery of iron and growing arts and crafts played a prominent role in growth and development of Vedic ryans. On the basis of obtainable data and sources the present study highlights the progression in agrarian economy, emergence of territorial kingdom and various craft behabiour in the period of 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. The early Indian literature is typically religious in character, but references can be gleaned as to the state of contemporary arts and crafts. Archeology has thrown helpful light on the various aspects of material life of northern India. Consequently, Archaeology has proved to be a corresponding source of evidence for this study. While literature has revealed and filled up the gaps which archeology had left open. In the later Vedic manuscript we can see a transformation of religious conception, the elimination of old and configuration of new collection. The gradual transition from nomadic and cattle breeding life to settle life employed in agriculture and the coming up of a new class order which replace the old aristocratic social constitution.

Literary Sources:The Vedic texts compiled between 1000 and 500 B.C. i.e., the Samhits other then Rgveda have special significance in so far as they were largely complied in western Uttar Pradesh. Rgveda is the collection of 1028 hymns divided into ten mandalas or books. Most of hymns are prayers addressed to the various gods, they contain such a large number of allusions to the surrounding customs, manner, belief and even the events and the personages of the age3. The Rgveda is supplemented by three other Vedas, namely the Smveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda, containing nominally the knowledge requisite for three different kind of priests officiating at sacrifice respectively the sman or udgtri , the adhavarya and the atharvan or agira (fire priest4). The later Vedic literature generally covers the period from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. The Smveda has importance of the first text in the history of Indian music. The hymns of this Veda are recited specially at the samyga. The praises of god who are supposed to honour the ceremony with their presence and prayers for the prosperity of the worshiper and are the main subject of these hymns5. Though, it is not much significant for the historians. The Yajurveda is one of the most important and informative part of literature for studying different accounts of economic life of the later Vedic people. The Yajurveda consists of two different texts, the Black (krsna) Yajurveda and the White (ukla) Yajurveda. There are three recessions of the krsna Yajurveda, namely Taittirya, Maitraya, and Kathaka samhits.

The characteristic features of the black Yajurveda are mantras or verses. These contain explanation and discussion of the ritual as part of which the mantras were to be uttered6. The White Yajurveda survives in only the Vjesney Samhit. There are fourty chapters in this text. The Atharvaveda is a late addition of the trayi, the three Vedas namely the Rgveda, Smveda and Yajurveda. It derives its name from a person named Atharvan who was the first priest who produces or invented fire by attrition7. It is divided into 20 books which contain 6000 hymns.The Atharvaveda is the oldest monuments of Indian medicine. Along with it consist prayers, formula and charms for protection against evils sprits, beast and other harmful elements. The book contains reference to the life of common people from the cradle to grave8. The Brhmaa texts have considerable importance from the viewpoint of social and religious information of this period. The Rgveda belongs to Aitereya Brhmaa and the Kausitaki Brhmaa. These are written in prose or partly in verse and contain the formula of performing sacrifice. These are eight Brhmaa tests are attached to the Smveda such as Pachvima Brhmaa, the Sadavima, the Chndogya Brhmaa, Jaiminya Brhmana, Smavidhna, Devatdhayyana, Arseya and Vamsa Brhmaa .The first four are important from the historical point of view and rest are the only index of Smaveda. To the Black Yajurveda belongs the Taittirya Brhmaa. It castes a supplement to the Taittirya Sam hit and is concerned with a few sacrifices. To the white Yajurveda belongs the atapatha Brhmaa and it consists of one hundred adhayyas. The atapatha Brhmaa belongs to the Vajasney Samhit. To the Atharvaveda belongs the Gopth Brhmaa which is divided in to two parts namely, Prva and Uttara.

Other next important works in the Vedic literature is the ranyakas or forest books.Their main concerns are theosophic character, and deal with the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice. They are found at the end of the Brhmaas and from a transition to the Upanisad9. The three important ranayakas are Aitareya, Kaustaki and Taittirya. The first two are attached with the Rgveda, while Taittirya ranayaka is attached with the Yajurveda. The Brhadryanka Upanisad is the part of the atapatha Brhmaa. The Jaminiya and the Chndogya have also considered as ranyakas. The Upanisads are very informative source of the Vedic literature for studying the material and cultural life of the people. There are thirteen Vedic Upanisads which are closely related to the Brhmaas. These Upanisads are Aitareya, Kausitaki, Chndogya, Kena, Taittirya, Katha, vetvatara, Maitraya, Brhadryanka, Ia, Mundaka, Prana, and Mndukya Upanisad. Max Mullar suggest that like other Vedic text the Upanisad maintain a place in the literature of the world as some of the most astounding productions of human mind in any age and in any country10. It may be stated that the study of later Vedic economy remain partial without Nighantu literature. The Nighantu contains three section divided into five chapter but for the purpose of present study, its first four chapter are useful. The Brhmaas are two sets of text which were later held to constitute Vedenta the end of the Veda in the sense of constituting both the final part of the Vedic corpus and the final aim of Veda as knowledge. The Vedic literature was followed by six Vedangas viz. Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vykarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chandas (matrics), and Jyotia (astronomy).

A large part of Vedic literature comprises the Stra texts, Stra meaning thread whence a rule stated in abbreviated form presumably for easy memorization11. The Kalpa Stra is the most important which is divided into four classes, the rauta Stras, the Grhya, Stras, the Dharma Stras and the Sulva Stra. The Brhmaa texts are the source books of the rauta Stras which deal with the rauta sacrifice. The Ghya Stra connected with domestic rituals and discussed the socio-religious and economic life of Vedic period. The Dharma Stras deal with policy and directive of religious and secular law. The four important Dharma Stras are Gautam, Baudhyana, pastamba and Vaistha. The Prana s corresponds the authentic convention tradition in the history of Vedic literature. They are sectarian works, the common feature of most of them is the record of the ancient ryan ruling dynasties. There are 18 Pranas viz. include, Brahma, Vayu, Matsya, Brhmanda, Vishnu, Bhagavla, Garuda, Agni, Padma, Linga, Kurma, Markandeya, Bhavisya, Narada, Brahmavaivarta, Varaha, Vam na and Skanda. They afford us for greater insight into all aspects and phases of hindusim. Its mythology, its idol worship, its theism and pantheism, its love of god, its philosophy and its superstition , its festivals and ceremonies and its ethics than any other work12. For the study of the later Vedic civilization, the importance of the epics cannot be ignored. This has a paramount significance as a source material. The chronological stratification of the Mahbhrata is still uncertain. It is difficult to us the materials drawn from the Mahbhrata for one particular period, for its narrative portion looks back to as early as the tenth century B.C.

The Buddhist Literature:The historical importance early Buddhist literature may be assertained for the study of later Vedic economy. The Buddha preached his teaching at the end of later Vedic period and he vehemently criticised the performance of the Vedic sacrifices, authenticity of the Vedas, superiority of the Brhmanas and the Varna organization based on birth13.The Anguttara Nikya mentions the sixteen great political units called Mahjanapadas14. Other Buddhist text tells us about the material life just after the termination of the Vedic period. With the emergence of new cities and towns, growth and development in all spheres of life took place as the advent of iron, the use of metallic coins facilities for the growth of the agriculture economy and trade and commerce. All these changes have been recorded in the Buddhist literature. The foreign literature should be utilized for the knowledge of Vedic economy and cultural contacts. In this respect the Iranian and Persian literature are very informative source material. The languages of these literatures are closely related to the Rgveda (Indigenous text). The Avesta is the sacred book of the ryans of Iran who were a branch of Indo-Europeans. The Avestan test shows a clear sign of a structure. The oldest part of the Avesta comprises in the Gathas, are set of 17 hymns whice were composed by Zarathushtra. It was in materical form like the gvedic hymns15. The lraian Mithras (Vedic mitra) remained one of their main gods. The fire worship and the cult of Soma are a common inheritance in both of them16. The Vedic Yam and Avestic Yima played a common role. The Vedic ryans had cultural and commercial contact with the other contemporary cultures undoubtly the similarities and resemblence of

both culture have been noticed. The institutions, customs and ways of thought of the Vedic and the Avestan people are so similar that there can be no doubt the two cultures are very closely related17.

Archaeological Sources:A culture is characterized by a number of technological aspects such as agriculture, handmade and wheel made pottery, use of metals in various fields and other craft materials. Archaeology represents the exact data about the chronology, techniques and other authentic and well defined records from the discovered materials. The objectivity of history are dependent upon the archaeological aspects. The various late Harappan cultures had long rather undistinguished innings that took them even beyond 1500 B.C. Undoubtedly, these great cultures have continuous development. As the late Harappan cultures were emerged into a new culture known as a Painted Grey Ware culture. Painted Grey Ware is a fine wheel made, well-fired grey pottery on which pattern in lines and dots were painted with black pigment before firing18. The PGW sites are spread over a vast area, measuring about 1400 km from west to east and about 900 km. from North to south. About 850 PGW sites have been discovered in this area. The main concentration of this ware is in the western part of the Ganga Yamuna doab and in the immediate west of this region. The distribution of PGW cultural assemblage has been recovered from various PGW sites.

Ahichchhatra:Ahichchhatra is the capital of North Panchala. This site has been excavated by K.N. Dikshit. The PGW culture was first indentified from

Ahichchhatra in Bareilly district in 1940-4119. The PGW was reported from the lower level (IX stratum) of the excavated sites.

Atranjkhera:This is the most important site of the PGW, situated in Etah district, excavated by R.C. Gaur. Atranjkhera has yielded a calibrated radiocarbon date of 1034 B.C. from the mid PGW levels20. Among the other significant findings, Atranjkhera have yielded a good number of iron objects associated with PGW culture.

Hasitnapur:After the discovery of PGW at Ahichchhatra, systematic excavation were carried out at over 30 sites near Delhi, which are either explicitly named in the Mahbhrata or believed by local tradition to be associated with the epics21. Significantly PGW was discovered at all of them, providing reliable circumstantial evidence that PGW considered the hallmark of the later Vedic ryans22. Hastinpur is situated in Mawana Tehsil of district Meerut excavated in during 1950-52 under the direction of Brij Basi Lal. Five occupational levels have been revealed from Hastinpur with a definite gap between the periods. After a small gap, the site was re inhabited by the PGW people23. Allhapur24 :Sri K.N. Dikshit and Dr. Romila Thapar was excavated Allahpur site which is situated in Meerut district. Period IA is representing the PGW habitation. PGW occur even during the IB period without any deterioration in fabric and shape. However the occurrence of PGW

throughout the phase confirmed a longer duration of the PGW then hitherto imagined25. Aalamgirpur26:There are other sites such as Ropar and Aalamgirpur situated in Meerut district (Uttar Pradesh) on the bank of river Hindon, a tributary of the Yamuna. There is a distinct gap between the late Harappan and PGW layers. This suggests that Harappan had abandoned these sites before the PGW people occupied the mounds27. Bhagwanpura:From Bhagwanpura (Kurukshtra district, Haryana) and Dadhri (Ludhiyana district), PGW is interlocked with late Harappan culture and suggesting a smooth transition28. The Bhagwanpura site was excavated by Mr. J.P. Joshi, who claims that continuity has been noticed in the cultural remains in pottery as well as in painted designs29. Both these sites present the PGW before the Iron Age. Sravasti:Sravasti is situated on the boundary of Gonda Baharaich district of Uttar Pradesh. The site of Ujjain lies in the Garh Kalika mound of the ancient Ujjayani in Madhya Pradesh. From these sites PGW does not occur in an independent horizon but it is mixed with the subsequent NBP ware. A beautiful form of PGW reported in a limited number30. Sardargarh:Sardargarh is small village site situated in Suratgarh in Bikaner district. There are four ancient mounds at Sardargarh. The site was inhabited by the PGW people for a long time.

The Trial trenches were dug in 1955 at the Purana Qila mound in Delhi; it is to be believed the site of Indraprastha. PGW was recovered from lower level of the mound. After the three session excavation during 1969-70 a few sherds of PGW have been found. While, the work was unsuccessful to reveal a regular PGW horizon. Thapli:The discovery in Garhwal was made at Thapli which is situated on the right bank of river Alaknanda in Tehri Garhwal 2 km south west of Srinagar across the river. The excavation at this site revealed a single phase culture of PGW along with its associate types in other wares and related material31. Mathura32:Mathura was well known for its importance. The Painted Grey Ware was collected from Mathura. Here, PGW sherds are picked up at the vast Katra mound. The early Painted Grey Ware deposit as Mathura is represented by lower most three layers33. Noh34:The excavations conducted at Noh in Baratpura district by the department of Archeology, Rajasthan have revealed, fairly rich deposit of Painted Grey Ware. It yields a separate phase of B and R ware which lies above the OCP and below the PGW deposits. Khalaua35:This site is situated in khalaua village 16km from Agra. The mound is locally known as Gwal Khera. Among the new features of PGW at this site are the motifs like criss cross and a leaf filled with parallel hatching.

Jakhera36:The site of Jakhera locally known as Kusak, in Etah district, is located on the left bank of the Kalinadi, in the North-West of Kasganj tehsil.The site was excavated in 1974-75, and 1975-76 by M.D.N.Sahi.The occupational deposit at the site have been classified in four fold culture as OCP, BRW, PGW and NBPW. The excavation revealed the interrelationship between the BRW and PGW and detailed information regarding the material life of the PGW people.

Abhipur:The ancient site of Abhipur is located one km west of the village Abhipur, about 1.5 km east site flows the river deoha, in district Pilibhit37. Although four habitational deposits of cultural periods are noticed at this site namely as OCW, BRW, PGW and NBPW.The site is excavated by the dept. of Ancient history and culture of M.J.P. Rohilakhand University in 2001. The excavation work was completed in three sessions as 2001-02, 2003-04, and 2005-06. Kaumbi38:The prominent site of Kaumbi was situated in Kosamgaon of Majhenpur tehsil located in the Allhabad district.The ruins of Kosambi was found from the left bank of Yamuna.The region was far from 35 miles SouthWest from Allhabad.Kosambi was the capital of Vats Janapada in 6th c.B.C. Kosambi was excavated from 1949 to 1965-66 by G.R. Sharma. The cultural sequence recovered from here as pre PGW, PGW (Associated ware BRW and RW), NBPW, post NBPW cultures.

Although the chronology of PGW culture was still uncertain. From various excavated sites different dates were suggested by the excavators. As, from Hastinapura B.B. Lal has suggested 1100 B.C. to 600 B.C. date of PGW culture. From 1000 B.C. to 700 B.C. was decided on the basis of Ropar excavation. From the Kosambi excavation, PGW was dated as 885 B.C. While D.K. Chakrabarti has been mentioned 800 B.C. date for PGW culture. R.C. Gaur has been suggested that PGW culture was started from 1200 B.C. Thus it can be ascertained that PGW culture was persisting about 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. in Gangtic Plain. The PGW culture was covered the western part India as Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Generally most of the sites are located on the bank of river, thus all these sites have brought to light various aspects of PGW culture as social, religious and economic.

Material Objects:From the excavations of the PGW sites various types of objects have been unearthed. These numerous objects shed light on the material culture and economic prospects of the PGW period. Besides this, all objects help in reconstructing the history of their cultural and commercial contacts with other world through trade. Material evidence suggests that the inhabitant of PGW sites were pastoral agriculturists. The PGW people used the pottery with its highly evolved techniques of manufacture showing an excellent fabric, firing and finish. Allchins called it a `hallmark` of this cultural period39. The Painted Grey Ware culture marks the advent of the Iron Age in India. It seems, they possessed an advanced technical knowledge in the field of metallurgy. Copper technology was learnt with all its complex

techniques during this phase40. A large number of implements and tools available from the discovery of sites prove the popularity of metal techniques. Beads, Terracottas, stone, glass and miscellaneous objects have been unearthed. Certain objects represent the complete picture of the socioeconomic life of Vedic ryans.

Preview of Previous Works:Subsequently, the work on Vedic people and their socio-cultural history have been published by prominent historian. Concerning the aspects of arts and crafts of later Vedic period numerous work have come to light for the study of the different material perspective of the contemporary societies. The prominent historian K.M. Srimali in his book, The History of Pachla incorporated the sources for evaluating the geography, the ethnography and arts of the Pachla region. On the basis of combined testimony of literary and archeological sources. In the book, The Arts and Crafts in Northern India, Neelima Dahiya has tried to make such studies and thereby understand the developmental procedure and techniques used in arts and crafts stuffs. The author states that the changes that have taken place in northern India (Upto to Narmada and the Vindhyas) from stone age to Mauryan have been analyzed by examining the development of various new industries such as stone, pottery, bone and ivories, metallurgy, sculptural art, rock painting and engraving seal, beads, coins and textiles etc. The Later Vedic Economy of B.P Roy is the complete structural frame work of the origin and development of later Vedic economy.

Rajesh Kochhar presents a unbiased approach in his book, The Vedic People, their History and Geography. His ideological remarks are notably different from the slew of revisionist rewritings. The author marks the adventurous and potentially hazardous theories. He puts us back on the compact ground of facts and their accounts. B.P. Sinhas Potteries in Ancient India has been a popular textbook. Although the author present remarkable synthesis of specialized writing on the potteries. It is multi pronged reconstruction of vexed problems is quite thought provoking. The analytical examination on the techniques, characteristics and significance of OCP, PGW and NBPW wares have been observed in this book. R.C. Gaur has provided the Painted Grey Ware (ed.) a valuable source material book for Painted Grey Ware analysis. The author represent a definite number of original hypotheses which are consists in many areas. Vibhba Tripathi in her book, The Painted Grey Ware, An Iron Age culture in Northern India published in 1976 underlines the characteristics features of the region covered by the distribution of the Painted Grey Ware culture. According to her PGW culture seems to have introduced iron in Northern India. She examined the question whether the metallic tools were ample to make some impact on socio-economic life of the phase. The author observed that the chronology of PGW and NBPW also coincides. She throws light on this problem by the study of cultural material, found in the respective period. The early use of iron in India of D.K. Chakrabarti imprint in 1992 defines the beginning of iron in early historic India. The extensive distribution of iron ores in the Indian subcontinent is evident. In one of his articles titled as Iron and Urbanization published in 1985 in Purrtattva No. 15.

He has tried to fall out that the beginning of iron technology did not play a causative role in the early Historic India. Although, the iron technology has not been sustain it. Influenced by the archaeometallurgy in India B.P.Sahu presented a book entitled as Iron and Social change in Early India published in 2006. This is a well-liked book with the information of latest researches on the subject. The issues has to be evaluated on the basis of evidence is whether the use of iron in India led to a qualitively different economy and society. What was the impact of iron on the society? How iron changed the socio-economic structure of Indian history? In 1971, D.P. Agrawal in his book entitled as Copper Bronze age in India offered the significant role of metal in ancient India. R.S. Sharma in his book Material Culture and Social Formation in Ancient India (1983) presented that in ancient time metallurgy and other techniques took centuries to spread and produce results of any great social consequence. Dr. Sharmas other book is Urban decay in India. Perspective in social and economical history of Early India and Ancient India have a better balance between theory and practice than most of books on other subjects. Along with these books of prominent historian various articles are published in a jornals and periodicals. These articles are based on researches in field such as metal and metallurgy, pottery, terracotta, beads and other crafts and artistic material which shed light on the socio-religious and economic prospects of ancient Vedic natives.

Present Approach:Reconstruction of the past is an important part of the exercise of nation building41. The present work examines the history of later Vedic period

with all possible evidence and tries to synthesize it into a well developed stage of economy. The development in various existing and other technical industries and the emergence of cities and towns creates an excellent environment for urban economy. Arts and crafts played a distinguish role in the state formation and urbanization. But in the present study stress has been given that what was the authentic phenomena of industries, territories and state formation in the development of urbanism .Archaeology furnished different kind of objects and material in finished and semi-finished form and a close study of these mute objects of hoary antiquities enable us to understand the development of arts and crafts and the techniques implicated there in. The story of continuity and development of the arts and crafts has been traced from the period of present study. This work will be throwing invaluable light on the imperative aspects of arts and crafts with an examination of diverse finds. The excavation reveals the facts weather the chronology of PGW and NBPW will be coincides or is there any co-relation between the late Harappan and PGW? development? What was the role of Iron and craft materials in socio-economic phenomena? What were the reasons behind the decline of a prominent metal of first urbanization? How they contributed in the advancement and development of PGW culture? The analytical studies of PGW sites will be present through this research work. In this study, the reseacher selected the arts and crafts industry of 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. The excavated sites revealed the facts of a long back history of developed arts and crafts industries. While the researcher Was urbanization a revolution or a gradual

has probed only the data collected from the period of 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. in Northern India. The important factor of research is the examination of source material both literary and Archaeology. The work is divided into ten chapters included Introduction. The II chapter deals with the State Formation in Ganga Valley. The early Vedic age was the age of war and pastoralism but later Vedic age was an age of agriculturists who were leading passive and advanced lives. The commencement of town towards the end of this period is suggested by such words as town (nagara) or town deweller (nagarin). The excavation proves the existence of at least three towns in Ganga valley like Ahichchhtra, Kaumbi and Hastinpura. The Trade and Commerce in later Vedic age will be discussing in the third chapter. The Rgveda refers two classes of traders namely the Panis and vanij. They formed a part of Vaiya class therefore they were devoted to production and trade and commerce. During the later Vedic period trade became a specialized profession of the Vaiyas. The sites of PGW may help us in tracing out a communication line. The means of transport played an important role in the development of trade and commerce. The fourth chapter will examine the development of arts and crafts. The general term for arts and crafts was ilpa. The ilpa employed by human being were numerous such as ivory, weaving, gold smithy, ceramic craft, smith and carriage making. The flourishing arts and crafts industries made significant contribution in the later Vedic economy and material progress. The fifth chapter deals with metal craft. The introduction of iron in PGW period is a rebellion. Several terms occurred for iron in later Vedic

literature as yma, ymayas and loha (?). The entire segment of atapatha Brhmana is devoted to rites associated with ploughing. Archaeology furnished valuable data for the study of different kinds of metal and its technologies. In the sixth chapter textiles industry of later Vedic age will be discussed. Weaving of cloth was considered to be a very useful job, for it resulted in material prosperity of the weaver and ensured his sound economy condition. In the post Vedic times this art was much developed, as is evident from literary texts. The seventh chapter deals with the beads industry different kinds of ornaments mostly necklace and earrings were made of beads. Varieties of material such as wood, clay, bones, stones and metals were used to make beads. Their varied shapes comprise square, rectangular, cylindrical, globular, biconal, hexagonal, lobular and pyramidal. Such beads have been discovered from various PGW sites. The beads of gha shaped and short blunt edged bicone, circular beads are noteworthy. Beads help in studying the economic prospects of people who used them. In the eight we will discuss the contribution of potteries and terracottas. The pottery with its highly evolved technique of manufacture showing an excellent fabric, firing and finish occupies a significant place in proto historic period called as Painted Grey Ware. It is such a distinctive ceramics that the Allchins called it a Hallmark of this cultural period. Terracotta was the material which was used for making objects such as animal figurines, bird figurines, human figurines, several ornamental objects like bangles, reels, beads, amulets and, pendants etc as well as discs, household objects have been profusely fashioned in terracottas.

The chapter IX deals with other miscellaneous arts and crafts of Vedic period. The chapter X deals with all important facts and findings discovered and analyzed in whole research work. It is the resolving component of thesis.

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4.

Srimali, K.M., History of Panchala, A Study Vol I, New Delhi, p. 1 Ibid p. 170 Bhargava P.L., India in the Vedic Age, p-6 Lucknow, 1971 Habib Irfan and V. K Thakur, The Vedic Age and the Coming of Iron c 1500-700 B.C, p-36, New Delhi 2003

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Roy, B.P., The Later Vedic Economy p-13, Patna (1984) Habib Irfan and V.K Thakur, op.cit. p-36 Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.16 Ibid p-17 Bhargava P.L., op.cit., p. 14

10. Max Muller. F., SBE , Vol. I, p. 1xvii 11. Habib, Irfan, op.cit., p. 38 12. Roy B.P., op.cit., p.16 13. Kosambi, D.D., An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, p. 259-60. 14. A.N., I, p.213; IV, p.252-60 15. Kochhar, Rajesh, The Vedic People, There History and Geography, p.31, New Delhi. 16. Roy, B.P. op.cit., p.29 17. Kochhar Rajesh op.cit., p.3 18. Ibid, p.8 19. I.A.R , 1963-64, p.43-44 and A.I. No, 1 20. Gaur, R.C., Excavation at Atranjkhera, 1983, p.8 21. A.I., No.10-11, p.9 22. Lal, B.B, (1954-55), Excavation at Hastinpura and other explorations in the upper Ganga and Satluj basin. A.I. 10-11, P.7

23. Triphati, Vibha, The Painted Grey Ware An Iron Age Culture of Northern India, (1975), p.25 24. I.A.R., 1970-71, P.40-41 25. Dikshit, K.N., (1973),` The Allahpur evidence and the Painted Grey Chronology` in D.P Agrawal and A. Ghosh (Ed.) Radiocarbon and Indian Archaeology P.150 26. I.A.R., 1958-59 27. Kochhar, Rajesh, op.cit., p.86 28. Joshi, J.P., Excavation at Bhagwanpura, 1975-76, p.9 29. Triphati Vibha, op.cit., p.33 30. I.A.R., 1956-57, P.20-28 31. Khan A.A. and Dubay U.S., A Study of river terraces of Ganga river complex in Garhwal Himalaya, Man and Environment Vol.VI, p.6-12, 1981 32. I.A.R, 1954-55, p.15-16 33. Gaur R.C., Painted Grey Ware (Seminar Procceding),p.92 34. I.A.R, 1962-64, p.23-29 35. I.A.R, 1965-66 36. Sahi, M.D.N.,(1990) Excavations at Jakhera 1985-87: An Interim Report, Adaptation and Other Essays, (ed.) Ghosh and Chakrabarti, Santiniketan, psp.217-222. 37. Arora U.P., A.K. Verma, Anoop Mishra, Excavation of Abhaipur (A Painted Grey Ware Site), Purratattva. 32, p.123 38. Allchins, R and B., The Birth of Indian Civilization, p. 210 39. Tripathi, Vibha, op.cit., p.117 40. Kochhar, Rajesh, op.cit., p.xiii

STATE FORMATION AND URBANIZATION IN GANGA VALLEY

In the later Vedic texts we find a transformation of religious conception but the relation of the ryans with the native population, the elimination of old and formation of new tribes, the gradual transition from nomadic and the pastoral life to settled life employed in agriculture, and the coming up of a new class order which replaced the aristocratic social structure were important factors for the correct evaluation of the Vedic people1. Brhmaa texts refer to regular summer raids of the Kuru-Pachlas in the east2. The Rgveda furnishes valuable information regarding the territory occupied by the early Vedic ryans. The early Vedic ryans settled between krumu (Kurram), Gomat (Gomal) and Kubh (Kabul) rivers in the west and the Sindhu group of rivers in the east. In the later Vedic texts it records that scene of activities of the Vedic people was shifted to Ganga valley towards the east.The ancient land of Kuru Pachla region corresponding roughly to present western and central Uttar Pradesh. It was the heartland of the main activities of the ryan culture age. Their further expansion in the east had taken place and the kingdom of Koala, Kasi and Vedeha were established. The expansion of many tribes and kingdom towards the north of the Ganga was spread widely. Few kingdoms were situated towards the south of Ganga3. Expansion in the Gangetic Valley was mainly a matter of clearing forest and founding agricultural settlements4.The extensive use of iron

facilitated the clearance of jungle on a large scale and intensification of surplus wealth which was accompanied by the development of trade industry and handicrafts.

Agriculture:The importance of agriculture can be accessed from the story of king Janakas ploughing the land. Knowledge of cultivation seems to have made considerable progress5. The Samhits and the Brhmaas speak of the different seasons for the different grains and also of the two seasons of harvest. The Brhadryanka Upanisad mentions ten kinds of grains6, viz rice (vrihi). barley (yava) seasum (tila), beans (msa), pancium milicum and italinm (anupriyngauah), wheat (gadhma) lentils (masura), pulses (khaluah) and vetches or delichos uniflorus (khalakula-kulattha). (wheat) ymaka (Millet), Masura (lentil) til (sesame) khalva (Mng) and other identified grains such as anu, amba, gavidhuta, or gavedhuka nambe sasya7. Thus an improved knowledge of cultivation coupled with the use of effective implements enabled with the peasants to produce more surpluses thereby leading to the emergence of towns in this period8. The excavation at Hastinpura and Noh brought to light the remains of rice (Oriza Sativa) from PGW level. At Atranjkhera rice, wheat (traticum compactum) and barley were found9. In the Vedic literature, there is numerous reference to cultivation from which we find that there were four stages of operation, viz; (1) ploughing the field, (2) sowing of seeds, (3) harvesting ripe corn and (4) threshing and separating the straws from corn. In The atapatha Brhmaa entire section is devoted to the rites, commented with all these stages10.

The description of yoking four, six, eight, twelve and twenty oxen clearly indicates the practice of deep ploughing11. In Atharvaveda there is description of some sickle like implement as sune used for reaping. The metal tools like sickle, hoe, socketed, plain axes and ploughshares etc were used for agricultural productivity but to what extent did iron play significant role in the urbanization and agricultural productivity12. However Sharma observes that PGW people practices field agriculture but iron does not seem to have played any significant role in it13. Chakrabarty is of the opinion that iron did make the already existing structure economically more productive but he is not prepared to ascribe any revolutionary role to it in social change14. It has been also emphasized that the agricultural base of the Gangetic valley was laid down by the pre-iron formers and that no important new crop was aided after the introduction of iron. Iron played a significant role in urbanization of early historic India and it is proved by literary and archaeological records. It is recorded in the atapatha Brhmaa the use of plough drawn by twenty-four oxen. The plough is described as paviravant or Pavarivam in the later Vedic texts15. The archaeological evidence of greatly enhanced agricultural produce comes from a variety of iron implements including ploughshare16, sickle17, hoe chopper etc. discovered from Atranjkhera, Katia, Kampil and other sites. The finding of iron ploughshare from at Jakhera with other iron tools justified the advancement of iron technology. Hoe from Aalamgirpur and Jakhera, must have been very helpful in breaking the hard soil of the Gangetic plain and preparing the field for cultivation18. It is noteworthy

that iron tools were not only useful in breaking hard soil of the Gangetic plains but also for powering water for irrigation by tapping artificial sources of water such as digging of wells, tanks and canals. Kaccha wells are attested at Jakhera and Atranjkhera associated with the painted Grey ware level19. Several factors were contributed in the Gangetic Valley urbanization as a local agricultural base, an organized trading activity and a central political power structure.

Role of Sabha, Samiti and Vidatha (Scope and Functions):It is a correct emphasis to say that the ryan occupation of Ganga plains could not have taken place without iron. But priority should be given to the factor of political power and centralization. In the Vedic literature we find that ryan society was organized on the basis of political institution which governed by the king. The three important institutions and assemblies of Vedic period were Sabh20, Samiti21, Vidatha22 and Parisad. The family was the basis of Vedic state. A number of families, connected with ties of kinship, formed the Grma. An aggregate of villages made up Vis (district or clan) and a group of Vis composed the Jana (tribe). The tribe was under the rule of its chief or king. In the Atharavaveda the term Sabh and Samiti are used to explicate two different concepts. In another verse of the Rgveda Sona is said to confer a son who is sadanya vidathya and sabheya23. Amongst them vidatha, frequently mentioned in the Vedic texts and mainly confined to Rgveda is a word of obscure sense. Sabh and Samiti are mentioned respectively only 8 and 9 times in the Rgveda and 17 and 13 times in the

Atharvaveda whereas Vidatha is mentioned 122 times in the Rgveda and 22 times in the Atharvaveda24. The Samiti was the most popular assembly of the Vedic ryans. Mostly it was interested in the military and political of tribal life. Learned persons went to the Samiti to discuss matters of religious and metaphysical importance25. According to R.S. Sharma It was attended by men and women performing all kinds of functions-economic, military, religious and social. How for the Vidatha was served as an instrument of government is difficut to determine26. K.P. Jaiswal thinks that Samiti was the national assembly of the whole people of Visah, electing and reelecting the Rajan or the king27. Similar the simiti, sabh was an ancient institution. Zimmer rightly suggests that in Vedic texts sabh has been used for denoting several things one of which was the meeting place of the village community. Sometimes it designated as the community hall where the meetings were held28. Sabh did not always mean the gathering of village community or a community hall in Vedic references. It had concern with animals, agricultural also. In the Atharvaveda there are few verses showing the deliberative functions of the samiti and the sabh29. It shows that in the samiti during deliberations, speakers were anxious to make speeches. A Vedic text quated in the Praskara Ghya Stra also states that the speaker wanted to prove, himself brilliant not to be contradicted in the samiti30. Sabh was the possession of an individual and from these we may infer that it did not always mean the gathering of village community or a

community hall31. The sabh was the kings court to discharge some economic functions related to revenue. The Vedic text informs that sabh acted as a judicial court32 and concern with taxation33 also. The Rgveda mentions that the king or the emperor used to attend sabh, vidatha and samiti. Thus on the basis of Vedic references we are able to study the political life and activities of the earlier Vedic period to some extent. The existence of the samiti and sabh express democratic element in the Vedic political through because both these popular assemblies enjoyed the right of debate and discussion. Regarding the political organizations of the Vedic age, we find from the Vedas that the family (Goha or Kula) was the ultimate basis of Vedic state. A number of families, connected with ties of kinship, formed the Grma (village). An aggregate of villages made up the (vis district or clan) and a group of Vis composed the jana (tribe). The tribe was under the rule of its chief or king. In the Rgveda the term jana occurs 275 times and vis 170 times. It indicates that the social organization of the early Vedic ryans was based more on the jana and Vis organization them on the basis of village Grma generally translated into village. The jana was a category wider than the Grma; in between these two was the unit vis-Rajan who was above the Grmani was called the protector of jana34.

Ganarajya:Ganarajya is an ancient term used in the later Vedic times for an obligarchy or a republic where political power remained not in one

person but in a group of people. It is a Sanskrit compound word made of two terms Gana and Rajya. Gana exactly means number the Rajya denotes rule or government. Ganarajya consequently gives the sense of the rule of number or the government by a group of people. The word Gana is used in the Vedic Sam hits often in the sense of host in reference to Maruts and Gods in general35. Panini equates Sangha with gana and also takes it in the sense of a political Gana36. The Buddhist literature discloses the existence of a large number of republics flourishing during that time in northeastern zone. The Greek writers of Alexanders campaign found both monarchial and non monarchial forms of state prevailing in north western India37. At the time of Budha there were small towns and large cities. Six of them are champa, Rajgrha, Sravasti, Saketa, Kaumbi and Varanasi. All except Saketa significantly the head quarters of contemporary Mahjanapada are mentioned as great cities38. Janapada is a technical term used in the sense of a political community, a nation, a country or the territory of a state. It literally means the seat of people. Its interpretation as Gana or republic can be seen in the Astdhyay, Panini calls the yaudheyas a janapada39. For instance the Jatakas have references of Janapada and Nigam40. Towns are however, more clearly classified in ancient Indian literary texts. The Manasara discusses 8 eight types of fortified cities rajadhaniya, nagara, kevala, nagara, pura, nagari, kheta, kharvata, kubjaka and pattana41. Similarly the Divyavadana refers to nagara, nigam, karvata and rajadhani.42 as different types of towns.

The words Pura or Nagara and durga are occasionally used as opposed to Janapada43. Janapada44 is one Anga of the SaptAnga or saptaprakrti (seven constituent elements) of the Rajya. It indicates the subjects on the members of the janapada institute according to atapatha Brhmaa45. Urban life in the Gangetic valley had reached at best its initial stage by the time of the atapatha Brhmaa. Ayodhaya kaumbi, Varanasi, takshila, Mithla, Vaisali, chamba, Rajgriha etc. most of which gained prominence as capital cities and center of industries and trade in early historical period, appear to have been undergoing the process of development of later Vedic India. The foregoing suggests that the emergence of urban settlement in early historical period did not take place as early as sixth century B.C. however we admit that foundation for the emergence of the future towns may have laid in 6th-5th century B.C. but the urban embrays could attain the status of cites/towns only around fourth third century B.C.46 Politically janapadas, with fairly well defined boundaries had been formed and soon a few of them grew into Mahjanapadas. These four e.g. Koala, Vatsa, Magadha and Avanti became super Mahjanapadas47. The consolidation of political system provided a common technological base and favorable environment for the growth of urban centuries in different reign. The uniform development of agriculture, transport and metal, stone and ceramics technologies became possible perhaps through a strong political set up48. From the later Vedic age, which roughly correspond with the PGW culture, as the socio-economic structure made a transition from pastorialism to territorialism states of a new type emerged; many royal

officers come to be appointed mainly to collect the kings share in the revenues, and for the maintenance of law and order. With the growth of empires, political centers other than capitals also emerged as prosperous centers49. The satisfaction of material needs is the basic condition of social order. It shapes the socio-economic pattern so that the state may not be separated from its economic responsibilities. Political power is essential for regulating the economic principals.

Animal Husbandry:Besides agriculture, cattle rearing was practiced with equal importance in the Rgveda50, two hymns have been addressed entirely to the cows51. Frequent references to cows, prayer to the deities for their protection52, safe shelter53 and food54 as well, suggest that these animals were regarded as wealth. In the later Vedic period Kshatr was associated with agriculture. The Satapalha Brhmaa mentions that at the rajasuya the king offered oblations to Indra at the house of ksatr and gave a bull to the priest as his fee55. Indra and bull, both are associated with agriculture. It is evident by the excavation at Hastinpura from where we find bones of humped cattle like cow, bull, buffalo and others like sheep and pig at the PGW level56. Prayers have been offered to the deities for having a large number of animals57 (especially cows) and good pastorage58. In the Atharvaveda there is a benedictory hymn of cow pen. Cattle breeding formed an important occupation of the people59. Cattle are necessary for cultivation therefore cattle meant food and wealth to

them. In trade cow were used as medium of exchange in barter system60. Use of cattle as sacrificial fee was known to the people from the Rgvedic age. Evidence of animal husbandry is also attested to the bones of cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig and dog at Atranjkhera61. The bones found during excavation bear definite cut marks. Some of them are charred. Thus it appears that the PGW people consumed meat of beef and pork also62. Ivory objects available during this period speak of familiarity with elephants. Camels were domesticated probably for carrying loads from one place to another63. Literary sources suggest that on special occasions horses were sacrificed and their meat was distributed among their participants. It was believed that imported some of the swiftness, strength and vigour of the horse. The occurrence of fish hooks from several sites suggests fishing was a part of economy64. Fish hooks were found both in copper and iron. Cattle served as an aid to agriculture. But it also provided food in the form of meat, milk, curd, butter and ghr ta (classified butter)65. Classified butter was necessary for Havana. The priest was paid dakshina in the form of cows. King Janaka is described as offering thousand cows to the sage Yaguavalkya66. The early Vedic economy was based on cattle wealth, due to which cow was considered as the standard of value and the price of commodities were adjusted with them. Some references to the price of commodities in terms of cows are found in the Vedic Samhits. A wooden image of Indra was sold for ten cows67.

The Indus valley people probably used cattles grain, cloth and metal for the medium of exchange. According Vedic literature different articles were used for purchasing commodities. The values of the sacrificial horse used in the Avamedha was fixed for one thousands cows68. The cows and other cattle served as a unit and means of exchange of commodities or were offered as fee to the priests and other persons of skill69. The Iliad refers to weapons worth a hundred cows70. Animals employed for transporting materials are called vhana. Commodities loaded on the back of the animal were carried to distant places.

Economy:The development in agriculture and growth of cattle rearing play a crucial role in trade and commerce. When ryans had started leading a settled life in villages and towns which were the centers of production this aspect of economy developed. The Yajus Samhit prescribes several rites to be performed for gaining profit in trade. The Vajasney Samhit enumerates numerous professions which were productive71. In the later Vedic age several factor were conducive to the development of trade and commerce. In the last phase of later Vedic age several

towns emerged in Ganga Yamuna doab and this was contributed to the growth of urbanization and it can be suggested that urban economy was sustained by trade. As the urban societies basically depend on the rural countryside for their existence, trade has to be extended to these areas72. Trade was an important factor of urbanization. It flourished with development of arts and crafts. Crafts specialization and industrial achievement caused to the growth of guilds which, in turn, helped urban

development. The craftsman produced a variety of articles which formed important items of trade in contemporary world. The development of urban life leads to subdivision of occupations, rise of new industries and growth of trade. A large variety of professions are mentioned in the Yajurveda. There is mention of hunters, fishermen, attendants of cattle, fire rangers, ploughers, charioters, several classes of attendants jewelers, basket makers, washermen, rope makers, dyers, chariot-maker, barbers, weavers slaughters, goldsmiths, footmen, messengers, carvers, seasoners of food, potter, smiths and so on. The growth of occupation had its impact on society and as it was largely responsible for the formation of many castes73. The later Vedic texts refer to several crafts, craftsmen and technique of making objects. Artisans and craftsmen in order to protest their

common interest began to unite in various guilds which looked after their respective crafts. The guilds not only ensured the supply of raw materials to their respective members but also looked after the consumption of finished goods and their profits to artisans. The guild therefore, by organizing urban production not helped the growth of specialized crafts but also played a crucial role in the development of more towns. There were a number of factors like political social economic and religious which gave impacts to artisans for making objects of arts and crafts. The people engaged in arts and crafts had to pay three kinds of taxes, bali, bhga and ulka to the king74. The aim of taxation is to protect and nourish the people75. The commercial taxes proved the development of arts, crafts and trade. There are references to commercial taxes in the Atharvaveda. The

taxation was a remarkable development of the later Vedic period when territorial kingdoms were established. In this period ulka was a tax to be realized from the merchants76. The rise in the wealth (accumulated through taxes and tributes or booty also) of the rajanyas and the establishment of fortifications, by them at a few capital towns strategic for inter regional trade in the sixth-fifth century B.C have been amply testified by archeological sources77. It has been justify that the PGW culture demonstrates that the society was moving towards more civilized way of life. Thus people had already made a beginning in specialized production together with the emergence of a class of specialized craftsmen. Such a social pattern, along with increased trade and commerce implying the strengthening of a mercantile community is the usual prerequisite for urbanization78.

Settlement Pattern:The PGW was essentially a rural culture with simple moderate sized habitations. The house plans are hardly available but the evidence of post holes (with circular and rectangular alignments) remains of mud and mud brick walls, plastered reed or wood impressions suggest that the people were living in wattle and daub structures, which may have a thatched roofs. Hearths and fire pits have been reported from many excavated sites. The subsistence may have been based on agriculture but largely supported by hunting. At Atranjikhera a pottery kiln was found which appears to be very important as far as craft activity is concerned. Excavation at various PGW sites suggests that ryans no longer lived a life of nomads, but spent a well settled life in their homes constructed

with mud bricks or mud. Thus many of the excavated sites not only provide materials for the study of urbanization, but also illustrate the different stages of urban growth. At Jakhear, Sahi (1978) identified a 4.25m wide road, a moat and a bund from the large settlement. This kind of evidence appears to be quite important as far as public architecture and settlement system is concerned. This could be the first evidence of the PGW approaching the threshold of urbanization. It seems that population had increased considerably during the NBP as not only the number of sites increased from 700 (PGW) to more than 2000 settlements but also the size increased. Urbanization may be defined as a process of effective change in the collective life of people, brought about by progressive developments in the existing agricultural and industrial technology of the peasantry or the folk. This change leads to the emergence of a new socio-economic order, reflected in new planned patterns of habitation and new forms of art, craft, and architecture, generally monumental and controlled or regulated by some form of an overall authority79. The appearance of towns at Taxila, Kosambi, Hastinapur, Atranjikhera and other places has been assigned to the late stage of iron age by Vibha Tripathi suggests, a period which is generally identified with Mahajanapadas or second urbanization. In the phase according to her structural activity, beautifully fashioned moulded terracottas, pottery and other objects tend towards, standardization and metal,

semiprecious stone and other archeological artifacts proliferate hence the sites have rich cultural remains indicating an urbanized stage.

Thus, urbanized life is a well organized and corporate life, economic as well as socio-political which in some form on the other must get reflected in the settlement pattern as also in antiquities. A careful synthesis of the archaeological data with literary sources would unmistakably suggests the Buddhist era in the 6th B.C. to be the period of significant transformation- old institutions giving way to new ones in all, political, social, and economic shapes nourished in an environment of new ideologies.

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Sinha Renu, Handicrafts in the Vedic age, p.2 SB, 5.5.2.3-5; TB, 1.8.4.1 Sinha Renu, op.cit., p.6 Bashan, A.L., Chi, p.27 Singh, Madan Mohan , Some Aspects Of Life In The Later Vedic Age , Vol.LIX, 1973, JBRS, Part I-IV, p.1, JBRS.

6. 7.

Br. Up, VI 3.13 Sharma, R.S., 1983, Material Culture and Social Formation in Ancient India, New Delhi.

8. 9.

Thakur, V.K., Urbanisation in Ancient India, 1981, p.64 Chowdhury, K.A., K.S. Saraswat, and G.M. Buth , 1977, Ancient Agriculture and Forestry in Northern India. P.63

10. AV, 6. 91. 1; MS, 3.2.4; KS 20.3; KapKS, 32.5; TS, 5.2.5.2; SB, 7.2.2., etc. 11. Yad dvdasagavena samvatsareneveyamTS 5.2.5.2; ct. SB 7.2.2.6; Caturvimasti gavam va samvatsaram evabhisampadam I --- SB, 7.2.2.6 12. Sharma, R.S., op.cit., p.71-72 13. Ibid 14. Chakrabarti, Dilip K., Iron and Urbanizationz: An Examination of the Indian Context, Purrtattva 15, p.73 15. Ghosh Arvind Kumar, Material Culture Gangetic plains during Ist Millenium B.C; An Archaeological Study, p.149

16. Sahi, M.D.N. Excavations at Jakhera 1985-87: An Interim Report, Adaptation and Other Essays, (ed.) Ghosh and Chakrabarti, Santinketan, 1990, p.220 17. Ibid 18. Gupta, op.cit., p.194, 175-76 and 216-217 19. Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p.149 20. Chandro yati Sabhm upa, RV, 8.4.9 21. Rj na satyah samitriynah I RV, 9.92.6 22. Vidathyo na samrat I RV, 4.21.2 23. RV, 1.91.20 24. Tiwari Shashi, Glimpses of Vedic and Ancient Indian Civilization, p.86 25. Roy, B.P., The Later Vedic Economy, 1984, p.93 26. R.S. Sharma, Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India. P.79-80 27. Jaiswal, K.P., Hindu Polity, p.3 28. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.94 29. Tiwari Shashi, op.cit., p.90 30. Praskara Ghyastra 3.13.4; Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p.13 31. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.95 32. VS, 30.3; TB, 3.4.2 33. AV, 3.24.1 34. Janasya Gopm, RV, III. 43. 5 35. RV, 1.14.3; VS, 23.19; AV, 6.118.1 36. Astdhyy, 3.3.86 37. Tiwari Shashi, op.cit., p.199 38. Ghosh, A., The City in Early Historic India, 1973, p.15 39. Astdhyay, Satra.4.1.178

40. Tiwari, Shashi, op.cit. p.200 41. Thakur, V.K., op.cit., 1981, p.21 42. Divyavadana (ed.), P.L. Vaidya, 1959, p.181 43. Tiwari Shashi, op.cit., P.200 44. For instance the Jatakas have references of Janapada and Nigam . The Arthasastra has mentioned Janapada and Durga, Artha- Sstra 2.1,2.3; Grmam janapadasyrthe I, Cnakya-sataka.31., while Rmyana has referred to Nagara, Durga and Jana. Rmyana, 2.79.6, 13 45. Sat. Br., 14.5.1.20 46. Sinha, A.K., The Historical Urbanization- A Suggestive Date, Purrtattva No .11. p.152 47. Ghosh, A., op.cit., 1973, p.13 48. Sinha, A.K., The Historical Urbanization- A Suggestive Date, Purrtattva No .11. p.15 49. Thakur, V.K., op.cit., p.58 50. RV, 6.28; 10.169 51. RV, 1.42.8; 1.43.2; 4.24.10; AV, 6.77.2-3; VS, 8.54-55; TS,3.1.2.1 52. RV, 6.28.3; 6.54.5 53. RV, 10.101.8; AV, 3.14.1 54. RV, 1.42.8; 6.28.7; AV, 7.73.11 55. SB, 5.3.1.3 56. Ancient India, Vol. 10-11, p.91-92, 107-120 57. RV, 6.28.2; AV, 3.14.5 58. RV, 6.28.7; AV, 7.73.11 59. As regards persons involved in cattle rearing, there are references to paup, gop, godhuk, dogdhr,meaning herdsman, milkman,

etc., which indicate that cattle rearing was practiced as a major occupation ince the early Vedic age, RV, 1.4.1; AV, 3.8.4, 6.77.2; VS, 17.58,etc. 60. RV, 4.24.10, 8.1.5 61. Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p. 151 62. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.214 63. aim sahasrvasyayutsanam ustrnm vimatim at RV, 8.46.22 64. Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p. 151 65. The Bhadranyaka Upaniad mentions milk, ghr ta and dadhi(I 5.2; VI3.13) 66. Bhadranyaka Upaniad, II 1.1-2; IV 12.7; IV 3.15-16.33 67. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p366 68. SB, 13.4.2.1 69. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.367 70. Altekar, A.S., JNSI, Vol.15, p.9 71. VS, XXX.1ff 72. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.361 73. Singh Madan Mohan, JBRS, Vol. LIX, 1973, p.3 74. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.107 75. AV, 3.29.1-8 76. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.108 77. Gupta, S.P., Two Urbanizations in India: A Side Study in their Social Structure, Purrtattva No.7, p.56 78. Thakur, V.K., op.cit., 1981, p.36 79. Gupta, S.P., Purrtattva No.7, p.53

TRADE AND COMMERCE

In the Vedic literature there were a number of references to the traders, sale, and purchase, trading commodities and articles which were used as medium of exchange. These literary evidences clearly indicates that trade was practiced as a means of earning livelihood since early Vedic age. The Rgveda refers traders and commodities at several places. During the later Vedic age ryans had started leading a settled life in villages, which were center of production in this period1. The progress in the economy of the Vedic people is well reflected in the agricultural pursuits of the peasantry, widening knowledge of metals, evolution of medium of exchange and pursuits of trade. Trade always plays a crucial role in the economic life of society. The later Vedic texts refer several terms for traders, and trading activities. As regards to traders, there are various references eg. vanij, vanija, pani, resth which occur to mean as merchant. In Rgveda and later Samhits, vanij2 appears to mean merchant. The Atharvaveda contains several hymns3 which were recited on different occasions by

the traders to make their journey safe and bring a good profit. Indra has been described as a merchant in the Atharvaveda4. However Rgveda refers two categories of traders, one is Panis and other is Vanij. It is difficult to ascertain the exact meaning of the term Pani Still from the description of Panis5 in some places, it seems that greedy traffickers are meant by this term6. Yaksha7 also an account of its being derived from the root pan (to trade) has explained the term as merchant. Some Rgvedic references indicate that Panis were the non-ryans and they were perhaps a trading class among the Indus valley people. They were rich and enterprising and were solely devoted to the cause of gain either through trade or usury8. Panis was called as Aradhash in a hymn of Rgveda9. It means who is the follower of yaja. Zimmer regards them as a niggardly merchant class that neither worshipped the Vedic Gods nor revered the Vedic priests. The Vedic ryans offered prayers for destroying the Panis10. They were considered as wolf11 and in behavior selfish, greedy, and cruel12. Macdonell and Keith mention that they were an aboriginal nonryan tribe13. Several scholars have been propounded them with various tribes. Majumdar thinks that they were Babylonians14. They had been identified with Paramians and Phoenicians15. The main basis of this identification lies in similarity between the two names Pani and Peunik, a Phoenician tribe. But no evidences founded by the archaeologists for their presence. It appears that hostility between them did not continue for a long time because later portion of the Rgveda and the later Vedic texts do not refer to it. Possibly, they were merged with the ryan society16.

Some characteristics of the traders described in Vedic literature. Atharvaveda mentions the three viz. Balam (strength), dhh (Wisdom) and ruc (interest), for expending trade and gaining profit17. These essential characteristics make a trader physically strong, powerful and successful in his profession.

Medium of Exchange:The medium of exchange was the actual phenomena for the development of trade. The suitable theory for exchange in trade was mentioned in Yajurveda18. Different things and articles were used for purchasing essential commodities as metal, grain and cattle. Exchange for commodities in trade indicated as Barter. The Rgveda used the word vasna for both the thing to be bartered and also price. For an article of great value one who obtains less vasna says it has not been sold19. Other texts indicate that vasna was price, what he tills and reaps, what demands and what he obtains by vasna20. Vasnik denoted the worth or price of a commodity21. Patanjali also used this tern vasnik once after Panini22. Cattle wealth was the medium of barter during the early Vedic age. Price and value of commodities were adjusted with them. Some references in Vedic Samhits are mentioned in terms of cows as the price for commodities. A Wooden image of Indra was sold for ten cows23. Use of cattle as sacrificial fee was known to the people from the Rgvedic age. The value of the sacrificial horse used in the Avmedha was fixed for one thousand cows24. The Iliad also mentions to weapons worth a hundred cows25, the priests were paid dakina in the form of cows. King Janaka is several times described as offering thousand cows to the sage Yajuavalkya26.

The inconvenience in trade and disadvantages in the barter system became cause of the development of metallic currency, which could used as a convenient means of exchange. The Vedic texts refer that metal dust and solidified metal was used for purchasing commodities. In the Tattiriya Samhit it has been mentioned that gold dust was paid as a price for some plant27. atapatha Brhmaa refers the use of lead for purchasing rice28. The Hiranyapinda denoted solidified gold dust used as unstamped metallic coin like the nis ka. The Vedic texts refer the term nis ka. However it was controversial that whether it was a currency or an ornament. Different views were given by the historians in this connection.

Means of Transport:The Vedic ryans were primarily a pastro-agriculturist people. But in course off time barter gave place to sale and purchase. As movement from place to place developed various means of transport were developed. People carried the load on their heads and back on inconvenient roads and hill areas. The Vendors and small traders carrying commodities in baskets or bundles moved from village to village for disposing them off. Till now, this practice is in vogue in village and towns. Swings were made of udumbara wood or bamboo shaft used to carry heavy load. The hanging cord was made by mja grass29. Animals played a vital role in the transport of the traders. Horses, camel asses, elephants, Oxen etc. were used as vhana in this age. In the Vedic literature, the chariot and cart are mentioned as means of transport. O

Singer you have indeed, come from for in the chariot and the cart30. ryans were used two kinds of carts, named anas31 and akat a32. Carts appear to have been widely in use. Bulls were used for drawing carts. Chariots were, perhaps used only in war and racing competition. It was mentioned in the Vedic Literature that anas had a wooden floor which was attached to the axle33. According to Vedic Literature, on account of its utility, the cart was considered as a symbol of social status34 and it carried the loads of wood35, some plant36 and grain etc. It can be considered as property. akat a mentions frequently in post Vedic times that akat a used to carry heavy loads and moved slowly37. It was driven by two animals, sometimes by one, which called as sthr. Apart from anas and the ratha (chariot) and akat a, there was another vehicle called the vipatha38, a rough vehicle for uneven roads and bed paths39. The cities in most cases located on the banks of navigable rivers, which were connected with main trade routes because of smooth water transport facilities. As mentioned in Atharvaveda that the maritime trade was in vogue during later Vedic age40. The land of Sindhu has been refered to as an emporium of seaborne trade. Sambi denoting as sailor or boatman is used for the first time in Atharvaveda41. The Rgveda refers to kinds of boats those which were used in sea for crossing the rivers (tarah) and other were used on the sea42. A kingdom facing ruin, has been compared with a broken ship is sinking43. It has been appears the boat44 and ships were common in age. It is to be determined that trade was carried on through land routes and waterways. The existence of boatman, pole man, and oarsman in the

contemporary society and the available data in earlier and the later literary sources defines that the later Vedic India was acquainted with navigation. The archaeological data did not trace any record of water and land transport. Not a single cart, chariot and boat, have not been unearthed from PG Ware.

Commodities:The developments of urban life further leads to the subdivision of occupations, rise of new industries and growth of trade. Different arts and craft were developed during the later Vedic age. These arts and crafts were used as the most important articles for trade and commerce. The business commodities may be classified variously such as agricultural products, dairy products, forest products and other products of art and craft45. The later Vedic text refers to some articles used in trade. The Yajus Samhit and Brhmaas have mentioned some name e.g. lead, wood, thread, garments, coverlets (pavasta), animal skin (ajina), were business commodities. The progress in the economy of the age is well reflected in the agricultural pursuits. Agricultural commodities such as grains and vegetables were sold to the landless people who used them for subsistence and for trade. Barley and rice were exchanged for lead46. The Vedic text refers to jambila47 (a kind of large lemon) Haridra48 (turmeric) and Pippal49 (pepper) as the mercantile commodities. Cattle were served as a major part of the dairy occupation since the early Vedic age. They were not only as an aid to agriculture but it also

provided food in the form of meat, milk, curd, butter and ghr ta (classified butter). These products were sold by the persons involved in cattle rearing. As regards these people there are references to paup, gop, godhuk, doghdr meaning herdsmen, milkmen etc50. In trade cows were used as medium of exchange. Animal skin(ajina) were used by the leather workers to make the goods like garments, footwear, containers, sheaths of swords and straps. Arrowheads were made by the teeth and bone of animals. Ivory was in great demand of trade in that period. For obtaining games and other commodities, sheeps wool was exchanged51. Besides cattle forming, other animals like horses, goat, sheep, oxen and elephant etc were tended. Prayers have been offered to the deities for having a large number of animal and good pastorage. In the Atharvaveda there is a benedictory hymn of cow-pen52. The beginning of iron was effected the civil life. On account of which the clearance of forests, progress in agriculture, increased efficiency of craftsmen, quickening of transport and trade routes have witnessed the beginning of urbanizations in Ganga valley. Forests were also played an important role in trade and commerce. The forest products are such as wood, honey and different kinds of herbs. Among these wood was used for various purposes as building construction furniture, house hold objects, agricultural implements and sacrificial stakes etc. The wood was sold and purchased by the people for gaining profit in their trade. It was confirmed by the Vedic literature that herbs were collected from the forest for curing diseases. Guggla (the exudation amyris aggalochum) was a costly fragment gum which was used for curing diseases and removing the effects of evil spirits. It

has been called as Samundriyam53. This indicates that it was imported from the countries of the coastal regions54. Honey was also collected from the forest which was very useful commodities used in several oblations. Several medicinal commodities were collected from the forests. Pearl and conchshells55 which were used as an amulet or an ornament, recovered from the sea. Others commercial commodities such as salt56, flowers (Lily and Lotus), aquatic birds and fishes were obtained from water. Different kind of metal and minerals objects were sold in the form of finished goods as ornament, weapons, agricultural implement and utensils. These findings were reported from various PGW sites. Traders have been obtained maximum profit on his sale proceeds. These commercial commodities have been brought to light a new economic phenomenon in business transactions.

Trade Routes:Merchants are mentioned as moving to and fro for trade and commerce. That had made considerable advancement in material life. External trade, a significant factor in urban growth, must have developed as a result of trade links of India with for off places. The cities in most of the cases also acted as important marks and it would be observed that majority of the urban countries were located on the bank of navigable rivers and were also connected with main trade rocks providing water and land transport facilities, enabling smooth trade with for off places.

The ryans followed the trade routes of Indus Valley people and developed some new routes also. The term used for road was Patha which means to move. It was derived from Pad, meaning to go57. The Rgveda inform us that Vedic ryans were well acquainted with the geography of western India, the region Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Afghanistan. People offered prayers to the god to protect them with the obstacle and difficulties of travelling. Sruti denoted the thoroughfare which was free from dangers. It was short and comfortable. Several types of roads were mentioned in literature as Patha, Mahpatha, prapatha, Vipatha, Parirathya (Suitable for chariot) and bedavar. The ryans were migrated from Sutluj to the Sarasvati Drasvati Valley and discovered some new trade routes. They extended towards the east and established themselves in the Kuru-Pachla region. The PG ware sites help us in tracing out a communication line between Ropar to Indraprastha, Mathura to kaumbi and Vidisha to Vidharbha. The ryans were entered in India through Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan. There were two land routes one passed from the North and the other from the South of the deserts of Dasht-in-lut and Dasht-i-Kavir. The northern route started from Quetta and reached Helmand via Kandhar and another route starting from Baluchistan to Shahi Tump58. The Atharvaveda mention the several Asuras of Sumerian and Assiyrian origion in the text on the basis of this, it may be assumed that ryans had contacts with Assiyria and Mesopotamia. The land of Sindhu has been referred to as an emporium of seaborne trade Sambi, denoting Sailor or boatman, is used for the first time59 in a kingdom, facing ruin, has been compared with a broken ship is sinking60 this shows that boats61 and ship was in vogue in the age of A.V.

External trade a significant factor in urban growth must have developed as a result of Skylaxs discovery of sea route from the mouth of the Indus during the reign of the Achaemenid king, Darius. On the basis of the information gathered from Tattiriya sam hit, Rau suggests that the sailor at first sailed along the coast and then from island to island62.

Travelling Difficulties:Travelling was most arduous and troublesome in those days. Merchants had to pass through dense forests and deserts which were beset with various kinds of dangers. Many prayers were offered to God for save them from the danger of road. The atapatha Brhmaa informs that the king wishing to perform the avamedha had to complete with same animals for making all the roads safe from dangerous beasts. It was mentioned in Atharvavedas vanij Sukta. In fourth hymn that God! Save us from violence of the way63. Besides jungle beasts and deserts problems, Parpanthins64 meaning thieves and robbers were also dangers for trader. The Vedic texts have mentioned the miserable condition of merchants due to these difficulties of the path. There was always fear of being attacked by robbers and wild tribes. It was for the travellers to entrust their garments and other belonging with reliable persons before they dared to go through the deserts. Due to excessive rains the mostly route of the jungle was difficult to pass. The merchants were facing difficulties in maritime trade due to natural disasters like storms, waves, currents and darkness. On account of this difficulties the merchants were missed the sea shores. During the early

Vedic period, shore finding birds65 were set free when the voyagers were missed on high waters. The early Pali sources mention the use of such birds66. The term devyanam panthanah occurred for the safe route. Several rites and prayers were performed before journey of the merchants. The merchants had to pass the mountainous route. They had to face some travelling difficulties like wild beasts, hunger and thirst. All these inconvenience were mentioned in the Vedic literature. To pass through the sandy desert was no easy task. In the desert that travelers followed the nails that were struck in the earth indicating direction.

Organization:Different arts and crafts had developed in later Vedic Period. This led to the growth of different groups of traders and promotes the organization. The Vedic texts did not mention any guild or organization or the group of traders. The individual trade was in vogue at that time. The advanced stage of economy and material perspectives has resulted the organization and carvan of traders. The term r es t hin occurred in the Vedic literature probably which means a leader or a chief of or organization. The related terms were rais t hyam67 and res t hata68 indicated the position and superiority of the r es t hin. The term Gana, in the sense of cooperation of traders and artisans has been mentioned in the Brhadryanka Upanis ad69. But r es t hin in Vedic literature or in later Vedic literature have different meaning. As it is evident from the Jatakas that the emergence

of town, town life and the introduction of metallic coins realized the necessity of trade guilds. The leader of the guilds has been called as Kulak, Jatthak, or chief. The traders of different items were moved in form of Srth (carvan) or leader elected by them was Srthvha. This guild has been worked as a bank or treasurer. They have carried money from one place to another. In the Buddhisht era, guilds were in existence in every city of traders. Thus the associations of traders organized in a manner for promoting a specific economic purpose. The hallmark of Vedic economy was the trade and commerce including external and maritime trade. After 1500 B.C. it seems that Harappan trade was discontinued and it have been received new impetus in later Vedic age. Different arts and crafts, surplus productions and cattle rearing were developed during later Vedic age, which has been charged the economic phenomenon based on trade and commerce. The discovery of some new routes in Gangetic valley and across the Vindhyas gave rise to the internal and external trade on a large scale. Numerous reference of boats, ships, sea and sea voyage were witnessed the marked progress of maritime trade. Not a single piece of metallic coin was discovered from the PGW level but different denominations were used for purchasing commodities. The Vedic texts have been mentioned metal piece like gold and silver as chief means of barter for purchasing valuable commodities. The most important element of trade and commerce was the commercial convention and business transaction. The practices of

haggling concerning price of commercial commodities may be gleaned from the dialogues between the purchaser and the seller.

The common people, merchants and artisans had to pay ulka, it was a commercial tax or toll tax and it proves the development of arts, and crafts and trade. It appears that the occasional meeting places served as markets and fairs, where the people could exchange their products. Trade was not controlled by the state. Such gatherings where called smana, and beside barter and sale there were also other attractions.

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3.

Roy, B.P., The Later Vedic Economy, 1984, p.348 VI,1.1 96.11.23 Vanik sukta is famous in Atharvaveda in 3.15 hymns describe about trade in different terms

4. AV.3.15.1 5. Panir Van ij bhavati I Panih Pan Nir.2.17 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. RV, 6.51.14 12. RV.6.61.4 13. VI.1, 472 14. Majumdar, R.C., Vedic Age, p.472 15. Mahaveer, 16. Roy, B.P. op.cit., p.350 17. AV. 3.15.3 18. Yajurveda, 3.50 19. RV.IV.24.9 20. AV. XII, 2.36; Vaj. Sam. III.49; Mait.Sam. 1.10.2 21. Astadhayi, 4.4.13; 5.1.5; 5.15.6 22. Agrawal, V.S. op.cit., p.241 p.155 RV.133.3; 1.180.7; 5.61.8; 6.53.3; 8.64.2; 10.60. Panimsca Vanijah, Nir.6.26 Roy, B.P. op.cit., p.349 RV., 8.64.2 RV., 1.184.2ss anat I Vanik Panyam Nenekti,

23. RV,8.1.5 24. SB.13.4.2.1 25. Altekar, A.S, JNSI, Vol.15, p.9 26. BU, II.1.1-2; IV,1,2-7; IV,3,15-16,33 27. TS.6.1.10, 1-2 28. SB.12.7.2.10 29. Ap. SS, 21.17.13 30. O Singer, you have indeed, come from for in the chariot and the cart.RV, III.33.9 31. RV, 4.30.16; AV., 12.1.47; SB., 1.1.2.5 32. Gode, P.K., Poona Orientalist , Vol.5, No.2, p.148 33. VI, 1, P.1 34. TS. 5.2.2.2. 35. Ibid, 6.3.3.3; SB.3.6.4.11 36. MS, 12.6; TS, 1.2.9; VS, 4.34 37. Nirukta, 6.22 38. Of the Vratya the mind was the Vipatha Matarisvah and Pavam na (soma) were the dragger. 39. AV, XV.2.6 40. In the early Vedic age there are several references to the seavoyages and sea going strong vessels. 41. AV, IX .2.6 42. The Rgveda refers to kinds of boats those which were used in sea for crossing the rivers (tarah) and other were used on the sea. RV, 1. 116. 4-5; 5.25.9; 6.58.3; 8.18.17 43. AV, V.19.8 44. Nauka and Nava was the ferry boat for crossing the rivers. Sunavam denoted a well built and a good boat.

45. Roy, B.P. op.cit., 1984, p.374 46. SB.12.7.2.10 47. MS.3.15.3 48. AV, 12.24.2 49. Ibid. 6.10.9 50. RV,1.144.6; 3.45.3 51. SB,3.3.3.1-10 52. AV, 3.14 53. AV,19.38.1-2 54. Roy B.P.,op.cit.,p.375 55. AV,4.10.7 56. CHU, 4.17.4; GB, 1.14 57. Nirukta, 2.28 58. Roy, B.P. op.cit., 1984, p.356 59. AV, IX, 2.6 60. AV, V.19.8 61. Water transport, including the sea transport is indicated; Varuna knows the boats in the sea (RV.1.25.7). Ships with many oars were used for transport 62. Rau W.,op.cit., p.31 63. AV, 3.15.4 64. AV, 3.15.1 65. RV, 6.62.2 66. DN, I, 22, Vaberujataka 67. SB.13.7.1.1 68. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.380 69. Brah Up., 1.4.12

ARTS AND CRAFTS

The Vedic texts compiled between 1000 and 500 B.C. comprise the collection of the four Vedas, the Brhmans and the Upanisads which are composed in the land of the Kurus and Pachlas. The Painted Grey Ware shards have been found in the same area as are represented by the later Vedic literature. The PGW horizon represents a composite culture just as the culture revealed by the later Vedic texts represents an amalgam of Sanskrit and non-sanskritic, ryan and non-ryan elements1. The study of craft is an essential key to the understanding of a peoples culture. Craft is concerned with the industrial activity and artistic expressions. ilpas were considered as a means of doing away with poverty2. In order to do so people followed different modes of production and occupation which influenced their life style. With the growth of agriculture economy there also developed several new arts and crafts. During the post Vedic times, there were several villages which were the centers of production of objects of arts and crafts. In the cities and towns also there were several lanes inhabited by ilpins practicing specific kinds of ilpa3. Craft is related with the

household art than with the small scale or cottage industries. The basically utilitarian in which the efforts has been made to introduce aesthetic appeal. The Vedic texts refer to two kinds of ilpas namely Devailpa and ilpa practiced by human beings4. The Rgveda mentioned Tvas t r , as the god of artisans and especially of metal workers (He was generator of Agni with whose help he could smelt metals.). This text envisages a Vivakarman5. In the Pranas both of them become indistinguishable. Tvas t rhas been considered as the master of craftsman of gods. He held an yas (axe) in one of his hand6. It may be suggested that he made the Vajra of Indra and sharpened the axe of Brhmaaspati7. Rbhus were also mentioned as the god of craftsmen. According to skill he has been related to carpenter or woodcraft8. Probably, it seems numerous miraculous act performed by divine beings were regarded as devailpa and the art of human being were to be considered as ilpas. The material aspects of the Rgvedic culture can be reconstructed on the basis of economy based on agriculture, arts and crafts, trade and commerce. The term ilpa appearing in Aitareya Brhmaa has been desicribed as the imitation of devailpa9. In order to give an illustration of ilpa, toy making, weaving, glass work, potter craft, smiths, chariot making have been mentioned. In the Vjesney samhit the only metal smelter mentioned in its whole list of various kinds of human being. It is the bronze or copper smelter called as ayastapa10. The list of six metals like gold, bronze, iron, copper, lead and tin have been mentioned in the Vjesney Samhita. The Atharvaveda also mentions iron, copper, tin and gold11. All these metals were known to Vedic society.

The potters craft must have been common and the kulla (potter) appears in a short list of craftsmen in a hymn to Rudra12. Various earthenware, utensils and implements, viz. Kumbha13, Kalaa14, Sthli15 etc. have used to serve on both domestic and ritual purposes. In the Vedic literature, there are references to the carpenter and chariot
16 wright (Tvas t r , tas t r , taks an17) and their products.

Weaving was known to the Vedic people in a well manner. Spinning seems mostly to have been done by women. Wool and thread is womens work, it has been stated in the atapatha Brhmaa18. In the Purushamedha, a considerable multiplication of specialized occupations has been mentioned.

Metal:The advent of iron during PGW period marked the most important technological development which was going to effect the mode of production. The early use of iron was largely confined to weapons of war. At later stage it was used in agriculture and other economic activities19. In the later Vedic literature there are references to yma ayas20, Krishna ayas or grey metal and it is taken as iron, while lohayasa, lohitayasa21 and loh as copper (red metal). The Excavation have also brought to light different kinds of metal belong to 1000 to 600 B.C. (PGW period) Thus it may be useful to study the metal objects occurred from Painted Grey Ware and pre NBP levels in Kuru-Pachla region. The identifiable finds from the excavated sites comprised various kinds of metallic objects viz. arrowheads22, spearheads23, shaft, pair of tongs24, clamps, chisel, bar (rod), borer, ploughshare25, needles, axe, knife and bangle. These objects can be broadly divided into three groups. 1.

Weapons 2. Crafts tools and implements 3. Household objects and ornaments. In the context of metal technology in North India, it may be observed that nearly 730 PGW sites have been discovered so far in this area which revealed the material culture deposits of the PGW period. The copper objects inventory of the PGW period shows that a majority consists of toiletry and miscellaneous household objects, while the use of iron drastically reduced the use of copper26.

War Weapons and Hunting Tools:Copper Objects:Several copper objects have been recovered from various sites in Northern India. Copper arrowheads have been found at Hastinpur27 from PGW level while fishhooks are reported from Jakhera28 and Atranjkhera. The copper implements unearthed from PGW sites included antimony cum nail parer, nail parer, antimony rod, tooth picks, needles, dish, clamps, bolt, borer, bangles, rings and bracelets. These objects are reported from Atranjkhera, Jakhera, Hastinpur, Khalaua, Allahpur29, Bateswar, Aalamgirpur30 and Ahichchhatra etc. Among these, dish and needles were used for household purposes, while tooth picks, antimony rod, and nailparer were the toiletry objects.

Iron Objects:Iron objects have been reported in association with PGW for the first time. On the basis of objects their social and economic requirement of society can be attested. Most of the tools of PGW phase are included

Arrowheads, spearheads, daggers, lances, fish-hook, blades and shafts etc used for hunting, protecting and killing the games for fun or safety Another tools sickle, ploughshare, hoe and axe have been reported from PGW level. The discovery of these iron objects especially ploughshare31 are land mark advancement in the history of agriculture. The utility of iron for household purpose can be attested by evidence of needles, bangles, rings, lumps of iron slags and other pieces of iron objects have been recovered.

Bronze objects:There are only a few references to Bronze in the Vedic literature. Bronze was mentioned as kamsa in the later Vedic literature. Archaeological evidences do not prove any existence of bronze objects in PGW period. While Harappan period have been yielded rich evidence of bronze objects. It has been mentioned in Atharvaveda that vessels had been made by kamsa metal which were used at the time of sacrifice32. Except these metals, excavations have also brought to light other kind of metals like gold, silver, lead and tin which belong to the period of the present study.

Gold:Gold occurred in Vedic texts in several references. It was considered as precious metal. Ornaments made of gold increases the beauty of people. Besides making ornaments the goldsmith made sacrificial pots33 and spoons34.

The occurrence of nine gold objects from Jakhera from mature PGW phase evidenced that these people were familiar with gold ornaments and objects.

Silver:The word rajata occurs at numerous hymns in Vedic literature. It has been considered that Vedic ryans used this white metal on special occasions. Mostly, ornaments were made by silver. The Vedic ryans had immigrated to Bihar and Vidarbha, where silver was found. In spite of this its limited use is confirmed by discovery of only few object made of silver unearthed from PGW and NBP ware levels35. The later Vedic texts refer lead and tin have not been yielded from any PGW levels. While the occurrence of glass bangles from Hastinpura and other PGW sites were noteworthy. It appears that PGW people used all these metals. Thus a continuity and development in technological tradition introduced highly useful metal. The most remarkable advancement in metal technology is the emergence of iron during the PGW phase.
36

Textiles:The weaving industry was in vogue in the Vedic culture. A wide variety of materials have been used for weaving like cotton, silk, linen, wool, but the most commonly used was wool. In post Vedic period there are numerous references for weaving of cloth by rna(wool)37. Though woolen garments were manufactured widely, in this period. Besides rna, Vedic ryans were well acquainted with the use of kasuma (silk), Trpya38 (linen) and probably, Karpsa39 (cotton) because it was well known to the people of Indus valley civilization. The early Vedic

ryans might have adopted some techniques from Indus valley peoples. Vedic people were familiar with the techniques of spinning, weaving, dying, stitching, embroidery and decorating cloths with fascinating designs. Numerous objects related to weaving industry have been unearthed from PGW sites. These objects prove that weaving was highly developed art during the post Vedic era. It was considered to be a very useful job, especially women were engaged in this occupation. They were called as Vayitr40. The objects like Tasara41 (Shuttle), Vemon (loom), spindle whorls42 needles (sc) have been recovered from the excavation of PGW sites. The existence and use of these objects, as referred in the Vedic texts are corroborated by archaeological evidence. As needles43 and spindle whorls have been discovered from Hastinpura, Hulas44, Atranjkhera and Jakhera45. All the sites having evidence of a well developed textile industry. Weaving technique were recorded in the Atharvaveda as a metaphor46 It seems that wool industry was functioning during Later Vedic period for manufacturing blankets carpets and coverlets. These material were frequently mentioned in the literary sources. The importance of garments can be attested by its use for various purpose. The clothes were not only increase the physical beauty but also related to the religious sanctity as prayer and sacrifices. Properly decorated garment with beautiful ornamentation called peas and supeas. This term have been mentioned in the literature confirms the developed stage of textile craft industry. The splendid garments were the sign of superior socio-economic status.

The existence of female weaver eg Vaynti47, siri48, vayitr and peaskaris49 indicate that work of weaving was done mainly by the special care of woman. Thus, it appears that growth and development in the manufactured articles of cottage industry encouraged trade and commerce and contributed the economic prosperity the later Vedic culture. In this connection it can be assumed that Vedic people have specialized craftsmanship in textile industry. The Vedic period is marked by remarkable development in industrial life.

Beads:In Vedic period various kinds of bead were used as ornament and as amulets50. The term mani51 occurs in the Vedic literature denotes to bead and manikra52 was a bead maker or jeweller. It was used as a Jewel for magical purposes and against evil effects. The significant occurrence of a large variety of beads from PGW sites is noteworthy. Different kinds of material have been used for making beads as wood, clay, bones, stone and metals. The stone bead comprises agate, carnelian, chalcedomy, lapislazuli, marble and quartz have been discovered from PGW levels53. Beads reported from various sites of Northern India, have different shapes like barrel of cylindrical, circular, long barrel circular, rectangular, flattened, short convex, spherical, globular, biconal, hexagonal, and pyramidal54. Sharp instrument were used for manufacturing beads and for cutting, chiseling and boring55. Beads have been collected from PGW levels were excellent example of great skill and workmanship. The occurrence of

beads in different materials, and shapes on the sites of different cultures provides valuable clues in understanding their techniques of manufactures and trade relations between two countries. Different variety of terracotta beads have been reported from several sites from PGW level such as Hastinpur56, Atranjkhera, Ahichchhatra57 , Kaumbi, Jakhera, Bateswar, Sringavenpur, khalaua, Kampil and Kaseri. Beads made by clay, bone, and metal must have been adopted by common man while semi precious stones were used by higher class58. During the PGW period stone beads were recovered from Hasitnapur, Jakhera, Atranjkhera, Khalaua and Sringaverpur. Metal beads have been profusely used in this culture. Copper beads were discovered from various sites like Hastinpura, Jakhera59 and Bhagwanapura60. They have varied shapes like short and long barrel, square and spherical. Almost all the sites have yielded a rich variety of beads of different shapes. Beads have dating value as well as demonstrate the intimate connection between two or many cultures through trade61. Thus it is clear that bead were not only used for decorative purposes but also help us to understand the belief, customs, economic condition and set up of the society and contacts with foreign lands.

Pottery and Terracotta:Vedic literature contains numerous references pertaining to terracotta art and potteries. The Painted Grey Ware was easily indentified by its light ashy colour, sandy-silt texture and non-uniform nature (Arora, 2005-06 p.79) The vessels were mostly made of well lavigated clay and potted on fast wheels. The paintings were linear and geometric designs

executed in black, orange and red colours. The common vessels were dishes, bowls and basins of different kinds. Besides, jars , pots, vases and miniature pots and chalices were also found (Arora et al. 2001-02:122130). The perforated vessels were found with three legs at the bottom. The beginning of iconography may be traced back to Vedic period. However the pictures is not as sharp as it become later62.The Aitareya Brhmana a clay elephant as a evidence of making clay figurine63. Terracottas used by different class of peoples on their religious festive occasions or for amusement purposes. It may be interpreted variously as a votive offering or as a devotional object, a magical image or portrait, a souvenir or a toy. It seems that terracotta is the varnacular medium of figural sculpture in the worlds art. The special significance of this art is the extemporaneous handiwork of simple folk. Therefore this art was termed as people art64. Clay is same used for both pottery and terracottas. While techniques of throwing a pot or modeling a figurine, are different. It seems that terracotta played a vital role as the source of history not only as a record of religious culture but also as a document of the history of art. However, two methods were used for manufacturing terracotta figurines. One is by hand modeling and another is moulding. The moulded figures are pressed out of moulds which in turn only be made with the aid of models65. Terracotta objects may be pressed into shapes, moulded, coil built, wheel throw or framed by a combination of these techniques66. For the study of social, economic and religious life of later Vedic people, terracotta objects have been classified in the different categories as: Human figurines Animal figurines

 Ornaments Religious and ritual objects Games and toys Tools and implements Household objects Other miscellaneous Such a large variety of objects made by clay have been discovered from PGW sites. Terracotta discs appear in the PGW period in upper Gangetic plain67. During this period various rectangular discs have been reported from several sites like Hasitnapur, Atranjkhera, Jakhera, Mathura, Hulas, Bateswar, Bhagwanpura , Darau and Pariar. Human figurines and animal figurines both were recovered from Painted Grey Ware level. Human figurines both male and female are the most remarkable finding from Jakhera68, Khalaua69 and Bhagwanpura70. While animal figurines included humped bull, horse, pig and ram were important evidence besides this, bird figurines from Noh71, Thapli72 and Jakhera were collected from PGW level also. Terracotta ornaments included bangles, reels, beads73, pendants74 and amulets have been unearthed from various PGW sites like Sonkh, Hulas, Atranjkhera75, Darau, Pariar, Mathura, Ahichchhatra, Hastinpura, Kampil, Sringaverpur, Jakhera and Kaumbi. The evidence of playing balls, terracotta seals and other objects for household purposes like stoppers spindlewhorls, pastles, lamps, feeding cup, querns and grinender proves that all these objects were used by PGW people. Other miscellaneous clay objects like net-sinkers, wheels, dabbers and hopscotch were reported from Allahapur, Atranjkhera, Jakhera and Darau.

Bone and Ivory Objects:Bone objects were a common medium in use for multifarious purposes. Bone, an easily accessible bi-product of hunting economy was profusely utilized for tools and implements by this community76. Bone was used widely for making several kinds of objects. The remains of such objects have been discovered from various sites of this period. For the study of all sphere of peoples life, bone objects may be classified into these grounds such as hunting tools, ornaments and other miscellaneous objects. A varity of bone objects have been unearthed from Atranjkhera, Noh, Ropar, Aalamgirpur, Khalaua, Hastinpura, Allahapur, Sardargarh, Koambi and Sonepur.

Ornaments:Ornaments included beads, bangles, and pendants have been discovered from PGW level. Bone and ivory pendants found from Jakhera, Atranjkhera, Taxila and Sringverpur. A dagger shaped pendant having one surface decorated with six circles one of which is incised on the handle and the others on the blade77. It has a hold near the top of the handle. It seems it could be worn around the neck. A single piece of pendant has been recovered from the upper phase of Atranjkhera78. A number of specimens have been reported from Jakhera79. Numerous beads have been reported from Jakhera also. Bangles made of bone have been recovered from Hastinpura, Allahpur and Sardargarh80.

Hunting Tools:A wide range of hunting tools included arrowheads, styli, points, sockets have been recovered from various PGW sites. Bone arrowheads are

unearthed at Kosambi, Ropar, Aalamgirpur, Khalaua, Mathura, Atranjkhera and Taxila. Fifty three arrowheads made of bone have been occurred from all PGW phases from Atranjkhera81. From Jakhera, both tanged and socketed arrowheads with fine points are reported82 (Plate-I). Sockets have been obtained from Noh83. Styluses of bone are found from PGW sites like Atranjkhera and Allahapur. These styluses have different shapes and sizes like; (a) Both ends pointed with flattened cross section (b) Both ends pointed with semi circular cross section84. (c) Flat at one end tapering towards the points While styluses recovered from Allhapur have simple points. According to B.P Roy, it may be wrong to call them styluses, while in the absence of any written material, Roy considered them as points85. Points are reported form numerous sites likes Hulas, Sringverpur, Bateswar, Jakhera and Allhapur. Bone Awls are reported from Jakhera86 and Hastinpura87.

Miscellaneous Objects:Other miscellaneous objects made by bone were encountered from the contemporary culture. Hairpins were found from Ropar, Aalamgirpur and Hulas88. Bone knitting needles were recovered from Allahpur and Hastinpura. Bone Sockets have been found form Jakhera, Atranjkhera and Hastinpura. Antimony rods of bone have also been excavated from Hulas while discs and dices of bone are seen at Aalamgirpur. The occurrence of Mirror handle, figurine of mother Goddess and gamesman of bone from Jakhera89 is noteworthy. Comb-spikes with engraved circles have been encountered from Atranjkhera from PGW level90. A bone bird from Atranjkhera from earliest level of NBP was beautiful specimen.

Ivory artifacts were not so frequently available during this period. Some ivory tools and ornaments have been discovered from Jhusi, Ujjain, Taxila, Koambi and Sonepur. The later Vedic texts mentioned that ivory was used as amulets for curing certain ailments91. These literary records corroborate with archaeological evidence as like ivory pendant and amulets were recovered from Taxila. Figurines made of ivory have been yielded from Champanagar, Ujjain, Avra and Taxila. Some tools like arrowheads were recovered from various sites. The evidence occurred from archaeology and literature would indicate a wide distribution of the craft and sub-craft in the Indian subcontinent which comprises a verity of item design for various purposes. With the development of commercial sense the ancient craftsmen take up these as an occupation. A close examination of these crafts of later Vedic provides eloquent testimony to the fact that the various arts and crafts, manufactured by advanced techniques proves a continuous development in craftabilities during the successive stages. The advancement in metal technology was attested by the advent of iron. The invention of this new metal revolutionized the economic growth and prosperity of second urbanization. A remarkable similarity amongst the small finds like discs, beads, tools and implements and other minor antiquities of middle and upper Ganga plains might be a pointer to some kind of contact between two zones. The occurrence of all crafts i.e. pottery, terracotta, beads, metal, bone

and ivory objects etc. shows a gradual development and continuity in material prosperity from PGW to other succeeding cultures. A study of all arts and crafts points out the skill of craftsmen with a high degree of perfection and accuracy. The techniques involved in the manufacturing of crafts indicate the advancement and high order of proficiency. The evidence of arts and crafts may be interpreted and correlate with ritual beliefs and religious practices of the society in the Gangetic plains. Thus all spheres of life of Vedic people as social, economic and religious receives a great impetus from the developed arts and crafts, growing agriculture and trade and commerce.

REFERENCE

1.

Sharma, R.S., The Later Vedic age and Painted Grey Ware Culture, Purratattva no. 8, 1975-76, p.63

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

RV.10.155.3 Sinha, Renu Handicrafts In The Vedic Age, p.38 AV, 6. 30.1 RV, 10.81-82 RV.8.29.3 RV.5.31.4; 10.53.9 Macdonell, A.A., Vedic Mythology, p.132 Devailpasny etcsam vai ilpanam anukrtiha ilpam adhigamyate hasti kamso vaso hiranyam asvatarirathah ilpam. AB. 6.27

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Vjesney Samhit, XXX.14 Atharvaveda, XI 3.7.8 VS, XVI.27 RV,10.89.7 RV,IV 32.19 AV,III 6.17 RV,1.32.2; 1.85.9 RV,10.6.3 atapatha Brhmaa, XII 7.2.10 Srimali K.M., History of Pachla, p.170 VI, 1, 151, 11, 234-35 AV. 11.3.1.6 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, Material Culture of Gangetic plains during Ist millennium B.C.; an Archaeological study, p.166

23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Ibid IAR, 1963-64, PL XXXII A Sahi, M.D.N., op.cit., 1990, p.220 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p.149 Lal, B.B. Excavation at Hastinpur and other Exploratiopn in Upper Ganga and Sutluj Basin, 1950-52, Ancient India 10-11, p.95

28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

Sahi, M.D.N. op.cit., p.220 IAR, 1970-71, p.40-41 IAR, 1958-59. Sahi, M.D.N, op.cit., 1990,p.220 AV.XX.5 BU.1.1.2 BU.6.4.25 Roy, B.P. The Later Vadic Economy, p.325 Lal, B.B. op.cit., 1950-52, p.30 BU.11.3.6 B.Y. 11.4.11.6 valyana Srauta Stra, 2.3.4.16 RV.2.3.6 RV.X.130.2 YK.NI.II.1 Ghosh, op.cit., p.166 IAR, 1990-91 p.70 Sahi, 1990, op.cit., p.220 AV,10.7.42 RV,2.3.6; VS 20.4 RV,10.7.11.9

49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

Bhargava, P.L ,India in the Vedic Age,1971, p.253 VI. II.119 SB, 12.3.4.2 VS, 30.7 Dhaiya Neelima, op.cit., 1986, p.188 Ibid Roy, B.P. op.cit., p.335 Lal, B.B op.cit., 1950-52, p.95 IAR, 1963-64, p.43-44 Ghosh Arvind kumar, op.cit., p.135 Sahi, M.D.N op.cit., 1990, p.220 Joshi, J.P. Excavation at Baghwanpura, 1975-76, p.118 Niharika, Stone Beads in Ancient India, p.3 Sant Urmila, The Terracotta Art of Rajasthan, 1997, p.4 Aitareya Brhmaa, Ch. IV .7 Sant Urmila, op.cit., 1997, p.2 Gupta, P.L. Gangetic Valley Terracotta Art, 1972, p.8 Sant Urmila, op.cit., 1997, p.2 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p.102 Sahi, M.D.N op.cit., p.150 IAR, 1965-66, p.41-42 Joshi, J.P. op.cit., 1975-76, p.126 Srivastava Satya Prakash, The Painted Grey Ware Industry InRajasthan (ed.) R.C.Gaur, Painted Grey Ware, p.68

72.

Nautiyal K.P. and Khanduri B.M., Northern most Extension of Painted Grey Culture: Recent Archaeological Investigation, (ed.) R.C. Gaur, Painted Grey Ware, p.86

73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91.

Lal, B.B. op.cit., 1950-52, Ancient India 10-11,p.95 Tripathi Vibha, op.cit., p.96 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p.102 Ibid, p.120 Marshal, Taxila III, p.654; II P1-199.13 Gaur R.C. Excavation at Atranjkhera, 1983, p.215 Sahi, M.D.N op.cit., 1990, p.220 Roy, B.P. op.cit.,1984, p.334 Gaur, R.C. op.cit.,1983, p.214 Sahi, M.D.N op.cit., 1990, p. 221 Roy, B.P. op.cit.,1984, p.334 Gaur, R.C. op.cit., 1983, p.217 Roy, B.P. op.cit., p.334 Sahi, M.D.N op.cit., 1990, p.221 Lal, B.B. op.cit., 1950-52, Ancient India 10-11,p.105 IAR, 1980-81, p.76 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p122 Gaur, R.C. op.cit., 1983, p.218 Atharvaveda, 3.22.1

METAL

In the Vedic literature we find different kind of metals used for making weapons of war, household objects agricultural implements, tools ornaments and other utensils. The study of these metallic objects has revealed numerous interesting features such as the source of metal, technology of metal (purification, fabrication and chemical change due to burial). The discovery of metal can be considered as the most remarkable and revolutionary achievement in the history of archaeology. Archaeological evidences gradually widen the knowledge of metal. The metallic object used for agriculture such as sickle, ploughshare and spades. The war weapons and tools made of copper, bronze and iron were effected the battlefield and hunting. Ornaments made of gold, silver and copper were used to increase beauty. Several states in eastern India such as Koala, Vedeha, Magadha and Anga were rising in power and their military preparation must have given stimulus to the manufacture of weapons and other materials of war involving. The advent of metallic objects in India goes back to the chalcolithic period. Then the Harappa period was truly called the metal age because of their developed metal technology and growth of specialties. During

the Vedic period, ryans were contributed in metal craft. A very valuable new metal had begun to emerge slowly in the Painted Grey Ware culture, was iron. The PGW period belong to copper-iron period and the NBP ware culture was the Iron Age. The Vajasney Sam hit refers a list of several metals such as hiranya, rajata, ayasa, loha, ssa, and trapu. These metals were suggests as in later Vedic literature respectively as Gold, Silver, Iron, Copper, Lead, and Tin. The iron implements would have been very much instrumental in clearing off the dense forests of the Ganga - Yamuna Valley, for making available more land to produce the necessary surplus for the contemporary society. The History of copper is much the same as that of iron. Copper has been mentioned in the White Yajurveda as loha (from lohita or red) in the list of six metals. The Vedic texts mention the earth as vasundhar, vasudhn and hiranyavaks > meaning that it contains wealth and Gold respectively. The atapatha Brhmaa indicates that ore of gold was extracted from the stone; Besides Vedic people collected gold dust from the river of Punjab?. Silver was an alloy of gold .In the Vedic literature the term `Rajata denotes to Silver. Some of the Vedic texts refer to Rajathiranyam@ which simply means silver and gold respectively. The Tattiriya samhit prohibits the offering of this metal as gift to the priestsA. The work of goldsmith was to make the ornaments of gold and silver. The various metals are mentioned in the following passage, for me gold, for me ayas (iron), for me ymam (dark metal), for me the reddish

metal (loham) and for me the tin (trapu) may be available by sacrificeB. The list occurs at other text also. Lead and tin are already noted by the Atharvaveda `Where odana, cooked grain` is described as having ` the ashes of the trapu, the colours of gold and the fragnance of .. Lotus`C. On the basis of value it can be considered that Gold has the highest value while silver of intermediate and the copper has lower one;:. Gold, silver and copper have been compared with the Brhmaa, ks atriya and Vaiya respectively in the later Vedic literature. It is noted with regard to the yield of metal objects, Gangtic doab to be the most prominent area, having a dense concentration of sites in the reign, yielding good amount of metal tools. The collection of ore metallurgy was the first work in metal technology then purifying it by smelting with the help of some chemical. The references for smelting of ore have been confirmed by the Vedic literature and by archaeological remains of frnace datable before 600B.C. The Rgveda describes the process of smelting ores which required the use of certain medicinal plants as fuel and fans made of the feather geese as bellows. The White Yajurveda distinctly refers to iron smelting and the blacksmith. Metal were purified being alloyed with some other metals or were converted into other once. Gold was used for softening silver, tin was softened by means of silver, lead by means of tin and loha by means of lead. The softening of gold by means of salt was widely used method;>. Excavations have also brought to light different kinds of metal, which belong to later Vedic period. The three cultural horizon are Painted Grey

Ware. Black and Red ware and overlap of Painted Grey and pre NBP ware, all of which full within the time bracket of 1000B.C. to 600B.C., All the finding of metal implements from these phases used for hunting, fishing, war, agriculture and domestic purposes.

Gold:Gold was considered to be most precious metal amongst all the metals. It has been stated also as a horse signifies notability among the animals, similarly gold occurred the most exalted status among the metals from the Harappan times. The Vedic people used gold for their ornaments. The Rgveda mentions the word `Hiranya` meaning gold and other terms for Gold. It has been stated that as many as 16 synonyms of gold occur in the Rgveda alone some of which denote its different varities;?. Some of the important terms in relation to gold are Rukma, which denoted ornaments made of gold;@. In the White Yajurveda or in Vajasney samihita hiranaya (gold) described first in the list of six metals. The Atharvaveda while describing a formula for an amulet of three metals mentions Harita (Gold), Rajata (silver) and ayas (?).;A The atapatha Brhmaa mentions Gold in shinning and avamedha is the royal office so the samitr bestows light upon the royal office. Horse is the symbol of nobility and gold is the form of the same; hense nobility is combined with its like;B.Similarly, needles made of gold were used for the slaughtered body of the sacrificial horse;C, on account of its yellow colour it was known as Chandra.

Gold was also a metal containing medicinal properties which cured certain diseases<:. Taittirya Sam hit states that purity of gold comes from water. We can`t find any gold occurance from any site from PGW level except Jakhera and Sardargarh. From Jakhera nine gold objects (Plate-II) were reported from mature PGW phase which represents the prosperous PGW culture. Slightly damaged and corrugated, a leaf shaped gold objects was recovered. It may be identified as a pendent or a necklace or part of it. It was manufactured from a thin sheet. Probably, an ear ornament or a nose ring of gold which was spiral of flat sheet with rounded terminals intact was reported from PGW level. Other Findings are a thick folded wire, hammer marks are quite clear and is squarish in cross section, it appears to be an electrum of silver due to light yellowish colour. A sps object for covering any solid copper object or any other metallic object. It was made of very thin sheet of Gold. Another object was a coil of very thin wires most probably it was used for embroidery work. A gold object which is folded by very thin wire, round in cross section probably it was drawn through an instrument called janti a scale like instrument of metal plate having holes of various thicknesses, used for drawing fine wire desired thicknesses. It is still used by local goldsmiths. The other site reporting gold pellets is Pandu Rajar Dhibhi from pd. III (pre NBP<>). It may be observed that PGW people obtain metallic gold dust in neighbouring regions.

Local gold smiths smelted the metal and manufactured ornaments of various types wires and foils. It was confirmed by the Vedic literature that gold was used for ritualistic rites and for medical purposes.

Silver:The Rgveda mentions the word hiranya meaning gold and Arjuna meaning Rajata<?. Compared with hiranya, the reference to Arjuna or rajata are not so prolific, which shows that the metal was not so popular. It was perhaps because of its pronounced whiteness silver had become a metal of attraction<@. The term Rajata occurs many times in Vedic and post Vedic literature which mean silver. The metal which was shinning in white colour comparatively a late comer in the galaxy of metals but sometime it was considered more valuable than other metal. The word hiranya and rajata denoted for precious metal. However, the later samhits and the other Vedic texts refer to it in different context. In Atharvaveda while describing a formula for these metals. Harita(gold), rajata (silver) and ayas<A(?). The Taittirya Samhit prohibits the offering of this metal as gift to the priests<B it has been suggested that it means white gold<C. Silver object were discovered from some excavated sites from PGW and NBPW level.

Copper:Copper was widely used before the advent of iron. The use of copper for small objects of personal use is not without significance. Since copper does not rust like iron even today. Pots for the storage of drinking water,

toothpicks, nail parers etc, are made of copper .It seems that advantage of copper as safe metal for the objects to be used directly on the body was realized during this period0.In the Vedic literature loha, lohayas or lohitayasa suggesting a red coloured metal stands for copper and is distinguished from iron. The atapatha Brhmaa especially, distinguishes the copper from gold on the basis of their respective colour. It states; Copper is not reddish and black, like iron so its value is neither of gold nor of iron1. Panchanam Neyogi suggests that the word tmra for copper appears to have become current in the 3rd C.B.C.32 as it occurs in ancient Indian medical treatises of Chakra. But it has been used in later samhit33. The Rgvedic Ayas also seems to red in colour may be identified with copper now the question arises that if ayas stood for copper in Rgvedic times why it was called lohayas during the later Vedic age34? D.N. Tripathi argued that the word hiranya and rajata denoted to precious metal and ayas denoted to baser metal. In the later Vedic age when other varieties of baser metal such as iron, tin and lead come to be known, the copper was called lohayas in order to distinguish it from other metals35. The Harappans were user of copper and several copper objects have been recovered from Harappan sites. Basham suggests that the people of North India learnt the use of copper from the Harappans. It is to be noted in a hymn of Atharvaveda suadhiti the axe has been described as lohita. In the later Vedic literature, lohayas and lohitayas stand for copper. Thus one can easily conclude that suadhiti described as lohita in Atharvaveda. It was a weapon of copper36. In Atharvaveda, a knife made of red metal has been mentioned37. Copper was used for

making weapons, household objects, ornaments, sacrificial pots and implements and several other objects were made of copper. The atapatha Brhmaa prescribes the razor made of copper for shaving the head of the sacrificer for uncopassing him with Brhmaa and the Vedas38. Arrowheads, Hooks, chisels, borer and antimony rod and all hunting objects and Nail parer, needles, pins, pendents, Bangles and rings etc. all toiletries were revealed from various PGW sites such as Aalamgirpur, Ahichchhtra, Allahpur, Atranjkhera, Hastinpura, Noh, Ropar and Jakhera. On the basis of their functions these objects may be classified in following groups: Toiletry objects Household object Craft tools Ornaments

Toiletry Objects:Toiletry objects which were recovered from Atranjkhera and Jakhera are still a good evidence of copper-smiths craft. Antimony rod cum nail parer a thin cylindrical rod with one end clubbed and the other flattened for nail paring is recovered from Atranjkhera from Mid PGW level. Nail parer are reported from Jakhera, Atranjkhera and Allahpur from PGW level. Antimony rod of a thin cylindrical having pointed clubbed ends have been reported from Atranjkhera from the mid PGW level39. Copper nail parer and antimony rod, thicked from one side bended from the centre rounded in section have been yielded from Bhagwanapura

from the late level of PGW40. From Jakhera (Plate-III) and Hulas antimony rod were also found. Toothpicks are reported from Jakhera>1. The objects like needles, dish and other kitchen utensils were belong to household. Needles were reported from Jakhera from PGW level>2. Fragment of a thin shallow dish having slightly incurved featureless rim convex sides and flattish base was recovered from Atranjkhera>3.

Craft Tools:From Hastinpura, an arrowhead has been reported from the late level of PGW culture. Borer of round section; the top square part is decorated pattern was reported from late level of Pd III44 (PGW). Fish hook like prominently bent hook, thin rhombus, cross-section broken has been found from Atranjkhera45 from Jakhera, evidence of fish hooks were also reported46.

Ornaments:Five copper bangles, one from lower level and four from upper level of PGW culture have been found from Atranjkhera. From Kalaua and Jakhera copper bangles were also found. While, rings and bracelets were unearthed from Atranjkhera and Jakhera. Copper objects are also attested at the sites like bateswar, Aalamgirpur, and Ahichhchatra etc47.

Copper Metallurgy:Did the technology of copper metallurgy originate in India? Extant archaeological records do not indicate any evidence of experimental and developing stages of copper metallurgy in the region inhabited by the

Vedic ryans. Some scholars think that the Indian chalcolithic metal objects might have also been imported from Iran but archaeological evidence prove that the chalcolithic metal objects excavated in our country were indigenously made48. The chalcolithic people used the technique of smelting and purifying metal, cold and hot work, was done for shaping the objects. Technique of annealing and casting of moulding were used by the copper smiths. However, no new technique was evolved by the copper smelters of PGW culture. Probably, they employed the same old methods, which were used by their ancestors. The tools and objects have mare Characteristics features which were unearthed from many sites.

Bronze:Literary and archaeological evidences brought to light different kinds of metal which were throw light on various aspects of peoples life. Not only these were utilized for weapons, household objects agriculture and ornaments objects but the people had realized their medicinal utility. Besides iron, and copper objects, bronze objects were also recovered from the earth which were retain their qualities and are durable. Bronze is much stronger, harder and sharper than other metals. Cutting tools which are made of bronze, posses harder, keener and more enduring edges. The copper smiths knew the advantages of alloying copper with tin. In the later Vedic literature bronze was considered as kamsa. There are few references of bronze have been found in Vedic literature vessels of bronze were used for hold butter and madhuparka in certain sacrifices49.

It is however certain that it was an article of common use in the 3rd century B.C it is mentioned the medical treatise of Charka gives as well as in kautilya Arthasastra. rauta gives direction for drinking water in bronze vessels50. Bronze first appear in the scene of metallic history in Vedic literature as kamsa (bronze). Despite their late occurrence in the texts it cannot be assumed that these were not known to the people in the earlier period51. It was widely used by chalcolithic people and not so familiar by the Vedic people.The artistic ability of Indus craft proved from the image of dancing girl, discovered from Mohenjo-Daro. Various alloys of copper used in Ancient India. The most important being riti or pittala (brass) and kamsya (bronze) that kamsya means bell metal also used in making gongs and other articles is evident from a passages in Amarkoshas lexican (6th c.A.D.). In which kamsyatala is mention as one of the many musical instruments prevelent in Ancient India copper and tin were melted together to from kam sya52. Alchemical works make mention of an alloy of five metals, called vartulauha produced from kamsya, copper, brass, iron and lead53. Zimmer considered ayas as a bronze. It has been translated by Macdonell and Keith mentioned (Vedic index) as bronze influenced by the theory that bronze preceded iron in the Vedic age

Iron:The problem of iron origin in India evolved variously. The antiquity of iron in India was not before 1000 B.C. The smelting of iron was first developed in Asia Minor between 1800 to 1200 B.C. It remained a monopoly of Hitties. The breakdown of Hittie empire in 1200 B.C.

provided the necessary stimulus for the diffusion of iron technology towards the east as well as the west. Some scholars are of opinion that the introduction of iron is indigenously in India and ryans were the first who introduced iron technology in India but Banerjee and other observed that it was the Painted Grey ware using people who introduced iron in India. Pirak is the only site associated with the early beginning of iron in Baluchistan. In Northern India evidence of iron has come earlier from PGW level. The Vedic literature refers to ayas in various contexts though it is definitely a metal. Gordon Childe thought it refer to iron, according to Zimmar it was bronze. Monier Williams translated Ayas as iron metal54. The Rgveda occurs the passage ayasho na dharma55 which is explained by Sayana, as shower of iron swords or Javlins. In Rgveda occurs the passage ayashi puh56 or iron city which though not to be taken literally means a safe place and shows that the ancient ryans were perfectly familiar with the strength and hardness of iron57. Probably, Ayas in Rgveda in largest number of passages means iron. In Atharvaveda, Ayas is divided into two species the Shayamayas, and lohitayas with copper. The word, shayamayas has been identified with iron and lohitayas with copper58. The word lohitayas occurs in the Taittirya Sam hit59 as distinguished from sayam or black metal. It also occurs in the Maitraya Sam hit60 and in the Kathaka Sam hit61. It is also occurs in the Jamini Upanis ad62 to contest to Kr s n ayas and in the Taittirya Brhmaa63 in

opposition to Kr s n ayas meaning black metal or iron. The White Yajurveda mentioned the list of list of six metals64.

ryans were the user of iron from the time of their earliest habitation in the Punjab. The Pained Gray Ware culture (1100-700 B.C.) represents an important period of early Iron Age in Northern India. Though, iron have been reported from Black and Red ware context at Chirand. Many iron objects have been reported from several excavated sites from PGW level such as Hastinpura, Atranjihera, Noh, Jakhera, Bhagwanapura and Aalamgirpur etc. The Gangetic Valley was the cradle of PGW culture. B.B. Lal associated this culture with Mahbharat people and some other scholars tried to associate it with R gvedic ryans. But the geographical Harizons and the material aspects of this culture correspond to the later Vedic age@5. Iron objects reported from PGW sites included spear-head, arrowheads, points, socketed, tangs, axes, sickles, knieves, blades, ploughshare, rods, a pair of tongs, nails, pins, clamps, hooks, porers, chisels, needles, bangles, hoe, draggers, slags, lumps and some indeterminate. Various references have been found in literature for these objects. As a number of passages allude to Vajra@6 the favorite weapon of Indra as being made of Ayas. It was like hammer having over and wound shape. It was also employed for fashioning tools such as vasi@7 and parau68. Meanwhile the references to ayasdhr69 evidenced that the metallic implements were possessed with a sharpened edges. The sharp edged weapons like asiA0, svadhiti, parau, pavi and Ks ura were mentioned in Rgveda and other Vedic texts. In the Rgveda asi has been refer to as a sharp weapon denoted as sacred and used for cutting the bull into bits. Suadhiti the axe was used for cutting trees. Agni has been called as svadhitir-vernanam-svadhitiA1 along with asi has been referred in the context of horse sacrificeA2. These implements could kill

animal with one stroke. Pavi, a weapon of Maruts, has been compared with vajra. Thus, it is obvious that strong and sharp weapons could be manufactured from ayas3. Ks uraA4, the term used for dagger as well as razor. It was used for hair cutting (Mun d ana). In the Atharvaveda, references have been mentioned in this connection. Pavi, was the artifact has been returned in the Rgvedic literature as a component of rathas wheel and was a metal ring fixed tightly on the wheel in order to give extra strength. The iron objects, which were recovered from various sites, were used for hunting and war, agriculture and craft tools and household purposes and for regarding the social and economic requirement of society.

Hunting Tools and War Weapons:Atranjkhera, an important site of PGW culture in upper Ganga Basin having a rich collection of iron. From the earliest levels of Painted Grey Ware culture yielded a pear shaped fire pit from the upper phase of PGW culture. Most of hunting tools were recovered from the PGW level. Arrowhead, spearheads, daggers, lances, fish hooks, blades, shafts etc. may be used for hunting or killingA5. Arrowheads are reported from Atranjkhera, Jakhera, Hastinpura, Allahapur, and Aalamgirpur. From Atranjkhera twenty one specimens of arrowheads including four socketed and tongs were recovered. Jakhera also yielded arrowheads from the PGW level76. One nine inch long arrowhead of iron was discovered from Hastinpura. Eight spearheads from Atranjkhera have been found, during this period. All of them seem to thrushing spearheads rather than throw javelins. All the spearheads are heavy and made with a fore shaftA7.

Ten shaft pieces were also collected from Pd. III most of them appear to have been fixed with arrowheads. Two spearhead and knife blades are recovered from the mid level of PGW from HastinpuraA8. From Allahpur blades and a bone point which is inserted with an iron rod have been found79. Fish hooks, lances and daggers are reported from Jakhera (Plate-IV).

Agriculture Tools:Some agricultural implements like sickle, plough-share, hoe and axe have been recovered from the excavated sites. Sickles are reported from JakheraB0. A few implements found at Atranjkhera appear to be sickle or reaping hook but they have not been identifiedB1. Discovery of iron plough-share is a landmark advancement in agricultural history. No ploughshare was discovered from the pre NBPW deposit. But from the excavation at Jakhera, we got the evidence of ploughshareB2. Several scholars like SharmaB3 do not accept the fact that this agricultural tool was discovered from the PGW level. He places it not early than 500 B.C. Sharma has relative approach because according to him no site yielded ploughshare. From Jakhera hoe is also reportedB4. Only two axes were found, from Atranjkhera one from Pd. III and the other from period IV. They are without sockets. It was probably used for cutting treesB5.

Craft Tools and Implements:Several craft tools such as tongs, clamps, chisels, bar/rods, borers, needles, nails, pins etc. have been discovered from various sites. A single

pair of tongs has been recovered from Atranjkhera from the upper phase of PGW culture (Plate-V). Its short width, thickness and particularly, tapering arms to semi-pointed ends suggest that it served the purpose of a tool of the blacksmith rather than a kitchen utensil. The tool is made of long flat bar folded in two equal arms with a pronounced head without a jointB6. Twenty one clamps were reported from AtranjkheraB7 from PGW level which was divisible into three groups. These clamps might have been used either to joint different wooden planks on parts of a wooden structure. Typologically, there is not much difference among the three types. Jakhera yielded iron clamps also88. Nail, chisels, bors/rods and needless were reported from the sites of Jakhera89 and AtranjkheraC0. Seven hooks (Plate-VI) were recovered from Atranjkhera representing two main types. The hooks were evidently intended to be fixed in the walls at convenient places for use as hangers. Twenty one nail pieces were found from Atranjkhera.

Household Objects:Needless, knives, bangles and rings are the household objects. Needless are reported from Atranjkhera and Jakhera. The needle from Atranjkhera has a length of 9.8 cm. Its size suggests that it might have been used for leather stitching; knives are reported from both of these sites. It may have been used in kitchen. Bangles and rings may be included in ornaments. Bangles are reported from Atranjkhera and Jakhera while rings from Hastinpur and JakheraC1.

Techniques:Iron technology developed in India on the basis of a long tradition of successful copper technology which provided the necessary

infrastructure for mining, roasting, crushing of the ore and beneficiation and smelting in small frnacesC2. Jakhera has yield excellent evidence of iron smelting in the form of semi circular chanks of slags and cindusC3. Evidence of metal casting technology is contained in the Rgveda and onwords in the form of the root sic which means pouring as well as casting the metalC4. It is noteworthy that in the Sanskrit literature of the later period, the casting of metal in moulds in likened in the Rgvedic fashion to casting of human seed in the foetusC5. So far as a clear evidence of metal casting in the Vedic literature is concerned, it occurs in the Atharvaveda which described the casting of thunderbolt by BrahaspatiC6. Iron smelting was not invented by copper smelters but by more primitive copper smeltersC7. The techniques for iron smelting are more difficult and complex than copper and bronze technology. When iron is smelted in small simple furnaces it is difficult to maintain the reducing atmosphere a high temperature. The minimum temperature necessary for smelting iron is 11500 to 12000 celsius98. After smelting the liquified metal was put into moulds for casting to produce desire object. The PGW blacksmiths were used simple technique like hammering, beating, tempering and quenching. First of all, they might have tried to reduce the iron oxide part of the iron ore and might have separated it from gangue by direct process of heating. As described in Encyclopedia Americana99 the charcoal fire used by early iron-smiths was not enough to smelt the reduced iron.

Wootz Steel:The term wootz was derived from the Kannada or Telegu (canarese) word wooku (ukku) which means steel and came to be known in Europe as wootz. Pre-industerial Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu were the world famous centres for the ancient wootz (steel) production100. It was considered as the crucible steel almost revolutionized the earlier concept of iron and steel production. The metallurgy evolved in due course of time with carburization, quenching and tampering. With making of steel in crucibles new heights were achieved. Technically wootz may be term which is applied only to a high carbon alloy produced by the crucible melting process101. The earliest evidence of a iron in India occurs at Atranjikhera about 1000 B.C. But it was firstly in the bordering North-western India the use of iron had become widespread. Iron implements were widely used in Gandhara area about 900 B.C. A few specimen were examined, represented high quality of iron and steel in India on early date102. It was accepted by the Banerjee that the knowledge of steel making was known to the Rgvedic people in 1500 B.C103. Wootz or Ootz is probably the name of steel in the Gujrati language in use at Bombay from which place the first specimens of Indian steel were sent the England under that name104. The Indian iron masters had realized the effect of addition of carbon to iron the excellent cuffing edges formed on carbon steels. Lour (1990) in carried out study of iron smelting and crucibles steel production (between 1987-1990). Andhra Pradesh and identified over a dozen wootz production sties and a few dozen iron smelting ones and says that wootz steel was exported to Europe even as early as 400 B.C105.

There is then a reference in nitro carburization of iron for manufacturing steel in the Arthasastra of Kautilya. However, at the earliest stage the metal was crude and hardly superior to copper-bronze that was in use. The process was perfected over the centuries through trial and error culminating into good quality steel that became famous all over the world106. During the process of manufacturing wrought iron, certain easily fusible beads of iron were produced and melted off as shot. These were actually highly carburized particles or cast iron and it is form these that the steel was made. The wootz steel was also known as Damascus steel because it was carried in trade through Damascus where this was used for the manufacturing of words. Thus, Damascus steel was indisputably of Indian origin and Damask pattern was a sign of quality in history of wootz steel. It is evident from the recent archaeological discoveries from the graves of Warrigaon (M.P.) where the cast steel weapons and fragment were unearthed. An iron axe from Mahurjhari, bear testimony to the fact that famous wootz process, i.e. the convention of wrought iron into steel by the so called crucible method, was known to innovative Indian metallurgist about 7th 6th C.B.C.107 The Persians, Chinese and the Greeks might have derived their knowledge of manufacturing steel from India. The high quality of high iron and steel can be examined from few specimens of Taxila at an early day108. Iron appeared in various parts of Ganga Valley, though its role in the urbanization of the Ganga doab is noticeable. As the archaeological evidence suggests, iron became common close to the beginning of Ist

millennium B.C. In course of time the subsistence became largely based on agriculture as the increased number of agricultural tools and more evidence of carburization would also indicate. We need a lot of research to have understanding about various stages of wootz making. Chakrabarty rightly point out that it is difficult to find the beginning of iron technology in ancient literature but we need to study the Sangam literature also for metallurgical techniques of wootz or iron.

Tin:The later Vedic texts mention the word Trapu. For tin, but we did not find any occurrence for this metal. This was a very light weighted metal and not durable. In the Bronze objects of Harappan 8% to 10% proportion of tin was mixed in it.

Lead:The term Ssa occurs for the first time in the later Vedic texts. Weights were prepared by lead have sometimes been described in the Vedic texts. In the White Yajurveda and the Vajesnayi Sam hit mention it in the list of six metals as ssa (lead). The amulets made of glass was used for curing certain ailments. Balls of glass were used for hitting the thieves and enemies from a long distance. In the Rajsuya a piece of it was placed on a hide of a tiger to be kicked off by the khastriya going through conceration ceremony. The most remarkable development in metal technology during the PGW phase concerns with the emergence of iron. The introduction of iron, minimized the use of copper and bronze, in the subsequent period. The development of iron technology was marked a new phase of craft

activities. This new technological advancement succeeded in bringing about social, economic and political transformation. Indus valley people used bronze as a functioning metal and the copper was prevalent metallurgy and the Painted Grey Ware people presented high marked development in metal crafts known as iron. During the PGW period, however copper continued to remain as the metal of common use and nothing significant was done to introduce new techniques suited to the treatment of this highly useful metal. Prolific use of iron and occurrence of raw material in the form of ore, smelted lumps and variety of objects and their quality is itself an indication of advanced technology111. The term ayas occurs in Rgveda in various passages is a very controversial one. It has been interpreted variously as meaning iron, copper and bronze. But undoubtly it was iron which has been translated by the great commentator Sayana. It was a baser metal used for making sharper and harder weapons and implements. In Rgveda occurs the passage ayasho na dharam which is explained by Sayana as Shower of iron swords and javelins. In Rgveda occurs the passage ayashi puha iron city which though not to be taken literally means safe place. Now the question arises that if ayas is consider as iron then why we should not be find any evidence of iron in early Vedic period? Did iron played any causative role in clearance of forests to produce of agricultural surplus? Iron technology effected the clearance of dark and dense tropical forests of Ganga Yamuna Valley and extensive agricultural operations and urban transformation. It was iron that have been found associated with the PG Ware include arrowhead, spearhead, knives, nails, spades, knife blades,

daggers, hoes, fish-hooks, edges, chisels and scissors besides slag and shapeless bits. But one may assume that in the absence of any find of iron axe and any plough-share, how it was possible to clear the dark forests of Ganga Yamuna Valley, which could provide the new social phenomenon of Urbanization. The evidence of ploughshare from Jakhera does not accepted by Sharma and others that this agricultural tool was discovered from the PGW level, but Sahi has reported the ploughshare from the mature phase of PGW dated 800 B.C. This discovery was also been confirmed from the discovery of iron ploughshare from Ganawaria in pre 700 B.C. Axe was also reported from Jakhera and Atranjkhera from PGW level112. Does the copper metallurgy show any continuity between OCP and PGW phase? Copper was the most common and widely used metal. The copper objects of OCP culture were usually associated with the copper-hoards not so advance as the Harappans. The objects obtained from PGW levels show the similarity between copper hoards and PGW culture copper objects. The PGW using people seem to be closer to the copper hoard people it proves some contact relation between the two phases of history. Thus metallurgy of PGW culture brought remarkable development in metal and craft activities which were destined to change this new socialeconomic phenomenon.

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24. 25. 26.

Das Gupta, PC. (1964): Excavation at Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Calcutta Nirukta, 2.10 This has been referred quite a number of Times. See Rgveda , 1.122.5; III.39.2; VI.9.1; VII.55.2; VIII.25.22; IX.69.4; X.21.3

27. 28. 29. 30.

Atharvaveda, V.28.1 TS,1.5.1 Roy B.P. op.cit., p.321 Upadhayya, J.P., Metal Implements of Northern India(1000 B.C. To 500 B.C.), p.28

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

SB, 5.4.1.2 Neogi p., Copper in Ancient India, p.7 AV, 10.2.11; VS.16.39 Tripathi D.N, Ayas in Rgveda, p.347 Ibid Tripathi D.N, op.cit., p.347 Atharvaveda; VI, 141.2 SB, 2.6.4.5 Gaur, R.C., Excavation at Atranjkhera, p.232 Joshi J.P, Excavation at Bhagwanapura, p.136 Sahi MD.N, 1990, p.221 Ibid Gaur, op.cit.p.233 Lal, B.B. Ancient India Vol. 10-11, P.95 Gaur R.C., op.cit.,p.233 Sahi, op.cit., p.148 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, Material Culture of Gangetic plains during Ist millenium B.C, An Archaeological study. P.166-167

48. 49.

Roy, op.cit., p.37 AV, 10.10.5; AB, 8.10; BU, 4.3.1; Nirukta, 4.23; SA, 12.8; BSS, 6.19; AP.G.S, 13.10

50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66.

Neogi P.op.cit., p.33 Chaturvedi, Prem Sagar, The Dawn of Civilization, P. 636 Neogi P., op.cit.. P.32, Amrkosa Swarbarga. p.179 Ibid, p.33 Tripati D.N., Ayas in Rgveda, p.346 In Rg VI .47.10. Rg, VII.95.1 P. Neogi, Iron In Vedic Age,(2000-1000 B.C),p.22 Tripati D.N, Ayas in Rgveda, p.347 Taittriya Samhit, IV.7.5.1 MS,I.II.5;IV.44 KS,XVIII,10 JU,III,17.3 TB,III,62.6.5 WY,XVIII.13 Tripati,D.N. op.cit., p.348 Rgveda 1.52.8; 80.12; 81.4; 121.9; VIII.96.3; X 48.3; 96:3; 4; 113.5; etc.

67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72.

Ibid, VIII,29.3 Ibid, X, 53.9 Ibid, VI, 3.5; 47.10 RV, X,79.6 RV, IX, 96.6 RV, I.162.20.

73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92.

RV; 1.66.10. Dahiya Neelima, The Art & Crafts in Northern India P. 124 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit.,p.167 Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.,p.220 Gaur, R.C,op.cit., p.223-224 Tripathi,Vibha,op.cit,1976, p.101 IAR, 1970-71, p. 40-41 Sahi M.D.N, op.cit.,1990, p.220 IAR,1965-66 Plate LXX Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.,1990,p.220 Sharma R.S., op.cit., 1983,p.71-72 Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.,1990,p.220 Gaur R.C., op.cit.,p.230 Ibid p.224 Ibid Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.,1990,p.220 Ibid Gaur R.C., op.cit.,p.230 Ghosh.Arvind, op.cit.,p.167 Hedqe. K.T.M, Ancient Indian Iron Metallurgy, Man and Environment, XI (I) 1991, p.2

93.

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94. 95.

Chaturvedi Prem Sagar, The Dawn of Civilization, p.656 A description in the As vanedhika Parva in the Mahabharts express It thus; Yatha Lohasya nihsyand nisikta bimbavigraham / Upaiti. Lad vijnhi garbhe jva. parveshanan/-9 Lohapindan. Yatha vanhih

ppraujsya

hyatitapayet/.

Tatha

tvam

pi

yanihi

qarbhe

jivopapadanan/10.Chaturvadi Prem Sagar, op.cit., p.656 96. 97. AV,XI.10.12.13 Tripathi Vibha, Iron Working in Ancient India, ed.

Archaeometallurgy in India, Vibha Tripathi, p. 209 98. 99. 100. Hedge, K.T.M., op.cit., p.2 Dahiya Neelima, op.cit., p. 124 Agarwal D.P., J.S. Kharakwal, Bronze and Iron age in South Asia, p. 258 101. Tripathi Vibha, Iron Technology and its legacy in India, ed. in Vibha Tripathi, Archaeometallurgy in India, p. 98 102. Arora U.P., Greeks on India, p. 70 103. Banerjee M.N., Iron and Steel in the Rgvedic age, IHQ, Vol. 5, 1929, p. 440-441 104. Mushet David, Papers of Indian Iron and Steel, p. 606. 105. Agarwal D.P., J.S. Kharakwal, op.cit., p. 259 106. Tripathi Vibha, Iron Technology and its legacy in India, ed. in Vibha Tripathi, Archaeometallurgy in India, p. 102 107. Arora U.P., Greeks on India, p. 71 108. Marshall, Taxila, vol. 2, p. 234-35 109. Agarwal D.P., J.S. Kharakwal, op.cit., p. 264 110. Ibid, p. 266 111. Ghose Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p.169 112. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.324

TEXTILES

The existence of textiles industry in India can be traced from the Harappan culture. Like agriculture, textiles industry is equally essential for the growth of civilization. Textiles come to be associated with the social and ritualistic events from the very early times. It was a fast growing industry during the later Vedic age. The primitive people used barks, leaves of trees, grasses and skin of animal for covering the body. But cloth is the primary needs of a man for covering the body in civilized society. As atapatha Brhmaa preferred the use of cloth for covering the body and incrasing the beauty. The importance of cloth has been attested from rituals and sacrifices. It was attached to religious sanctity. It is mentioned that the woof of a cloth belongs to Agni, the wraps to Vayu, the thrum to the departed souls, the fore edges to the snakes, the thread to Vihvedevas and the meshes to the asterism. Among other arts and crafts of the Vedic period textiles was a specialized industry. With the emergence cities and development of town and town life have given the widen scope to the weavers and better opportunity for selling goods.

The Vedic ryans had already developed to considerable perfection in the art of dress and the industries of spinning and weaving, the most universal and the most characterized industries of India up to, today had obtained a firm footing among them. During the Stras, the art of spinning and weaving was in vogue. It was proved that there is no large scale textile industry in India but she was rich in raw material for principal manufacturing. D.H. Garden, however, informs us that raw cotton and cotton cloth were exported to Sumer by the Harrappans 4. K.D.B. Codrington has rightly points out, since very early times India has been very important center for the allied and linked craft of spinning and weaving?. The textiles industry further advanced during the Buddhist period. Cotton occupied an important place in this period.In the Vedic period, there are a number of terms for the cloth as Vasana, nivi, adhivsa, drpi, hiranyadrpi, peas, and atka. Vasana denoted to cloths in general which were of ordinary grade@. Nivi is mentioned for the under garment and the Adhivsas for the upper garment like a general covering. The Atka was a long and fully covering close fitting look, bright and beautiful while peas was a gold embroidered clothB. In the Atharvaveda, the word drpi or hiranya drpi is mentioned as waist coatC. Undoubtedly, the textile industry was developed both on an intensive as well as extensive basis and it gave birth to quite variety of product made of cotton, wool or silk which is considered as the mark of civilized society;:. It seems that it was a very important commercial product of India.

Kinds of Textile:Vastra, vsas and Vasana are the common terms used for cloth. Cotton, silk, wool and animals skin were used as dress material even grass and fethers were also woven. With the help of different kinds of raw material Indians had manufactured various types of fine as well as crude verities of textile in ancient India. The literary evidence informs that in the Vedic period textile industry was confined mostly in the manufacturing of woolen cloths .While a more common material for weaving cloths for ritual purpose was linen on silk. This is mentioned in Black Yajurveda by the term Trpya meaning silk or linen.

Cotton:Cotton occupied a important place in the varity of textile .It is interesting to note that literature does not prove any evidence of the use of cotton in Vedic age. Different terms occurred for cotton in different language. In Sanskrit the term karmas comes for cotton fabric. In Greek karpasors and carbusus in Latin.The word karpsa has not been mentioned in Vedic or later Vedic literature. For the first this term has been occurred in valyana rauta Stra, was composed not later than the 8th century B.C. In the Indus valley civilization cotton fabric was cultivated on large scale. Microscopic examination of the remains of the woven material found wrapped up with copper objects proves that the Harappan people knew how to make cotton of plain weaving. According the Prof .Muir in the Rgvedic period it is difficult to conceive that cotton though not mentioned in the hymns should have been unknown when they were composed or not employed for weaving the

light cloth which is necessary in so warm climate;>. The cultivation of cotton fabric, a spinning and weaving craft does not appear to be much developed in Vedic age but the recent excavation proved the use of cotton or silk cloth in this period. The process of weaving is hinted at in a passage of Atharvaveda, The Goddess who spun and wove, who stretched the warp and who crossed the woof may doth you for old age;?. The Yajus Samhit mentions spinning as a means of earning wealth;@. During the Vedic period the word Tantu occurs for warp or loom, and its literal meaning is the object to be stretched out. Tasara meaning weavers shuttle is also mentioned;B. The excavation at Atranjkhera brings out a new light on the weaving of cloth by the discovery of two sherds bearing cloth impression unearthed from the Pd III (PGW);C. Cotton was produced from a plant Gossypium arborcum or one of its varieties. It seems that pastoral ryan did not cultivate that plant for obtaining cotton.

Linen (ksum- ksauma):According to Max Mullar ksauma means a linen cloth, it occurs in Maitraya sam hit<: and in Black Yajurveda also. Linen is made from flax or bost fiber and is spun into a high quality yarn. Linen is very durable it is more expensive than cotton. Linen febric was known to ancient Egypt and Elam. Um, Aumk, and Atsi terms have been mentioned for linen cloth in the litrature. In the Black Yajurveda the word trpya is mentioned for linen or silk. But it is doubtful that both fabrics were same in manner. It was used for sacrificial occasions.

In this connection the word ksum denoted to a bleached or purified fabric. This fabric was frequently mentioned in Astdhyy or Jain literature. A monk was allowed to wear three robes two linen (ksaumika) under garment and one woolen upper garment<>. It appears that ksum might have occupied a similar popularity like other varieties of textiles.

Silk:Silk not only has a very ancient tradition it deserve a significant status because of its use at rituals. Its antiquity is uncertain. It seems, it was used in China, a long ago as the twenty seventh C.B.C. Silk was the prime product of China the manufacturing of silk attend a high antiquity in China. Silk industry was brought in India from China through the Brahmputra valley and Bangladesh. The term kauskeya occurred for silk cloth<?. According Ktyyana, it is so called because it is produced from Cocoon. Although a similar product is yielded by silk warm but the word kauseya is said to apply to cocoon products<@. The Rmyana informs us about the silk industry. Rma gave away kauseya cloth to an achary on the eve of his departure for the Dandaka forests<A. The use kauseya was exclusive to the aristocracy which regarded that garment made of kauseya were considered as more valuable than other articles. Kauseya material was obtained from wild sources known as tasara. Silk is divided in two kinds wild and pure. Wild silk is obtained from silk worms feeding on the leaves of forest trees. Pure silk is the product of mulbery silk<C.

We dont find any fact regarding flourishing the silk industry during the Rgvedic period. Although, remarkable discovery in Nevesa district change the whole scenario about the antiquity of silk in India which goes to back to second millennium B.C. It was necklaces of copper beads made by the string of silk as early as 10 to 15th C.B.C. On this basis it may suggested that silk industry was frequently functioning in India upto 8th C.B.C=:.

Wool:In the Vedic period textile industry was confined mostly in the manufacturing of the woolen clothes. The terms wool applied to the soft wavy hairs which covers the bodies of sheep and certain other animals such as alpaca, vicuna and various goats. Woolen goods were called as Rkava or lomja. Wool was known as rna in Vedic period. The Vedic literature mentioned various references for woolen clothes. Pusn is describes as weaving woolen garments while the Maruts are mentioned as wearing woolen clothes=>. Undoubtly, the antiquity of woolen textile in India goes back to the second Stone Age or before that. Woolen threads are mentioned in White Yajurveda, kathaka Sam hit and Maitraya Sam hit. Woolen garments were worn on ceremonial places or forming religious functions. The references of (rna) kambala and samulya are mentioned in the Atharvaveda. The existence of woolen industry was not clear from the excavations at Harappan and Mohanjodaro. It may be said that knowledge of woolen textile come to India through the ryan invaders.

With most castes the bridegroom attends the wedding services with a woolen tied around the waist=A. It seems that whole region of the Punjab was known for its wool and woolly sheep for even the Parusi is said to be urna. Wool obtained from sheep was soft and have good quality in comparison to wool of goat. rnavsas has been mentioned for woolen cloth, rnaStra for woolen thread and rnastuk for the ball of wool=C. There are some references to the wool bearing tree named as Pamphylian wool. Herodotus and Strabo also refer to a wool bearing tree>:. Thus, it clear that wool as a raw material obtained important place in textile industry.

Techniques:With the development of civilization, the art of spinning, weaving, dyeing and stitching are also developed. The making of cloth was considered as useful job which resulte the material prosperity of weaver and improved the economic condition of them. Weaving of cloth presupposes that the preliminary processes of ginning, cleaning, pressing, carding and spinning were known to them>;.

Spinning and Weaving:The art of spinning and weaving was well known during the Vedic period. There are various references has been mentioned in the literature of this period. In Atharvaveda the process of weaving has been mentioned. The Goddess who spun one wove, who stretched the wrap and who crossed the woof may cloth you for old age><.

Perhaps India was the first country in the whole wide world to have perfected the art craft of weaving. It is believed that fine weaving passed on from India to Assyria, Egypt and through the Phonecians into Southern Europe. The passage have summarized the complete process of weaving: dawn and night, lofty, sapful, richly yielding, fair showing as they weave with varied colours, the long extended thread in concert>=. It is proved that the weaving was a highly developed art in this period. Carding, ginning and spinning were the most important preliminary process prior to weaving. Weaving of cloth has been attested in post Vedic India from the archaeological evidences. As bone spindle whorls were discovered from various sites such as Chirand in Bihar which proves the practice of spinning in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic period>>.Terracotta spindle whorls have been recovered during the Harappan period, PGW and NBPW period>?. Spindle whorls are reported from the sites like, Hulas and Ahichchhatra. From Hulas a spindle whorl with perforation in the middle and painted in PGW style has been recovered>@. As far as weaving is concerned, tools are used by works such as spindle whorls, loom, weights, spool and bobbing in order to facilitate the process of weaving. Wrap were sized to reduced friction and devoid damage of thread. Loom was called as tasara and weaver was vay. Spinning and weaving was the profession of the women in the Vedic period. They were known as vayitr >A. The passage mentions that mothers weave garments for their offspring. Another reference has given information about the competition of weaving between two female weaver>B.

In this connection, it has been justified that Vedic Indians had already developed considerable perfection in the art of dressing and the industries of spinning and weaving. The most universed and the most characteristic industries of India up to today, had obtained a firm footing among them>C.

Dyeing:The discovery of colours opened up a vast new world for man. Decorating of cloth with dyeing was most essential for increasing its beauty. The Vedic text mentions the dyeing of cloth with various colours. In the beginning these colours were borrowed from nature. The juices of lodhar flower and madder or mindigo were used for dyeing of garments. The popular colours for decorating the cloth were reddish yellow, light red and yellows. These colours have been occurred in the Rgveda. Several colours mentioned in the later Vedic texts such as white, blue, black, green, red and yellow. Saffron colours also referred in the Stras. Dyeing of cloth was in vogue in this period. Lohitvsa and Lohitaka denoted for the red cloth Lohitvsa ?: was to put by widows in this period. The art of dyeing was an important occupation and practiced by both male and female dyer. Laksa and haridr were also common dye stuffs. Mahrjan? denoted the seffron colour dyed cloth Piaga? means thread brown colour and Pndu? refer to white colour cloth. In v.Gr.S., it was mentioned that a Brhmaa should wear reddish yellow (Ksya) , a kshatriyas garment should be manjistha (dyed with madder) and a Vaiya should be put on yellow garment (Chrindra) at the time of Upanayana?>. Thus it seems that vegetable and stone dyes

have been used widely. The chief vegetable dyes used were indigo, clayroot, lac turmeric and flower. In the Rmyana and Mahbhrata the dye maker were called as Rangakra. Dyes were prepared from the roots, trunks and bark of trees, leaves, flowers and fruits as mentioned in Buddhist literature.

Washing:As Vedic hymns tells us that washing of cloth occupied a prominent place in textile. Rgveda mentioned that the god Pusan weaves woolen clothes and washed them also??. Washing has been done at home and pond side. A particular group of washer man was engaged in this occupation. Soda (Sajjiykhra) is mentioned as washing material. The clothes are moisted in it and heated on fire and then washed with clean water?@. Laundries (Rajayal) were also mentioned in literature. As far as washing technique was concerned thrashing against stone, brushing,

(ghttha ), rubbing (Mat t a) and perfuming (Sam padmiya) of clothes were known?A. Kautiya says For washing the best quality of garments the wages shall be one Pana; for those of inferior quality 1/9th of a Pana.

Stiching:A large variety of dresses of fascinating designs were wear by the Vedic ryans. There are numerous references which mention that the art of sewing or stiching was in existence in the Vedic period. The Rgveda refer the term sc?B for needle and the process of stitching. Sy was also a term for needle which was the synonym of sew?C. The art of preparing

dress and making them beautiful were in vogue during the later Vedic period. The Atharvaveda mention stitching of a piece of clothe for making coat@:. There are references of making two pieces of clothe joined together in Aitareya Brhmaa. On the basis of literary evidence it proves that the use of needle and the art of stitching played an important role in textile. The objectivity of literary evidences has been justified with the archaeological records from the excavation at Hastinpura and Atranjkhera@;. Knitting needles of bone have been unearthed from PGW period. Copper needles have been recovered from Jakhera@<. Iron needles are reported from Atranjkhera@= and Jakhera@> from Painted Grey Ware level. The needle from Atranjkhera has a length 9.8 probably it has been use for leather stitching. Although several types of needles have been reported from various sites. Women occupied an important place in the art of sewing and decorating the clothes. In Jain sources the word Tunnga has been use for tailor. Siviga@? (tailor) was also introduced as craft men in Jamouddinapannotti. The art of tailoring various kinds of garments was well known to the people of Vedic period.

Embroidery:Indian embroidery takes its inspiration from nature and the product of various regions. Embroidery is another folk technique of textile designing in India@@. The history of embroidery can be traced back right from the bronze embroidered needles revealed from the excavation dated back 23001500 B.C. and figurines wearing embroidered drapery@A.

The terms atka and peas were frequently mentioned in the Rgveda. The atka denoted for a long fully covering fitting clock, bright and beautiful the stuff being bleached or embroidered with gold thread@B while peas was a gold embroidered cloth. Peas were worn by the female dancer@C. In the Yajurveda, at the Purushamedha, the word peaskrisA: occurred in the list of victims. It was a done by female embroidered who were engaged in it. In the Vedic literature the terms hiranyadrpi and hiranyapeas have been mentioned was it denoted for costly garment in compound with golden threadsA;. Vasana denoted for ordinary garment and suvasanas means a splendid garment which was beautifully embroidered and decorated. The nobles liked to wear embroidered clothes which were made by the threads of gold and silver. Supeas was also denoted for embroidered clothA<. Another garment trpya, embroidered with figures of sacrificial implements is mentioned in Ktyyni rauta StraA. Thus it is interesting to note that designing the garments by decorative techniques, embroidery, dyeing, stitching, brocading etc. were in fairly advanced stage during Vedic period it introduce grace and elegance of that period. Above these references proved the popularity of needle work in the field of ornamentation and splendor.

Types of Garments:In the Vedic literature there are numerous terms which refer to different grades and types of clothes. They conclude Usnisa, Trpya, Drpi, Samula, Peas, Vesas, Suvasana, Sumangalvasa, Vihvarupamvasa, Sukravasa, Rusatvasa, Vadhuya, Vasa Paridhna, Nivi, Adni-vasa and Atka etc.

According to some commentators and translator these terms were meant like. Usnisa A> This garment was like turban and used by men and women both. Trpya:- it was unembroidered garment. Drpi it was a mantle or cloak. Peas it was referred to embroidered Garment. Vadhuya Vasana- it was worn by the bride at the marriage ceremony. Some other words like kambala (a woolen coveletA?). VataPana (as wind guard cloth), pra-varaA@ (variant of kambala), kaipu (a sort of embroidered mattress an cushion.

Trade Organization:Textile as a cottage industry had become an important occupation. India was rich in raw material for the principal manufacturing industries through the early times. There was well marked tendency towards division of labour and the growth of various sub crafts, during later Vedic period. This period is marked by a remarkable development of industrial life and sub-division of occupation. The development and the growth of town and villages had given wider scope to the weavers for selling their products. As a matter of fact, the development of commerce and the greater demand for manufactured articles were contributed in the growth of organization. A guild appears to have exercised considerable authority over its members. Guilds were organized under a leader called pramukha, jetthaka or setthis in post Vedic timesAA.

In the later Vedic text as regards with textile industry there were several references for industries and occupation as dying, sewing, embroidery tailoring etc. It is evident that dying of clothes was in practice during Vedic period. Dyer, who coloured the cloths, was occurred in the list of professionals in YajurvedaAB female dyer was known as rajayitr in Vedic age. Mention of colours in Rgveda shows the proficiency of knowledge of Vedic ryans in the process of dyeingAC. As like, in other subsidiary craft, peaskri (embroidery) was a prominent occupation in later Vedic period. The terms related to embroidery work as peas, Atka, suvasana, vadhya proved that it was a regular occupation of women known as peaskri while peaskras occurred for the person who engaged in embroidery. Thus it is clear that specialized craftsmanship in embroidery was improved during this period. The art of sewing was confirmed by the discovery of needles from PGW level making of garments designing or decorating them with help of needles was done by the tailor. It is interesting to note. The manufacturers of sewn clothes were called as Sauchik References have been mentioned for stiching of various types of dress in AtharvavedaB:. Besides these, washing of clothes was also an important occupation in that period. It was done by washer man. Rgveda and Yajurveda tell us about this profession. In the list of professions in Yajurveda, washer men also occurred a prominent place. The art of weaving and spinning was at its developed stage, during the later Vedic age. Weaving was a occupation for men and women both but it was widely practiced by women who were called as Vayitra and siri in literatureB;.

The growth of occupation had its impact on the contemporary society, as it was largely responsible for the formation of many castesB<. Cloth, being an important industrial product. Textile raw materials and manufactured goods facilitated the trade and commerce in ancient India. Embroidered cloth, garments, turbans, skin, goat-skin, wool of the sheep and the like, were the commodities of trade and commerceB=. Textile industry was mostly confined in the manufacturing of woolen garments during the Vedic period. Most probably wool was brought to India by ryan invaders who were shepherdsB>. As regards to trade, in textile industry we may draw our attention to AV which mentions different processes of commerce like Kraya (purchase), parpana (bargain), Vikraya (sale), phala (profit), Charita (Transaction) and utthita (principal and profit) that in this connection it can be stated textile industry encouraged trade and commerce during the later Vedic period. A well developed art of making garment might have seen in Vedic period. All the information regarding textile industry was based on literary and archaeological sources. The Vedic ryans achieved a high standard of skill in textile. This industry played a prominent role in development of socio-economic life of the Vedic people. The later Vedic texts enlighten us on different aspects and techniques of making garments. It is interesting to note that Vedic ryans were acquainted with the use of various varieties of textiles. While woollens were quite in vogue in that period. With the development of civilization the people had developed considerable perfection in art of weaving, spinning, dyeing and stitching.

The existence of numerous terms related to textile and its techniques of garments evidenced the popularity of garments. By this time, the art and techniques of textile most have reached a high stage of perfection. Textile had become an important craft occupation between different professional groups. An advanced stage of specialization in textile craft was attained in this period. Textile manufacturing were the specialty of women as they were occupying a prestigious status in the society. As far as trade is concerned barter system must had been in practice for the balanced market, regulation and welfare of the textile workers.

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

atapatha Brhmaa SB, 3.1.2.18 Buch, M.A., Economic Life in Ancient India, Allahabad, 1979. P.111 Gordan, D.H., The PRE- Historic Background of Indian Culture, p.74 Singh, Kiran K., Textiles in Ancient India,p.53 RV.6.51.4 RV.X5.4 Rgveda,1.92.4; 11.3.6; IV.36.7; VII.34.11; VIII.31.11 AV.7.10; XIII, 3.1 Singh, Kiran K, op.cit., p.22 Black Yajurveda, VI.1.13 ASS,2.3.4.16 Mackey E, Further Excavation at Mohanjodaro, p.441-42 and 591 Chakrabarty H., op.cit., 1986, p.221 AV, X.14.45 Macdonell A.A, Vedic Mythology, p.132 RV, 10.671.9 RV, X.130.2 IAR, 1965-66, (PL. XXX-A). M.S.III.6.7 Black Yajurveda, VI.1.1.3 B.Y.11.4.11.6 Astdhyy, 1.3.4 Singh K., op.cit, p.31 Kauskeya is derived from the route of Koa Singh K., op.cit., p.13

27. 28.

Ayodhayakanda, 32,37.68 and 88 sarpa The origin of the word tasara not definitely known. It occurs frequently in the RV. weavers shuttle. RV,X.130.2 It denotes to

29.

The word Uttuda is mentioned for mulbry or silk. AV.III.25.1It is difficult to determine when and how the mulberry silk introduced in India and whether it was an indigenous plant or imported from outside the world.

30.

Silk manufacture is said to have started in China as early as 2000 B.C. Whether the date is not accurate, it is certainly true that the secret of Silk cultivation was carefully guarded by the Chinese till 6th c.A.D. the legend goes that it was smuggled into the Europe and then Asia by two monks who concealed the silk worms in a hollow cane. See for details: Laura Torbet, (editor) The Encyclopedia of craft, New York, Vol 3, 1980,p.806

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Singh K., op.cit., p.14 Brhdarnayak Upanisad, 11.3.6 Rgveda. X.26.6 Ibid, V.52.9 Wool have seems to have some religious significance as tradition believes it to have been created directly by Brahma like the Kusa grass used in worship. It is said that Brahma created fire, wool clothes, the Brhman and the Koa grass. Amulets and charms are tied by woolen strings. In fact, black wool thread is commonly usedto keep off the evil spirits.

36. Atharvaveda, XIV, II.66 ; II.67 37. Chattouppadhayay Kamladevi, Handicrafts of India, p.37

38.

Dange, Sadashiv Ambadas, Cultural Sources From The Veda, 1977, p.43

39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

ASS, 10.26.14 Singh K., op.cit., p.15 Dahiya Neelima, The Arts and Crafts in Northern India, p.230 AV., X.14.45 RV. 2.3.6, VS. 20.41 JBRS., Vol.59, 1973, p.116 Dahiya Neelima, op.cit., p.197 IAR., 1990-91, p.70 RV, 2.3.6 AV,10.7.42 Buch, M.A., op.cit., p.111 AV, 1.17.1 BU, 2.3.10 AV, 3.9.3 SB.5.3.5.21 Ass Asv.Gr.Su., 1.19.9

55. Rgveda, X.26.6 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. Singh K., op.cit., p.246 AV,19.5.84 Ghosh. Arvind K., op.cit. p.122 Sahi, M.D.N.,Aspects of Indian Archaeology, p.220 Ava Cu. p.61, Naya.5, p.74 JBRS, Vol 59, p.125 RV. 2.32.4

63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

Gaur R.C., op.cit., 1983, p.228 Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.1990, p.22 Jamouddivapannotti , p.103 Singh K. op.cit., p.62 Chatopadhayay Kamladevi,op.cit.,p.53 RV,1.95.7 Ibid, 1.92.4 Tatt. Bra.,III.3.4.5 AV,V.7.10

72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78.

VS, 28.29.31 Katyayni Srauta Sutra XV,5,11 Tait.Br. VI.1., Sat.Br. III.3.2.3 AV.XI.2.66-67 Brih.Up. VI.1,10 Singh K., op.cit., p.90 JBRS, M.M Singh, Some Aspects of Economic life in Later Vedic Age, 1973, p.3

79. Rgveda, 1.14.12 80. AV.VII.48.1 81. 82. 83. 84. Singh M.M, op.cit., JBRS Vol59,p.3 Sat. Bra. 13-14, 3-11 Singh K., op.cit., p.145 AV.10.7.42

THE BEADS
Beads of various sorts were used as ornaments and amulets by the Indians since Harappan times. The Rgveda refers to the bead of gold: Adorning themselves with the gold bead;. Hiranyayena manina sumbha manah, spoken of the followers of Vrtra, which reflects the actual use. Rgveda refers the term Mani which means a jewel could be strung on a thread2 (Stra) as used as an amulet against all kinds of evil effect. The term manigrva indicates that beads or jewels were worn round the neck3. The manikra (beadmaker), who has been dedicated to the beauty at the Purusamedha4. In the White Yajurveda Manikra (Jeweller) was also figures5. Probably for this purpose beads of wood of particular trees were used, with the belief that they would drive away evil. For example, the bead of the Parna-tree6 (Batea-frondosa) used to win over the rich people. Different kinds of material were used for making beads such as wood, clay, bones, ivory, stone, glass and metals for making various types of beads. The material used by the Harappan bead maker were silicate,

variety of quartz, amethyst, agate, carnelian, chalcedony, chart, jasper, lapislazuli, limestone like steatite, faience terracotta, ivory, shell, and metals like copper, bronze, silver, gold etc. Beads were used for making ornaments necklaces and amulets. Necklaces were a most popular ornament made of one or many strings of beads. The Nirukta refers to the man i of glass or a polished man i (of metal) to be used for kindling the fire from the concentration of the sun7. The manikra for beauty to be symbolically brought to scarified8. Though the earliest traces of beads in India are associated with the finds from Neolithic sites, such as Chirand, but the bead industry bloomed fully only during the proto historic period. From the excavation of several sites beads of different varieties were found from PGW level like terracotta, bone, glass and other semi precious stones like agate, jasper, carnelian, quarts, marble etc. and gold also. The beads are prominent for their artistic attitude and skill and show the different shapes and varieties. The glass beads, which were found from the PGW level, have counterparts in the term kaccha in the Vedic texts9. Beads, recovered from PGW level, have various shapes like comprises square, reetangular, cylindrical, globoular, biconal, hexagonal, tubular, and pyramidical. Sharp instruments were used for cutting, chiseling and boring them in which some of the beads were polished for making them bright and beautiful10. Such beads have been recovered from Hastinpura, Atranjkhera, Allahapur, Sardargarh. Noh, Ahichchatra, Bhagwanapura, Aalamgirpur and

Stone Beads:-

Beads of precious stones and semi precious stones were used both for sacred and secular purposes. It is clear that stone were not only used for decoration but also for ritual purposes. Different shape and various types of stone beads were reported from various sites.

Agate:Agate was a commonly used material for bead in PGW culture-Agate is a variety of quartz and except for colour is practically same as cornelian and chalcedony11. During the PGW period banded agate beads were discovered from Hastinpura, Atranjkhera and Jakhera. Three long barrel circular agate cylindrical beads were reported from Hastinpura12 from the different levels of Painted Gray Ware. Agate beads were recovered from Painted Gray Ware level in various shapes like long barrel, circular, truncated, biconical and rectangular flattened. From Atranjkhera long barrel, one rectangular, flattened bead, spherical, short convex and truncated bicone bead have been unearthed13. The Ahichchhatra specimens were reported from all of its strata. A few of these beads were remarkable published. Fourteen agate beads were represented from Bhagwanapura from the period IB (PGW) and the main shapes are long barrel, truncated bicone, long cylindrical standard, convex and bicone, Etched beads of agate were collected from Atranjkhera14. Long barrel circular beads of banded agate were also reported from Atranjkhera15. Agate beads of various shapes have been discovered from Abhipur 16(Dist. Pilibhit).

Quartz:Quartz beads are reported from Jakhera and Atranjkhera. Standard barrel triangular shapes was represented from Atranjkhera. Lumps and flakes of quartz were also found from Jakhera, which were used as raw material in manufacturing the beads17. From Bhagwanapura long convex hexagonal beads were reported18.

Jasper:This material has practically the same hardness as quartz and is a form of that material probably coloured with iron. Jasper beads have been discovered from Sringaverpur, Jakhera, Hastinpur and Allahapur. Only toggle-shaped red jasper bead was yielded from the mid level of PGW culture from Hastinpura19. Jasper bead was also unearthed from Bhagwanapura from Pd. IB. It is long cylindrical circular in shape20.

Carnelian:Carnelian beads have been unearthed from the various PGW sites. The important shapes spherical, short bicone, triangular, truncated, biconical, square, long truncated and barrel square. Short bicone triangular faceted carnelian bead was reported from mid level of PGW from Hastinpura21. The truneated bioconical square, long truncated and barrel square shape beads were recovered from Atranjkhera22. Some carnelian etched beads were yielded from Jakhera Pd. III23 (Mature PGW phase). Bead of this material have been unearthed from Bhagwanapura24 (Plate-VII) which were in long barrel truncated, circular, short barrel circular, standard gobular circular in shape. Carnelian beads are reported from Abhipur (a PGW site)25.

Marble:Bead of marble were recovered from Atranjkhera, was short circular in shape. It was used by lapidaries at Atranjkhera26.

Chalcedomy, Amethyst and Lapislazuli:Besides this material, bead of chalcedony, amethyst, and lapis lazuli have been concerted from the excavated sites. Chalcedony beads have been reported from Ahichchhatra and Sardargarh only in PGW culture. Ahichchatra has produced three beads of bicone truncated shape with pentagonal section27. Discovery of a cylindrical lapis lazuli bead was a greater significance from Jakhera28. A long square rectangular lapis lazuli bead was recovered from Sardararh29. Some shape bead was reported from Bhagwanapura30. A gold bead was also discovered from Sardargarh31. Probably this material (lapis lazuli) is not native it India it was imported from Badakshan32.

Glass Beads:Glass is one of the most interesting material used in the manufacture of Beads. It is noteworthy that Beads made of glass were discovered from the PGW levels from Hastinpura, Aalamgirpur, Atranjkhera and Allahpura. Glass beads were recovered from Hastinpura from all the period except I. The colour ranges of these from black to deep blue and green. One glass bead of black opaque, irregular spherical was also unearthed from the upper phase of PGW culture33. Two glass beads are found from Bhagwanapura from the period IB. One of these is long convex eye bead and other segmented eye bead. A number of faience beads have been reported from Bhagwanapura34.

Bone Bead:From this level, bone bead were also discovered. From Hastinpur standard barrel gadrooned bone bead was unearthed from the late level of Pd II35. Bone & bead were also reported from Jakhera36 and Sardargarh37. Two beads of bone were recovered from the period IB. First, is a creasent shaped pendant and others are long barrel circular beads38. Bone bead was reported from Abhipur39.

Metal Bead:Metal beads were in fashion in Painted Gray Ware culture. Basically copper beads were recovered from several. From Hastinpura40 two copper beads of long short barrel, square, spherical shapes were revealed. Copper beads have been reported from Jakhera41 from PGW levels. One copper bead was discovered from Bhagwanapura also from Pd. IB42.

Terracotta Bead:Terracotta beads have been reported from various PGW sites in different shapes. Their colour varies from red to dark grey. Common shape of terracotta beads are gha shaped and short blunt edged bicone circular. A large number of gha shaped beads were recovered from the different level of PGW. Twenty six terracotta beads have been recovered from the different phases of Painted Grey Ware from Hastinpura43 (Plate-VIII) Sixteen of them are broken or damaged, generally the bead are well baked and eighteen of them are slipped. The commonest shape

is the gha variety, similar to the vase shaped terracotta beads of Hastinpura. With minor difference in their colours, bodies and bases, these may be divided into eleven types. Terracotta gha shaped and other varieties of shapes were reported from Bhagwanapura44 from PGW level. The shapes varies from long barrel, and short barrel, standard bicone, square faceted and gobular have been recovered.Ahichchatra also yielded gha shaped beads from PGW levels45. Another gha shaped bead are discovered from recently excavated site, Abhipur46 (Plate-IX).

Techniques:The Vedic texts did not give us any informative sources for considering the technique of manufacture of beads. But it is evident that particular classes of craftsmen were engaged in this profession as metallic beads were made by gold smiths or metal craftsmen, clay by potters, wood by carpenters or stone beads by stone cutters. The occurrence of unfinished bead in different stages of manufacture provides us an idea for understanding their method of manufacturing some unfinished and often broken beads with waste covers and new material for beads is also seen at PGW site, Atranjkhera which indicates towards a local industry at this site47. Probably, it seems that stone pieces were firsh chipper to small pieces and Flakes were removed to give them desired shape. After this, these were placed on channels ovens to subject roughly made bead to showheat, thus uniting them. Their perforation was excavated from both ends and grinding was done with the help of some abrasive material. These beads were bored with drill and were polished48.

Thus it is obvious that technique of manufacturing the bead has remained the same from beginning to modern civilization except some developmental changes. The study of beads is important for study of the development of successive stages of designs, types and styles of ornament as this was an important industry. Beads help us to understand the belief, the customs, the economic condition, the set up of the society and contact with other nation. The Painted Grey Ware culture has importance to bridge up the gap between Indus Valley and Mauryan period. Beads were recovered from various excavated sites of Painted Grey Ware culture. The flourished industry of beads shows continuity between these cultures. All the stones, which were used in PGW culture had their occurrence in Indus and later on in NBP culture as well like agate, carnelian, chalcedony, Jasper, lapis lazuli, marble and quartz. Semi precious stones like topaz and crystal may have been obtained by trade and commence with neighbouring areas. Etched-beads were noteworthy spectrum of PGW culture recovered from Atranjkhera. The Barrel, cylindrical and rectangular shaped, beads of agate are a continuation from the preceding Indus culture. But there were a few new shapes short convex, spherical, and treated bicone49as well in PGW culture. It is important to note the occurrence of lapis lazuli bead from Jakhera, Bhagwanapura and Sardargarh from the PGW level. Lapislazuli bead were recovered from NBP level, indicated the trade relation between India and Central Asia. Bead of this material from Sardargarh was an excellent example of trade & commerce at this time also. Probably this material was imported from Badakshah.

Unfinished bead and raw material from Atranjkhera indicates local bead manufacturing industry.Decorative beads of agate and precious stone like marble and quartz have been yielded from Atranjkhera. All these factors indicated the importance of Atranjkhera in bead manufacturing, than other contemporary sites. Thus the bead industry in PGW culture represented a developed economic stage of the people. As they used to wear the ornaments made of precious stones and metal. These beads were used for ritualistic purposes also. A large number of terracotta beads show a remarkable development in the field of artistic activity. Terracotta beads particularly gha shapes bead, were significant specimen prevalent in NBP culture also. Comparatively very few metal beads were recovered from this period. Occurrence of glass beads ware excellent example for their specialized technique and prosperity. Few beads have dating value as well indicates trade contacts with other countries. Thus bead industry was a craft of great skill and was confined to a special class of worker as it today.

REFERENCE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Rgveda, 1. 33.8. Rgveda, 1.122.14 Roy, B.P., The Later Vedic Economy, p.335. Delhi 1984. Vajasney Samhit ,30.7. Singh, Madan Mohan, Some Aspects of Economic Life in the Later Vedic Age, JBRS, Vol. LIX, 1973 p.1 AV,III. 5.6. Nirukta, VII .23 When the sun has transversed to the Northern quarter Focusing them on dried cow-dung , the latter catches Fire. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. VS, XXX,7 Singh, Madan Mohan, Some Aspects of Economic Life in the Later Vedic Age, JBRS, Vol. LIX, 1973 p.3 Roy, B.P. op.cit., p.335 Beek, Hoarce. C., (ed.) Sir John Marshell, The Beads From Taxila., M .of ASI. 1999- Delhi, p-7 Lal, B.B., Excavation at Hastinpura and other explorations in the upper Ganga and Satluj basin, p.94. Ancient India, 10-11 Gaur, R.C., Excavation at Atranjikhara, p.212 Ibid Ray, Niharika, A study of stone beads in Ancient India, Delhi 1993, p.171 Ghosh, Arvind Kumar, Material Culture in Gangetic plains during I millennium B.C.,p. 134 Joshi, J.P., Excavation at Bhagwanapura, p.118 Lal, B.B., op.cit., Ancient India 10-11, p.94 , If a polished man i, or a bronze plate is held in the sun beams,

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

Joshi, J.P., op.cit., p.120 Lal, B.B., op.cit., p.94 Gaur, R.C., op.cit., p.212 Sahi, M.D.N., Aspects of Indian Archaeology. 1994, Jaipur, p.150 Joshi, J.P., op.cit., p.120 Gaur, R.C., op.cit., p.212 Niharika, op.cit., p. 174. Ghosh, Arvind k., op.cit., p.135 Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.336 Joshi, J.P., op.cit., p.122 Ghosh, Arvind k., op.cit., p.135 Niharika, op.cit. p.174 Gaur, op.cit. p.216 Joshi, J.P., op.cit. p.117 Lal, B.B., op.cit. p.94 Sahi, op.cit. 1994, p.150 Roy, B.P., op.cit., P.336 Joshi, op.cit., p.117 Lal, B.B., op.cit., p.94 Sahi, op.cit., p.150 Joshi, op.cit., p.118 Ancient India, 10-11, p.95 Joshi, op.cit., p.118 Ghosh, op.cit., p.101 Niharika , op.cit., p.174 Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.336 Niharika, op.cit., p.175

POTTERY AND TERRACOTTAS

Pottery has been described as the alphabet of archeology, Gardens view is of special interest that pottery might have originated in accidental burning of basket plastered with clay to make it water tight. The term pottery occurred for all the made of clay, which were shaped, dried and finally made hard by firing. It is observed that northern pottery is superior in fabric than south. The Vedic term kulla denoted for a potter. The terms ceramic proves its origin to the Greek world kermos, meaning something made of clay as also the clay of which pots were made>. The craft of ceramics is based on mixing and moulding the clay as well as its baking. Pottery relics not only throw light on the food habit of the people, their religious and social customs the technological

advancement attained by them and even their economic condition?. Being an item of popular use, it gives us yet another insight into peoples art@. The earliest pottery on was handmade and later to produce pottery on a mass scale potters wheel was introduced. It was an important craft in the field of archeology for the reconstruction of ancient life ways and occupy a unique position among another artifacts This is due the fact

that pottery is found at ancient sites in large quantities, it does not change its form and decoration after firing and even a rim fragment can gives us an idea of the form of the vessel. Pottery therefore is rightly called as The alphabet of archaeology . While according to demands of the users, the forms and design have been frequently change in the past, the tools of potters and have remained unaffected by time and tradition. From this, it may be observed that both the technique of manufacturing pots (i.e. by using wheels and connecting two different shades as well) were known to the people of earlier age.

Various Kind of Vessels:A large number of vessels made of various types of material and various types of potteries used for different purposes are referred to in the Vedic literature. The general term for a pot used in Rgvedic literature is PtraA the term derived from the root Pa which means to drink. The authors of Vedic Index suggest that this word used to connote in limited sense as Drinking VesselB . Although, the earthernwares in the Vedic literature generally mentioned in connection with sacrifices and commonly used in household. Among the earthern wares of the Vedic period the terms frequently occurs in literature like Ukha, Koa, Kalaa, Kumbha, Sthli, Ghada and Kapla. These pots were used for different purposes. The Vedic literature which contains distinct references to the potters art. We read Indra smashing the enemies like earthern vesselC like also read of girls bearing water in their jars evidently made of pottery;:. The

later Vedic literature make a distinction between two vessels on the basis of their function. Ukha has been mentioned as a pot for cooking or boiling things. Whether it was a regular domestic pot an used as a sacrificial purposes. It has been referred to even in connection with cremation. It has been called as Mrinmay or made of clay;>. The process of its manufacturing has been mentioned in the atapatha Brhmaa;?. In varied shapes and sizes it appears to be a flat base with side sides raised up in layers.

Koa:- The vessel was used for storing things, probably used at the time of performing sacrifices;@. It may be used for drawing water from the well;A. It had partly religious and partly secular function.

Kalaa:- was a big vessel and was used as a storage jar. Kumbha was similar to Kalaa in shape but their distinction uses were mentioned in the Vedic literature ;B. However it has to be mentioned that Kalaa was the jar in which some water and other liquid were kept or stored while Kumbha was generally used for bringing water from the well. This difference in function is also indicated by the fact that Kumbha was easily broken.

Pachana:- This vessel occurs in atapatha Brhmaa may be used as a cooking vessel.

Sthli :- In the Vedic literature it is referred as cooking vessel;C. The term Sthli sounds like the medium term thali which is appear like a dish for serving meals.

Sthli pakham nnam (grains cooked in Sthli and Sthlirka rice or barley boiled in milk) are referred to in the Brhmaas and the Upanisads.

Kapla:- The terms denotes a small bowl as cup of clay<: as also a piece of a broken jar an potsherd. It was used as lid but was associated with performance of religious rituals and employed in sacrifices too. Kapla was similar in shape of skull. During the occasion of a sacrifice it was prescribed in a manner called Kaplappadhana.

Manika:- It was occurred in the later Vedic literature as a water bottle. The exact form and shape is not decided.

Panhana:- The term panhana in derived from the root pach means to cook. It this vessel was used for cooking.

Kunda:- was the other type of vessel for storing water. Kundapayin<> the word used for drinking from a vessel and Kundapayya<? is also occurred from Vedic literature.

Am tra:- It was a vessel in which some was served. It might be a small vessel like sikara the modern cup like pot. In the later Vedic texts the word Udanchana<@ occurred for the bucket used for drawing water from a well.

Acchana:- it was used as ysan for containing meat or ghee<A clarified butter.

hva was also connected with water and well. It was large open mouthed receptacle in shape and used for the storage of water near the well for cattle. It is the action of drawing cattle to this water reservoir (ahuna from root hye, to call) that has given the name hva to the receptacle<C.

Pn nejana as it indicated by the name that this vessel might be used for washing the feet (pad+anejana). It is not clear about the shape and form of pnnejana while it might be a flat based vessel like a tub.

Ni nahya It denotes a water jar. It is so called because it was buried up to its neck in the ground, perhaps to keep water cool.

Ceramics vessels mentioned in Vedic literature have been yielded from various excavated sites. Vedic ceramics are often found to be characterized by a number of distinctive features. The general characteristics of the pot sherds are almost same as of those unearthed from northern India. The well executed pots with a vareity of shapes, bearing sophisticated incised designs, and painting with fine surface are indicative of the fine taste of the people who used them. According to their shape, size, thickness and decoration these pottery can be classified whether used for utilitarian or for religious purposes. Different types of vessels including vases, storage jars, bowls, lids, dishes, basins, sieves and other were produced on a large scale which represented one of major craft industry of proto historic period. On the basis of colour painted on their surfaces , earthern wares have been classified into various categories .as Red wares, Black and Red

ware, Ochre Coloured pottery, Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished ware. Each of them represents a particular culture in a certain region. In this connection it is noteworthy to study the associated ware of the PGW phase. The entire pottery assemblage of this period, are Grey ware, BRW and BSW. Besides, red have been classified by Sinha called Black wares=<.

Ochre Coloured Pottery:The OCP is most important distinctive pottery industries of India. It was first recognized by B.B-lal in 1951 on his trial excavations at the copper hoard sites of Bisauli dist. Badaun and Rajpur Parsu Dist. Bijnor. The Ochre Coloured Pottery has been described as an ill-fired rolled and worn ware with a thick fabric and friable surface. The area of OCP is extended from Bahadarabad to Noh, a distance of roughly 300 Kms from north to south and from katpalon to Ahichchhatra a stretch of about 450 kms from west to east. The important sites of OCP culture are Bahadarabad=>, Amberkhera, Baragaon=?, Bisauli, Rajpurparsu=@,

Anichchhatra=A, Noh=B, Atranjkhera=C, Lal qulia>:, Saipai>;, Mitathal>< and Jodhapur>=. The material culture of the OCP ware people was in an elementary state and they have been associated with the copper hoards discovered in the Gangetic valley>>. The OCP wares are of various shapes included vases, basins, bowl, dish on stands lids, troughts, ring, stand, and stum. There pots have a different types and a number of changes. A basic contribution of OCP using people to the evaluation of pot and its technology is the handle for the pot.

The incised decoration and painted designs on the OCP wares gave expression to the artistic urge of the potters. These decorations create a love for beauty and aesthetic sense. A variety of incised potters is evident from an examination of the Ochre coloured pottery such as finger nail incision>?, thumb nail impressions>@, rib designs>A, notches>B, leafy and v shaped design>C deeply cut chevrons?:, wavy lines?;, oblique strokes?<, checkered or compartmented patterns?=, Zigzag patterns, triangular, row of dashes, rows of dots?>, grid of verticals??, cord designs?@ and grooved designs?A. The OCP wares have varied shapes, designs and decoration. The artist of OCP pottery used popular form of creative expression through painted designs. Atranjkhera?B and Lal quila has yielded enough evidence for decoration designs included ; bands?C , wavy lines@:, criss cross or chequred pattern@;, cross hatched triangles@<, vertical lines, circles and squares with diagonals, semi circle and gird , loops, slanting parallel Lines, floral designs , hatched design, humped bull@= and madders@>. OCP pottery is seemingly prepared by well lavigated clay and wash or slip that is thick so that pots may look smooth and beautiful@?. On the contrary a careful examination of OCP suggests that a gradual and continuous development in the traditions of art and craft is discernible in OCP culture which appears to be a admixture of Harappan, Bana, Cemetery-H and typical OCP culture. Scholars have different views about the impact of OCP culture on the PG Ware culture. The generally accepted approach that resulted PGW is distinct from OCP that it could hardly have derived anything from OCP. The chronology of this ware is not certain. Gupta and other scholars has come to the conclusion that OCP people have some affinity with the

Harappans and suggests a date bracket of 2000-1600-1500B.C@@. While, further excavations detected some other conclusion and new results regarding the chronology.

Red Ware:Red ware is the most important ceramic industry has been in association with the PGW. It is worth mentioning that the total number of Red ware specimens in any collection is greater than PGW. It is essential to make study to classify the Red ware under those groups.

Groups A.B.C
Group A:This group consist a variety of very fine Fabric red ware has a close resemblance with PGW in shapes and fabric. Dishes and bowls of similar shape are common in use in both cultures. Dishes were used for serving the food like modern Indian thali and bowls were used as for containing liquids material. Vibha Tripathi examines the common shapes dishes occurred from Aalamgirpur, Allahpur, Sravasti, Noh and Atranjkhera@A. Bowls of different variety and shapes were discovered commonly akin to PGW forms with straight sides and featureless rims.

Group B:A number of specimens of medium to course fabric red ware have been unearthed. In this group common shapes are storage jars, vases, bowls and miniature vessels. The noteworthy occurrences of these shapes are recovered from Hastinpura, Atranjkhera and Allhapur.The clay of this group of red ware hampured with husk and mica. Sand has been used

librally as a degraissant. Firing of this fabric ware is not uniform in all places; some times it turns in black like Hastinpur , storage jars were commonly manufactured in this fabric. There is a variety in vases, usually have a high neck and an out turned rim, thickened externally and with carinated necks having a diameter of roughly in at the opening@B. Bowls are found of this fabric from Aalamgirpur, Allahpur, Atranjkhera and Sardargarh.

Group C:This group consist a variety of miniature vessels. These are differ from one to another in shape and size. Several sites such as Hastinpur, Atranjkhera, Allahapur, Sravasti, Ropar and Khalaua yielded a large number of miniature vessels. These vases do not sum to have any utilitarian purpose.

Black and Red Ware:The Black and Red ware has significant Feature among the other wares Found in association with P.G. ware. The vessels of this ware are usually black inside and one the rim on the exterior, the other remaining portion of the outside is red. The antiquity of this ware goes back to the third millennium B.C. as it has been found at Harappan sites in Saurastra. This ware has been widely spread from Gujrat in the west to Bengal in the east and from Punjab in north to Kerla in the south. The occurances of Black and Red wares from several sites in association with PGW have been noted such as Allahpur, Noh, Sardargarh and Atranjkhera. The popular shapes of these wares during the PGW period are Bowls, dishes, basins, vases and other variety of miniature shapes.

The characteristics features of this shapes are incurved or strightsided bowls, shallow dish on stand and a gobular jar with a high neck and narrow neck@C. Generally, the fabric of the Black and Red ware is fine and matches well with the PGW fabric. The earthernwares are designed with wavy lines or straight lines, dashes, cross hatched lozenges etc. The incised decoration like small circles in a row is one of the motifs. The technique of manufacturing the Black and Red ware pottery was a single operation by keeping the pot upside down with its rim being buried in saw dust to the depth on an inch. In other wards this was merely the inverted firing technique. Many pots were shaped by the combination of wheel and hand techniquesA:. The techniques of making the pots imparts on the wheel and then joining the same was also adopted by B and R potter in certain casesA;. For instance dish on stand and bowl on stand seem to have been made by this technique. Surface treatment of the pots by black and red ware pottery, shows a high degree of skill in making the pot. The pots were coated with a thin wash of red ochre, baked in a small electric frnace and when red hot, placed upside down on a layer of saw dust in which the rim was buried. This manufacturing technique was resulted a red pot with a black rim and generally having a black interior patternsA<. The Black and Red ware are painted with only linear patterns, strokes, clusters of dots and geometrical forms. It is interesting to note that iron has been reported from the pre PGW deposit (i.e. black and red ware deposit) at Noh. This hypothesis proves that the borrowing of iron by the PG ware using propel from the black and red ware using peopleA=.

Most probably the chronology of the black and red ware dated back to about 1000 B.C. (later Vedic period). The Atharvaveda refers to nlalohita and am (unbaked) potsA>. Sayana explains it with remarkable scientific precision. He observes that nlalohita was an earthern ware burnt in a kiln where the fire was nla on account of the emission of smoke and lohita due to burningA?. The distribution of this ware is equally widespread. It has been found in different parts of the country at different times. These it will not be farfetched if we call it as the most important ceramic industry of ancient India.

Painted Grey Ware:The Painted Grey Ware is the most distinctive ceramic industries with its excellent fabric, finish and manufacturing technique. It was first found from Ahichchhatra (Bareilly U.P.) in the lowest levels. Later it has been reported from several sites. In the Ganga valley numerous PGW sites about 400, have been discovered so far in north India in Punjab, Haryana north Rajasthan and western U.P. It generally covers the ryavarta and BrahmrisidesaA@. It represents a good example of fine craftsmanship and a high degree of artistic ability. The fabric of the ware is marked by a superior quality of paste, formed of well levigated clay free from all impuritiesAA. Although Allchins call it as hallmark of this culture periodAB. The geographical distribution of PGW zone is the Sutluj on the west and Aravalli range in the south, the Chambal in the southeast and Himalayan in the north. In Rajasthan the PGW is found on sand dunes and there are sites in dried up bed of the Ghagger the ancient Saraswati. This indicates that the PGW culture is post Vedic.

We find very thin walled pots in PG ware. Although it suggests that the PG ware potter was familiar with the technique of preparing superior quality of clay. The name Painted Grey Ware suggests a wheel madewell fired grey pottery of on which pattern in lines and dots were painted with black pigment before firing. The painted pigment (Plate-X) included criss-cross lines a chain of short spirals, a row of the Greek latter sigma, patterns involving circles and squares and swastikaAC. The majority of the pottery was a vessel ware used for routine chares like fetching and storing water and storing cereals and cookingB:. The colour varies from ash grey to battleship grey. Buff grey is also found. Other shades which are met with are brownish and reddish grey but in every case core is grey (Plate-XI). Different types of dishes and bowls of are the predominant form of PG ware. Some dishes are vertical or in turned featureless rim being rounded or having tapering sides. These dishes were used for serving meals. Besides these, some other types of vases with local variation used for the storing liquid and grain or for drinking water.The comman veessels were dishes, bowls, and basins and different kinds of jars and pots vases and miniature pots chalics were recovered from Abhipur. The perforated vessals were found with three legs at the bottom (Arora ed. al. 2001-02; 22-130). As, a ring pedestal of a bowl or vase found at AllahpurB;(dist. Meerut).Basins and a lota shaped vessels have been collected from the district of FarukhabadB< and sherdes bearing cloth impression collected from AtranjkheraB=. Pottery can therefore be taken as the table ware. Bowls have convex or straight or incurved and even concave sides with usually of a featureless rimB>.The PGW is a wheel turned pottery.

The clay used for making the pot is well lavigated. After the laborious preparation of the clay, it was thrown on a fast rotating wheel to obtain the desired shapesB?. Ballabh Saran has remarked on the technique of manufacturing PGW, It is to be noted that greater thinness is difficult to achieve by the method of throwing on wheel because if the clay is not sufficiently well levigated and of desired consistency any attempt to make the walls very thin or the rotating wheel by pressure of hand may result in complete tearing of the lump of clayB@. Marks of cutting string and sometimes thumb or finger impression are found on the vessel. A special feature of painting was noted on the PG ware. The paint was applied in black or deep chocolate colours before pot was baked. In some cases white and red colours have been used for painting. The pigment are used generally has a met impression. A design obtained from Ropar, which is of a rough type, seem to have been deeply incised and then filled up with a white pigmentBA. Lal has observed some patterns that the outline of some of the designs was first drawn in a thin deep black line, since where the paint has faded a black line is seen running along the whole patternBB. So far as the pattern of painting and decoration is concerned, PGW is confined mostly to some geometrical patterns with only incidental emergence of of floral designs. The pots were baked nicely under reducing conditions so that black ferrous oxcide may be produced by reducing gases in the klin. They might have used some organic material in order to produce good grey colourBC. Painted Grey Ware was succeeded by a new and striking pottery, commonly known as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) which is assigned the time bracket 600-100 BC. There is a remarkable

chronological proximity between the dates of the beginning of PG ware and the later Vedic aqe, which no critica scholar would place before the start of the Ist millanium B.C. Possibly PGW received any impetus from the preceeding cultures or contributed some of its own traits to the succeeding cultures as like black and red ware, red ware OCP ware and NBP ware, which are significant pottery cultures in this respect. PGW is a hallmark of the period. Atranjkhera was first site to yield the iron tools and implements from PGW phase. This has pushed the antiquity of iron industry at least to 1000 B.C. in the Ganga doabC:. Though the PGW ware is technologically and culturally distinctive because of its controlled firing to achieve the characteristic grey hue as also because of its geometric painting traditionC;.

Northern Black Polished Ware:The Northern Black Polished Ware industry has been placed in the time bracket of 600 BC to 200 B.C. It has a wide span of time from 7th c.B.c. to 1st c.B.c. The NBP ware accumulation is generally preceded by the deposit of the PGW or the Black slipped and Black and Red waresC<. It is the finest economic wares, has a thin black slip and varieties of grey, red ochre, and even silver and gold. The NBP is the most distinctive ware which display a high degree of technological excellenceC=. The NBP wares have been discovered from various sites from Udegrama to Charasada in the west to Chandraketagarh in the east and from Tilaurakot in the Nepalese tarai to Tamilnadu in the southC>. It was first encountered in the excavation at SarnathC? and BhitaC@ where it occured in pre Mauryan levels.

However the two distinct epicenters or zones of concentration of the two wares make the possibility of PGW giving rise to NBP unlikelyCA. Wheeler calls NBP wares "terra sigillata" of the Europeon sites. It is manufactured with a well lavigated and fine clay free from all impurities. Potteries of PGW and NBP wares both are comparable in chronology, distribution in space, fabric and form. The fabric is very fine thin and smooth of NBP ware as like the PG ware. These ware were used on special occasions, while in routine or daily use the rough fabric is popular. Scholar has various presumptions above that black gloss of the NBP pottery. However, B.B.Lal suggests that black gloss of the NBP ware may have resulted by some sort of post firing treatment in which kiln hot pottery was coated by some sort of organic liquid of vegetable and animal originCB. K. Hedge is of opinion that shining black slip consist of a thin layer of black magnetic oxide Fe304 which is responsible for the colour of NBP wareCC. Marshall took it to be a variety of the Greek black ware which is a deluxe ceramic of the 4th, 3rd C.B.C. but was not sure whether it was locally made or imported;::. Though, it is clear that there is no unanimity of views among the scholar about luster of the NBP. Sanaullah is of opinion on the technique of NBP, that the black coating contains about 13% ferrous oxide. Which is responsible for the black shade. The original slip was evidently a highly ferruginous body, possibly consisting of a finally lavigated mixture of clay and red ochre ground in water and applied to the surface of the vessel before it was fired. The black colour was doubtlessly developed by the action of reducing gases formed in the kiln. The polishing might have been done before and after firing. The coating is not a siliceous glaze;:;.

It is therefore NBP attained an advance stage of technological development in pot making. The collection of various forms of NBP ware from north Indian sites is distinctive. The principal shapes are bowls, dishes, handi and jars. Besides this, knobbed lid, vessels and spouts are also recovered;:<. The bowls with straight sides and dished with incurved rims are most predominant. Bowls have concave, and tapering sides. Few lids are characterized by flat terminals. The NBP potter was also familiar with the making of ridge grooves (from Tripusi) and lugs;:=. The painting of the PGW gave way to the lustre of the NBP ware. The NBP ware are decorated with some curvilinear pattern, small circle, looking like sun;:>, spiral designs formed by circles, parallel horizontal lines and solid dots, group of sigma, arch, strokes, loops, and horizontal band etc. designs;:?. Some painted specimen has also been noted from Sravasti and Koambi. The ornamentation is yellowish or light vermillion and the motifs include dots and dashes, strokes etc. Even the plain NBP can be classified into different varieties;:@. Other wares occurring in association with the NBP ware at most of the sites are Black-Slipped wares, Black and Red ware, Grey ware and Red ware. Though, the potter of NBP ware reflects a high degree of skill in decorating, polishing and outstanding manufacturing technique of making pots. The above analysis shows that the NBP ware had become a well known industry in the pre Mauryan period almost simultaneously in all the sixteen Mahjanapadas1 irrespective of their long distances;:A. The NBP ware was a full-fledged iron culture which enabled its people to undertake the clearance of jungle, make full use of the facility of the

Ganga plain and found cities and empires. With this pottery, India entered in the historical age;:B. Thus pottery is called as the alphabet of archaeology. It represents bits of evidence and helps us to know about the material and cultural life of people. A change in pottery types almost always proves cultural change that involves both those who made pottery and those who used it.

REFERENCE

1. 2. 3.

Ancient India No.1, p.37 Gordon, D.S., Man makes himself, p.7 The Mrtpaca occurs in the same sense in Vajasney Sam hit, XVI 27; Maitraya Samhit, 1.8.3

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Roy B.P., The Later Vedic Economy, 1984, p.296 Pal, M.K., Craft and Craftsmanship in Traditional India, p.4 Srimali, K.M. History of Pachla, p.161 Rgveda, 1, 56 Vedic Index,ik=so 1.51.6 Rgveda VII 104.21; X.89 Ibid, 1, 119.40 RV, III, 53.22

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

RV, 12. 13, 15; TS. 5.1.6.3 AV, XII, 3.2.3 VS, XI.59 Sat. Bra, VI.5.1.1 RV, IX, 75.2 RV, 1,130.2 AV, III, 12.7 AV, VIII, 6.17; TS, VI,5,10.5 AB. VII, 9; SB, 1.11.22; 11.2.1.17; 4.3.8; VII. 5.12; TB, III.2.7.1; SAA, 11.2; TA, V.2.13

21. 22.

KSS, 11.4, 27.34 Asva. Gr. Su., 11.9. 3; Gohh. Gr.Su., 1.2

23.

Kunda or kuna is the popular name in U.P. for the large earthenware in which grains or water are stored this is four to five feet in length or two or three feet in breadth across the center.

24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

TAB; XXV.4.4 RV, VIII.17.13 AV, VIII.33; SB, VI, 3.5.21 Sat. Bra.,11.1.9.5 RV, 1.34.8; VI.7.2 Singh, Shivaji. Vedic literature on Pottery, (ed.) by B.P.Sinha, Potteries in Ancient India p.305

30. 31. 32.

Sat, Br. III, 8.2.1; IX.3.27; XII.5.2.1 Sat, Br. III, 9.2.8 Tripathi Vibha, The Painted Grey Were -An Iron Age Culture of Northern India, 1975, p.80

33. 34.

Lal, B.B., The Ochre Coloured Pottery, (Ed.) B.P. Sinha, op.cit. p.90 Y.D Sharma, Post Patterns-Excavations at Rupar, Lalitkala, 111,121-29, India Pre-history,1964, pp.131-35.

35.

M.N. Deshpande, IAR, 1963-1964, p.56-57; and Indian Prehistory, 1964, Poona, pp.127-129.

36.

B.B. Lal, Further Copper-Hoards etc., Ancient India.VII, 1951pp.20-39; Pre-Hostoric Investigation, Ancient India, IX, 1953 pp.91-93; Excavation at Hastinpur , Ancient India, X-XI, pp31-32

37. 38. 39. 40.

IAR, 1964-1965, p.39. Ibid. Gaur, R.C., Indian Pre-History, 1964, p.98 IAR, 1969-70, p. 39.

41.

B.B. Lal. The Copper Hoard Culture of Ganga Valley, Antiquity XLVI, 1972, p.282-287 and IAR, 1970-71.

42. 43.

Suraj Bhan, Excavation at Mitathal, JHS, Hissar, 1968. Vijaya Kumar, Excavation at Joohpura, Paper read in Seminar of Indian Archaeological Society held at Jaipur in Dec. 1976.

44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.

Roy, B.P, op.cit., p.308 IAR, 1963-64, p.50 Gaur, R.C., op.cit., p.98 IAR, 1960-1970, p.39 Gaur, R.C., op.cit., p.98 Ibid. Ibid. IAR, 1960-64, p.56 Ibid IAR, 1969-70, p.39; 1963-64, p.56 Gaur, R.C., op.cit., p.98 IAR, 1970-71, p.73 IAR, 1969-70, p.39 IAR, 1963-64, p.56 Gaur, R.C., op.cit., p.98 IAR, 1969-70, p.39 IAR, 1963-64, p.56 IAR, 1970-71, p.73 IAR, 1963-64, p.56 IAR, 1969-70, p.39 IAR, 1968-69, p.37

65.

It is seen that pottery is mostly ochre colored or red and the shades from orchrous to brownish i.e. orange, red, pale red and creamy red.

66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86.

Gupta P.L.,(1971-72) p.8 Tripathi Vibha, op.cit., 1975 p.69 Ibid, p.71 Roy,B.P., op.cit., p.305 Dhavalikar, M.K., op.cit., 1999, p.132 Dhaiya Neelima, op.cit., 1986, p.66 Dhavalikar, M.K., op.cit., 1999, p.131 Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.307 AV, 4.17.4 Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.307 Dhaiya Neelima, op.cit., 1986, p.71 Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.309 Allchins, R and B., The Birth of Indian Civilization, 1968, p.210 Kochhar Rajesh, The Vedic People, p.84 Ghosh, 1989, 1.107 IAR, 1970-71, p.80 IAR, 1965-66 IAR, 1965-66, p.84 Dhavalikar M.K., op.cit., 1999,p.124 Tripathi Vibha, op.cit, p.42 Saran Ballabh, Technology of PG Ware Potteries in Ancient India ed.by B.P. Sinha, P.127

87. 88.

RPR3 O`- VI 20-21 Lal, B.B., op.cit., p.32

89. 90.

Dahiya Neelima, op.cit, p.7 Gaur R.C., The PGW at Atranjkhera an Assessment (Ed.), B.P.Sinha, op.cit., p.185

91.

Agarwal D.P, The P.G. Ware: A Revaluation, Published in Seminar Proceeding of R.C. Gaur Painted Grey Ware, p.115

92.

Gaur R.C., The NBP Ware Assemblage and its Relation with the PGW, The Painted Grey Ware (Seminar Proceeding), p.134

93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99.

Dhavalikar, M.K., op.cit., p.133 Roy B.P., op.cit., p.312 ARASI, 1904-05, p.59 ARASI, 1909-10, p.40 Tripathi Vibha, op.cit., p.47 IAR, 1955-56, p.56 Hedge, K.T.M, Technical Studies in NBP Ware, JMS, University of Baroda, XI, 1, 1962, P.159-61

100. Dahiya, Neelima, op.cit., p.73 101. Wheelar and K. Deva, op,cit.,946, p.59 102. Ansari J.D., Evolution of Pottery forms and Fabrics in India, Marg, XIV,No.3 103. For example a knobbed lid from Vaishali which bears a high polish that it looks almost like stone.Dahiya Neelima. op.cit., p. 74 104. Nigam, J.S., Decorated Pottery of Northern India, Marg, XVI. NO.3 105. Mishra, V.D., Pottery of Kaumbi, (Ed.) B.P.Sinha, op.cit., p.203 106. Roy, B.P., op.cit., 1978-79, p.312 107. Gaur, R.C., The NBP Ware Assemblage and its Relation with the PGW, The Painted Grey Ware (Seminar Proceeding), p.133 108. Ghosh, 1989, 2:251

THE TERRACOTTAS
The clay served as an important medium of artistic expression reflecting the socio cultural economic and traditional art of different cultures of Indian society. Coomaraswamy observed that the early Indian terracottas are of great importance not only as document of the religious culture but as document of history of art. The history of terracotta art in India since the pre Harappan times shows its high antiquity. Terracotta figurines may be considered as poor mans sculpture. A variety of objects were produced by the baked clay which were distributed as for domestic use, worship and cult practice household decoration, for childrens toy, for magical practices and religious and ritual purposes. This led the ancient craftsmen to take up this as an occupation and with the development of commercial sense more and more craftsmen devoted themselves to the art of making terracotta toys and figures. Archaeological evidence shows that the figurines of mother goddess and bull have acontinues tradition in earliest times. However a large variety of toys were also produced by Harapppans. With the development of urbanization, terracotta appeared on a large scale. However, the history of clay figurines in the Gangetic valley can hardly be traced only on the basis of archaeological. Terracottas were used extensively. People, rural and urban, rich and poor were used terracottas on some or the other occassions. Subsequently, the nature and content of this art however differ in urban and non urban cultures. Desai remarked that the terracotta art can be regarded as the spontaneous handiwork of simple folk; it can be

produced on large scale only when certain complex social conditions are fulfilled. The ancient literature contains numerous references related to terracotta art or clay figurines. The Yajurveda and Atharvaveda refer to Krtyas> which were in all probability, the figurines found in the Indus valley?. In the Aitareya Brhmaa there are references of the making of clay elephant@. A variety of terracotta objects were produced by the urbanized community which were well fired and treated with wash or slip. These objects reflect religious beliefs, economic conditions and social structure of the society, flora, fauna and craft industry of their timeA. There is no marked difference between the figurines to be worshiped and the figurines to be used as toys. Figurines of each period of Indias long history share the characteristic features of the art of style prevailing in the particular period but regional variations both in the style and type can also be noticed. Terracotta figurines were grouped under the two types of icons or non icons (to some extent the same as religious and secular) Thus the evidence of numerous terracotta objects include, the figurines of both human and animal toys, seals, ornament have been discovered from various sites of Northern India.

Types of Terracotta Figurines:The increased demand off terracotta in the urban centers evolved new techniques and forms for various terracotta designs in early historical India.

Terracotta figures are widely distributed by significant the regional variations in composition and form, according to their votive or hieratic function. There are two ways of producing the terracotta figures. Partly, the ritual terracottas were produced on the occasion of religions practices while the other was moulded, which used for making toys. Rituals are to be performed for the fulfillment of specific desires, festivals and occasionsB. Terracotta objects used for rituals and religious purposes as elephant, horse, birds and other God or goddess figurines etc. Besides serving as a medium of art and material culture these ritual figures also throws light on the religious belief of the people. The ritualistic terracotta figurines are not marketed ordinarily. These are produced and supplied on the specific demand of the customer on the ritual occasions. There is no separate socio-economic class responsible for the production of ritual terracotta figures. However, ordinary potters were engaged in the production of pots and tiles prepare votive figures as per requirementsC.

Moulded Terracottas:These terracottas were prepared by moulds. The multi coloured moulded terracottas of are basically the object of amusement and toys for children. The objects of this category were used for decoration or semi-ritualistic purposes. The techniques of making figurines in moulds were for the first time introduced during the late Mauryan period. These forms are used as for making human and animal figurines both;:. Moulded figurines were

prepared by a specialized group of potter. Who supplied them to all the professional of toy making? This new technique had two advantages mass production of cost in a shorter duration and replicating the master pieces without exercising the artistic vision or skill by an ordinary craftsman. Once the mould is prepared from the model, wet clay is pressed into the mould and this produces on the clay the impression of one side of the figure, usually the front. A wide margin is left around the edge as background so that the figures appear to be in relief. The back is prepared by hand or with scrappers. With regard to technique it is observed that the style of this technique most refreshing, scientific, advanced and appealing in action.

Types of Objects:The ruins of cities and centers of early or pre and Harappan cultures have yielded different varieties of terracotta figurines, both human animal and other utilitarian objects. These objects were utilized as icons or images probably for worshipping votive offering and also as ornaments and toys. The occurrence of unbaked and baked clay figurines can be traced back from the Neolithic period. The artistic evolution of the terracotta objects had brought to light the socio-economic and religious condition of the contemporary society.

Human Figurines:The group of human terracotta figurines is noteworthy. The female figurines especially, the cult of mother goddess were differ from one another in the contemporary period. Sporadic occurrence of terracotta

human figurines has been obtained from many sites in the Ganga valley and Northern India. These figures were categorized by the historians as in terms of temporal distribution, forms, techniques and theme which continue to enhance our understanding of the production, function and history of terracotta art;>. Apart from the aesthetic significance these figures supplied invaluable data for the study of artistic and realistic attitude of the people. Most of the beautiful terracotta figurines from ancient sites seem to have conceived by people well versed in the tradition of art, literature and religion of the period not only Indian but also of the neighboring countries through intimate contacts;?. It is to be believed that the early mother goddess figurines were conceived by the folk possible in the Ganga basin. They are exclusively connected with fertility. The cumulative evidence from archeological digs shows that the occurrence of archaic mother goddess figurines in levels dated variously between 600 and 450 B.C. human sporadically in the earliest times.

Animal Figurines:Primitive mans artistic instinct led him to make images of visual objects. A large number of animal figurines of various types have been encountered from various sites of Ganga valley. However, it is significant to note that majority of terracotta animal figurines are the bull, elephant and horse have been revealed from different levels. A comprehensive study of animal terracotta finds on the evidence of stratigraphy is expected to determine a sequence of the vast mass of Indian terracotta from various sites;@.

It was noticed that certain important changes in style and technique of modeling the animal figurines were introduced near about the beginning of each of the periods. These figurines were naturally determined by their artistic and ritualistic nature. Animal figurines have been studied in respect of the types of animal represented and their frequency, technique and decorations. However, the possibility that some terracotta animal figures of the past were toys for childrens amusement cannot be altogether ruled out particularly in these cases, where they exhibit transverse hole on the lower part of legs and mouth. While, in the production of ritualistic animal terracottas various parts are make on the wheel separately and then joined together with the clay paste;A. These figurines can be taken as a reflection on the competence and artistic merit of the modelers. Besides animal, the birds figurines like dove, duck, heron, parrot, sparrow, eagle, peacock and hen were the examples of naturalistic modeling and these figurines have been unearthed from various sites of Ganga valley.

Ornaments:The ornaments and dress form a constituent element of human culture;B. Ornaments are of diverse types and of various kinds have been recovered from all over the Ganga valley. Jewellry is regarded as a traditional form of wealth but it is also used for personal decoration both by men and women. Ornaments were made of various materials like, terracotta, precious stones, ivory and bone, metal like gold, copper

and iron.

While terracotta ornaments included as bangles, beads,

pendent, ear stud, necklace, bracelets using etc is noteworthy. The decorative ornaments are important as it defining the economic and social life of a particular time. The figurines can be classified on the basis of their mode of decoration and ornaments worn by them.

Games and Toys Objects:Playing is the primary impulse of God and man. Indian philosophy considers cosmos as the play ground of the divinity and the earth as the play ground of man. Those activities which aim at the immediate satisfaction of vital needs such as hunting in archaic society take on play forms;C. Various toy objects of children were made by terracotta. The most popular terracotta toys like cart frame, wheels, whistle, ball, bird and animal, figurines have been encountered. However, the toy animal and bird figurines toys were hollow inside and often pierced with a transverse hole across the body for wheels and provided with a second hole in the neck or head for the attachment of thread by which they could be pulled along. These objects throw some light on the prevalent games and sports and represent the matrix of the contemporary civilization.

Cult and Ritual Objects:A large number of terracotta objects comprising human and animal figurines, votives tanks, earthen lamps, balls and pallets. These objects were related with magical rites, cult practices, rituals and ceremonial like sacrifices and alter etc.

Miscellaneous Objects:A few examples of terracotta household objects have been unearthed from the various sites of Ganga valley. Terracotta grinders pestles, spindle whorls are most interesting. Terracotta was intended chiefly for domestic use and in household purposes. These objects occurred fairly large number from the sites of Ganga valley. It is interesting to note that these objects show an improvement in the art of the clay modeling.

Techniques:The production of terracotta involves important techniques for making images and objects. Clay required certain treatment before it was taken up for domestic or plastic work. Archaeologically examining clay figurines, it was observed that clay figurines were made by two prominent methods either by hand or in moulds and by a combination of both techniques. The technique used include:1. Pinching (for making nose, ears and head) 2. Stamping (for showing eyes, breasts and navel portion circles were stamped) 3. Cuts (mouths was made by deep horizontal cut) 4. Incision (for showing fingers and hair)<:

Hand-Modeling:Before 4th C.B.C. the clay figurines were modeled by hand in a simple manner. Either the figures are wholly modeled by hand or in some portions a tool like scrapper is used. The modeler first take up a single

lump of clay for making figurines and tried to make the shap by his fingers. The producing objects or figurines were not quite good or crude naturally. While using a scrapper he might away scrape the surplus clay from the model and emphasis on giving expression to his feeling like eyes, ornament and dress. This is most popular method of making the terracotta figurines throughout the period. The craftsman required great skill, workmanship and specialization in art of making figurines. The modeled object are kept in shade and then strengthened by a fine clay paste. In some cases they are finished by a colour painting while a few bear painted decoration, these decorations are important as they portray the custums, coiffure and ornaments etc of the social life of a particular time.

Terracotta art from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. (PGW Pd.):From 1000 B.C. onwards, a new age heralded in Ganga valley. Iron gave impetus to every walk of life and ultimately led to the development of rise of cities in the Gangetic plains. The terracotta art appeared to have felt the new era of development. While some kind of figurines shows continuity from the preceding tradition. This is evident that a large number of terracotta figurines have been unearthed from the excavated sites at PGW level. This PGW received full recognition as a significant proto historic ceramic industry of culture. Terracotta finds of this period display clearly a rural bias which was followed by the urban cultures. These terracotta finds are classified under the sub heads: Animal and bird figurines Human figurines

 Ornaments Games and toys Religious object Miscellaneous objects

Animal and Bird Figurines:The figures of bull which were the only specimens available from OCP level continued to be popular in the PGW level as well. The figurines reported from PGW level are the excellent examples of well levegated clay, treated mostly with a slip for obtaining a smooth surface. The colour varies from red to greyish black. Sometime red colour occurs in dull shade. Terracotta animal figurines are reported from various sites like Ahichchhatra, Atranjkhera, Hastinpur, Jakhera and Bhagwanpura in this period. Animals comprises humped bull, horse, pig and ram have been reported. The occurrence of three animal figurines from Hastinpur from the PGW level (Plate-XII) is noteworthy. Because no figurines of such an antiquity as these other than those belonging to the protohistoric chalcolithic culture are available to us<>. The figurines were all broken but the hump in one case suggested that animal was bull, while the deposition on the neck and face pointed to its having been a horse. Another animal is probably a horse. While a transverse hole might indicate the nose<?. From Atranjkhera only one humped bull figurine (Plate-XIII) and a pig figurine is reported from the upper level. The figurine is hand modeled and treated with dull red wash. Pointed drooping face with a transverse

hole near the nose for fastening a string<@ is evident that it was used as a toy. At Aalamgirpur a ram and a humped bull figurines were also found<A.These are wheeled figurines. A large number of figurines of rams and dogs were collected from Bhagwanapura (pd 1b) These figurines were decorated with incised groups of oblique lines. Besides animal figurines, bird figurines were also collected from PGW level from Thapli and Jakhera. Thapli, a site of Garhwal, terracotta bird perfectly baked of pale red colour and having decorated notches on its body have been reported (Plate-XIV)<B. Amongst other finds from PGW level at Noh, mention may be made of a fragmentary lid of vessel with painted bird in grey ware (Plate-XV). The bird is delicately executed, having cross incision on its tail. Its eyes have been made prominently with pin holes<C. After examining the characteristics of this terracotta bird; the features, shape, and a line on the neck portion indicated that this bird is possibly a parrot bird. An unidentified bird figure is also reported from Sardargarh-3. Other notable finding is head of bird from Jakhera from PGW level=:. The specimen of bird figurine from Bagwanapura is carefully modeled. It was decorated with oblique criss-cross incised designs and features on its body. Which indicated that it was probably a rattle? From Allahpur and Sardargarh-3 bird figurine has also been reported.

Human Figurines:Terracotta human figurines have been reported from various excavated sites from Painted Grey Ware level. From Jakhera more than ten unique human figurines (Plate-XVI) both male and female single have been unearthed from this level. From PGW level grey coloured figurines appeared to be precursors of archaic violin shaped figurines reported

from NBPW from Jakhera, Nagada and other sites. The specimens of figurines show that it was prepared by well lavigated clay of black colour and with a flat back. A few examples of human figurines were collected from the disturbed level of Pd.ii and Pd.iii at Noh. The discovery of a human head from Khalua34, two figurines from Atranjikhera and three from Jakhera suggest that terracotta figurines were also popular. The terracottas of Jakhera appears identical to those found in sweet Valley (Gandhara Grave Culture) Since both are iron age cultures, this kind of similarity is quite significant Moreover, in both the regions people were using the Grey Ware. Two handmade figurines are also reported from this level at Atranjkhera=?. The occurrence of terracotta handmade human figurine from Baghwanapura is noteworthy. It was an anthomorphic figurine with one arm intact and other broken decorated with finger impressions=@. Another violin shaped mother goddess (Plate-XVII) made out of grey sherd is noteworthy. Ornaments:Various types of ornaments included bangles, reels, beads, amulets and pendants have been recovered from Gangetic plains. From Atranjkhera seven terracotta reels have been unearthed from middle and upper face. These reels are treated with black and dull red wash. Some of these might have been used as ear-studs. Terracotta bangles are found at the sites like Sonkh, Hulas, Pariar, Atranjkhera, Sardargarh and Bhagwanapura, Aguncha, and Jakhera. While amulets were recovered from Mathura and Hulas. The examples of pendent and necklace were occurred from Atranjkhera and Hastinpura=A.

The excavations have revealed two types of terracotta beads for various PGW sites as Noh, Hastinpura, Atranjkhera, Sardargarh and Ahichchhatra. 1: Gha shaped 2 Short blunt edges bicone circular. The standard Gha shaped variety bead is collected from Atranjkhera, Hastinpura, Ropar, Nagar (Pd 1) and Allahpur=B. Another shape of bead, i.e. Short edged bicone circular is recovered from Hastinpura from the late level of PGW=C. From Allahapur vase shaped bead have been reported. Apart from these shapes, the third type is a dome shaped bead with vertical lines towords the flat side this has been observed at Allahpur>:. Some other sites like Kesari, Kampil, Pariar, Sringverpur, Khalua, Bateswer, Jakhera, and Kaumbi have revealed numerous beads from this level>;.

Games and Toy Objects:The excavation at many sites throw some tight on the games and sports prevalent during the PGW period. Terracotta toy objects included wheels, dice, disc, wheeled toy, animals and sling balls were reported from the PGW sites. Terracotta wheels are reported from Darau and Atranjkhera. Eighteen terracotta wheels, mostly discoid in shapes have been recovered from middle and upper phase from Atranjkhera><. Some of them might have been used as spindle whorls. A wheeled toy has been reported from Allhapur. Terracotta wheeled ram figurines, horse figurines and other were used as playthings by the children. A wheel ram and bull figurines are also reported from Aalamgirpur also other interesting examples of children toys>=.

Besides these objects another popular game prevelent in this period was Chess or ChaturAnga. Gamesmen have been reported from Atranjkhera, Jakhera and Darau. Nine gamesmen varied in shapes like conical, discoid, cylindrical and cubical have been encountered from Atranjkhera from upper and middle phase. The presence of terracotta gamesmen from Noh is interesting>>. While few decorated playing balls with incised lines, slipped and treated with a wash occurred from Atranjkhera. Seven terracotta balls of different sizes and weights were unearthed from Bhagwanapura (Pd.lB)>?. On the basis of their size and shape it is difficult to ascertain that weather these were used as for playing by children and as weights or for killing the bird. Terracotta dabbers and balls were also recovered from Jakhera, Abhipur46 and Bhagwanapura. From Bhagwanpura it is interesting to note that there are two dabbers in big size having marks akin to plus and minus marks on the handle .It might not be conform that what are the use of them whether these were related to games or any other ritual purposes. The other game having popularity among the children was disc game. Various terracotta disc and hopscotch has been found in a large number from PGW sites. Disc with decorated edges47 and some other made of a sherd of grey ware with black slip on the outside were recovered from Hastinpura.Terracotta disc of perforated and unperforated types mae of potsherds discovered from Abhipur. These discs are decorated with incised designs and varies from 10gms to 50gms in weight48 Two hundred forty discs encountered from pd IIIrd from Atranjikhara (Plate-XVIII)>9. A few examples of decorated and plain discs and hopscotches have been found from Bhagwanpura50. A good number of

these toy objects have been recovered from Jodhpur, Allahapur and Noh. The last named site has reported another variety of disc bearing scalloped design is recovered. A terracotta conical disc in grey colour with stroke decoration all round was noticed at Noh. Two specimen of disc, one is rectangular and grey in color and other is conical red in color were encountered from Allahapu51.

Ritual and Religious Objects:Archaeological evidence through some light on the religious evidence of Vedic ryan while the exact nature of their beliefs and ritual practices is difficult to determined. It is interesting to note that from Jakhera the evidence of swastika, sun and other on terracotta disc have some religious significance in this context. As Ghosh is of opinion that from Jakhera more than hundred terracotta and pottery discs are found in one place in a trench. Interestingly burnt bones and ashes are seen in association with these discs52. But the exact number could not be ascertained. It is absorbed that discs were used to keep a recorded of a number of times a ritual was performed. The symbol of Swastik, sun and other are indicative of Brhmanical religious practice. From Bhagwanpura a violin shaped terracotta mother goddess from pd IB have some religious significance.A mother goddess have been reported from Jakhera from pd.IIIA (Plate-XIX) and proved a continuation of these types of figurines from this level. Besides two over burnt structure of religious quits similar to Nagar pd Ist have been found.

The significance of ritual performance can be observed from the discovery of funerary customs of these people at Bhagwanpura. The discovery of two human skeletons from Abhipur (dist. Pilibhit) and Bhagwanapura (dist. Kurukshetra) needs to be mentioned here.The interesting feature of these skeletons belonged to an adult and a child. The discovered skeletons from Bhagwanapura belonged to a male adult (35 yrs old,height 144cm.) and a female child (8-10 yrs old height 104 cm.) (Joshi 1993, 149-183). Human skeletons from abhipur belonged to an male adult (height 170cm.) and a child (around 2 yrs old, sex can not be determined)(Misra Anup, Man and Environment, xxxiii, 2008, p.80100). Both skeletons were inhumed in the habitation area in a N-S direction, the head facing north. These skeleton remains indicates the comman burial custom and mortuary practisesduring the Painted Grey Ware culture. Raw clay specimen which have been found from sites may be associated with religious significance.

Miscellaneous Objects:Among these several kinds of terracotta objects have been used for various purposes. The terracotta objects encountered from PGW level are stoppers, spindle whorls pestles, Querns skin rubbers, lamps, head scratches, feeding cups, stands grinders and seals. Besides seals most of these objects were used as household purpose. Two terracotta stoppers were recovered from Atranjikhara53. Seven stoppers could be collected from Bhagwanapura from pd. IB54. Terracotta birdshots, slingballs, stoppers and cylindrical are obtained from Abhipur excavation is noteworthy55.

Terracotta spindle whorls have reported from almost all the sites. Examples of spindle whorls have been collected from Hulas56, Aalamgirpur and Jakhera justified the existence of a developed textile industry. Terracotta pestles are recovered from Hastinpur, Ahichchhatra, Atranjikhara Ropar and Noh. While grinders have been reported from Dalutpur, Sardargarh and Atranjikhara. The working surface of these objects are flat and inset with piece of colourful stone57 .The red, green, blue, maroon stones make the surface rough and more suitable for grinding. Feeding cup was an interesting example of household objects was recovered from Hastinpura?8 from Atranjikhara different sizes have been in this objects. Similar objects have been recovered from Jakhera. Jakhera has been yielded skin rubbers and head scratcher?9. Skin rubber were recovered from Bhagwanpura pd. IB60.

Seal:Terracotta seals have been unearthed among all the sites of PGW culture. Specimen of seals has been recovered from Noh. From Hastinpura a seal with few punched dots in the lower part have been encountered61. Thus, it is clear that terracotta objects of PGW culture were produced an unimaginably large scale and for a variety of purposed. The terracotta art has often been used to shape the artist and religious ideas of society.

Trade Economy:The large scale production of terracotta is seen generally in urban societies where there supply is well organized through a specialized

group of potter craftsmen. In this phase (from1000 to 600B.C) of Indian sub continent there is evidence of small settlements of people in course of transition between hunting and agriculture, making use of a variety of stone and copper implements62. This led the ancient craftsman to take up this art as an occupation and with the development of commercial sense more and more craftsman devoted themselves to the art of making terracotta toys and figurines in all conceivable forms63. The account of the production and sale of clay objects indicates the economy of potters do not form uniform pattern throughout the year. While the ritualistic terracotta figurines are not marketed ordinarily. Discs of terracotta might have been used for the purpose of weighing in the trade. While representation of terracotta toy cart and chariot referred in Vedic literature. The occurrence of toy cart in PGW points out the existence of means of transport for facilitating the trade and commerce. An urbanized community produced a verity of terracotta objects suggest that day craft was also in vague .Thus it appears that the art of terracotta or closely related to the phenomena of conclusion. A majority of terracotta objects have been unearthed from the remains of early farming community in the middle Ganga plain. These objects reflect the religious belief, economic condition and social structure of the society. The early terracottas were mostly associated with the religious ideas of the pioneering farmers the mother goddess and bull cult64. While a variety of toys has been produced in the contemporary period.

As Marshal states:- In prehistoric times the warship of bull was widely disseminated throughout the middle and near east where he appeared sometimes as a beneficent guardian of the homestead, sometime as a malevolent storm demon. Terracotta bull figurines have been unearthed from various PGW sites. Thus figurines represented that there is no break in succeeding Period in the continuity of this art. The popularity of bull figurines occurred from OCP level Continued with some resemblance in the succeeding PGW levels is thus noteworthy65. On the basis of these object the antiquity and development of terracotta art can be ascertained. The occurrence of violin shaped Mother Goddess from Bhagwanpura from pd IB have been proved its existence in this period. Literary evidence described the various names of mother goddess such as Adit, Surma, Sursa, Kadra, Vinata, and Prithiv@6. It is very difficult to say anything about the religious belief and practices of the people of the PGW culture. While the presence of mother Goddess figurines , human figurines, symbols like swastika and sun on discs and other terracotta objects or unidentified objects throws valuable light on the customs and Brhmanical religion of PGW people. The specimens of raw clay justified the fact that these figurines were made by the Vedic ryans. On the basis of these observations it is clear that that production of terracotta objects were not only religious but secular also.

REFERENCES
1. CoomarSwamy, A.K., 1965, History of Indian and Indonesian art. P.42 2. Banerjee Arundhati, Terracotta Art Expression in Indian sub continent, Vol .LVI, 1984, p.47 3. Desai D., The Social Milieu of Ancient Indian Terracottas 600 BC. to 600 AD., 1986 4. 5. Chandra R.G., Studies of Indus Valley Terracotta, 1973, p.3 In the Yajurveda we get a reference to the krtyas in following hymns. 6. 7. 8. Ait. Bra. Ch.VI. 7 Sant Urmila, The Terracotta Art of Rajasthan, 1997, p.13 The Brhmaas are an explanation of ritual procedures, based on commenteries of the Vedas. This becomes evident from the fact that many terracotta figures of deities are used in a number of auspicious occasions. In fact, terracotta art in India is considered mystical because it incorporates within them the five vital elements; those are air, fire, earth, water, and ether. 9. Jaiswal, Vidula, Kalyan Krishna (1986), An Ethno Archaeological View of Indian Terracotta, p.64 10. The figures are modeled with smoothness and sensitive effects, sometimes faces pressed from mould, while the remaining part of the body is handmade and joined later before firing. Banerjee Arundhati, op. cit. p.54 11. So far as technique is concerned it is observed that during late Mauryan period terracotta art touched the culminating point

which could not be surpassed in any subsequent period of the history of terracottas. Cf. Neelima Dahiya, The Arts and Crafts of Northern India, p.171 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Gupta, P.L., Gangetic Valley Terracotta Art, 1972, p.10-11 Sant Urmila, op. cit.,p.12 Ibid, p.17 Gupta, S. P. The Roots of Indian Art, 1980, p.173 Prakash, P. Terracotta Animal Figurines in Ganga-Yamuna Valley, 1985, p.23 17. 18. Jaiswal, Vidula, Kalyan Krishna, op.cit., p.130 Jewellery is regarded as a traditional form of wealth; but it is also used for personal decoration both by men and women. Cf. Sant Urmila, op.cit., p.83 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Ibid, p.90 Dahiya Neelima, op.cit., p.166 Gupta, P.L., op.cit., p.8 Banerjee Arundhati, op.cit., Vol. LVI, p.47 Sant Urmila, op.cit., p.116 Lal, B.B, Excavation at Hastinpur and other Exploration in the Upper Ganga and Sutlej Basins, 1950-52, Anciant India 10-11, p.85 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Ibid , p.86 Gaur, R.C. Excavation at Atranjkhera,1983, p.201 Prakash, P., op.cit., 1985, p.60 IAR, 1982-83, p.103 IAR, 1970-71, P.32 Sahi, M.D.N, Aspects of Indian Archaeology, p.151 Joshi, J.P., Excavation at Bagwanapura, 1993, p.127

32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Sant Urmila, op.cit., p.117 Sahi, M.D.N. op.cit., p.150 IAR, 1965-66, p.41-42 IAR, 1965-66, p.47 Joshi, J.P. op.cit., p.126 Tripathi, V., The Painted Grey Were -An Iron Age Culture of Northern India, 1975, p.96

38. 39. 40. 41.

Ibid Lal, B.B. op.cit., Ancient India 10-11, p.95 Sant Urmila, op.cit.,p.118 Ghosh, Arvind K., Material Culture of Gangetic Plains During Ist Millenium B.C; An Archaeological Study , p.102

42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

Gaur, R.C., op.cit., p.203 Sant Urmila, op.cit., p.119 IAR, 1971-72, p.42 Joshi, J.P. op.cit., 1993, p.129 Puratattva, 32 ,p.124 The discs are generally decorated with incised designs. They Included finger nail pattern executed around the circumference; sun symbol, swastika, cross and plus etc. All the sites have yielded discs from PGW Period. As Roy observed that swastika symbol first appears in the later phase of NBPW. It was evident by Jakhera Excavation that swastika symbol was occurred all discs prior to the late phase of NBPW.

48. 49. 50.

Puratattva, 32 ,p.124 Gaur, R.C. op.cit., p.205 Joshi, J.P., op.cit., p.132

51. 52. 53. 54.

Sant Urmila, op.cit., p. 119 Ghosh Arvind K., op.cit., p.103 Gaur, R.C. op.cit., p.203 Few unbaked pestles were recovered from Aalamgirpur, Allahapur and Noh.

55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

Puratattva, 32 ,p.124 IAR 1990-91, p.170 Sant Urmila, op.cit., p.120 Lal, B.B op.cit., Ancient India 10-11, p.30 Sahi op.cit., p.151 Joshi, J.P op.cit., 1993, p.131 Ancient India no 10-11, p.87 Banerjee Arundhati, op.cit., p.53 Ibid Sant Urmila, op.cit., p.5 A noteworthy occurrence of horse figurine from Hastinpur from PGW level is interesting. Lal, B.B op.cit., Ancient India 10-11, p.86

66.

Gupta, S. P. op.cit., 1980, p.178

OTHER MISCELLENEOUS ARTS AND CRAFTS

In the later Vedic age, with the growth and development of economy further leads to the subdivision of occupation which resulted the rise of new industries of arts and crafts. This period is marked by the rise of a number of professions as it was responsible for the formation of many castes. It is stated that though Vedic ryans had not urban civilization, they were equipped technicians. The numerous arts and crafts industries have been occupied by later Vedic people such as ivory, wood, leather craft, glass objects, gold smithy, carriage making, weaving, pottery and metal smiths. Archaeological excavations conducted at various sites have opened up a rich store of information about arts and crafts of contemporary period. Various kinds of objects used for domestic purposes, war-weapons, ornaments, games and toys etc have been encounter form excavated sites. The Vajasney samhit contains a list of artisans who were present at the time of Vedic period1. The systematic enumeration indicates the development of arts and crafts on a large scale in Northern India. The

subject under study marked the origin and development of some other craft industries like wood making, leather making, glass making, ivory and seals etc. The introduction of these craft was of special interest in this period and the later Vedic furnish the valuable details about them. These other were not developed on a large scale. Although, these objects have not been reported from all the sites of Painted Grey Ware. The existence of miscellaneous craft was opened new vistas for economic development in various fields. All these affected the trade and commerce on a wide scale. The later Vedic texts and archaeological finds have been confirmed the information about several crafts, craftsman technique of making objects and finished goods.

IVORY:In India, ivory has been used for various craft purposes from sacred images to dice. The people, who used the ivory objects, occurred high economic status in the society. The Vedic texts include ivory work as the noblest craft among all arts and crafts2. Though ivory is tough it seems to yields the craftsman masterly handing and become almost pliable and shines with a soft lustre like a cool moonbeam3. The antiquity of ivory craft in India goes back to Harrapan period4. While other cultures of the world have practiced the art of ivory making. Even in the post Vedic times, Sind had an abundance of ivory. It is evident from the fact the palace of Darius l (522-486 BC) was decorated with ivory brought from the Sind, Arachosia and Ethopia5. Ivory has grandeur and nobility of its own .It is unique and unrivalled, and highly expensive. Ivory was carved delicately and used for making

luxury goods. Being of precious and rare material it was once patronized by the reality and the nobility. Ivory work has been mentioned as danta vayijja in the post Vedic literature6. Although Vedic literature mentioned about the elephant, while Samhit has not been refer any kind of work related to ivory. It has been mentioned in the later Vedic texts that the killing of elephant was rewarded in order to obtain their tusk7. Cutting of tusk with saw has been mentioned8. The objects made by ivory included combs, hairpins, small sticks, ornaments and other useful objects. Ivory was used for making ornaments, utilitarian objects and religious and ritual objects. The Atharvaveda prescribed an amulet made of ivory to be tied on arms for curing certain ailments9. However Vedic ryans were not specialized in Ivory carving. Aitereya Brhmaa enumerates ivory work in the list of ilpas10. But it is very different to prove that the regular practice of ivory work by archaeological evidence. However a few ivory objects have been unearthed from Painted Grey Ware level. The sites where from ivory objects have been reported as Koambi, Sonepur, Jhunsi, Champanagar, Hastinpura, Ujjain and Taxila etc. One perforated pear shaped object of ivory decorated with grooves has been unearthed from Hastinpur11. From Sonepur rectangular ivory piece having incised decorations have been recorded from pd. II12 (C. 830-650 B.C.). Such pieces have been discovered from Jhunsi13. The Taxila specimen excavated at Bhir Mound by Marshall described as semi-human figure is unique14. It has a hole at the top probably used as a pendant. From Ujjain15 and Avra16 similar human figurines have been occurred. These figurines were connected with the mother goddess. The

most interesting a broken ivory figurine has been encountered from Champa in the Ganga valley from Pre NBP level17. (C.6thto 5thC.BC). The figure measures 18.9 cm. It has developed breasts, slender waist, long arms and figures. It has oval face, well marked eyes, prominent aquiline nose and broad forehead, while right hand and leg is missing. The importance of figure lies in this fact that all parts of body have been carved separately and this jointed together with neck, shoulder, elbow, wrist and knee. Ivory pendants and amulets have been recovered widely. From PGW period from Taxila at Bhir mound a dagger shaped ivory pendant18 with thin blade and a handle having a hole in it for suspension. The characteristics of this pendant is it decorated with design of incised parallel lines and two circles that is faintly perceived as a female face and the other side is plain. Besides this, some arrowheads of bone of different sizes and ivory were recovered from Taxila and Koambi. These are in long pointed, circular, cross section, bud shaped, and other. These arrowheads may be used in grim battles or for killing of birds and small games. Some pieces of finished and unfinished bone tools like arrowheads and projectiles points were occurred from Abhipur from PGW period (PlateXX). The styluses with two ends one short and other long, have been reported and categorized as a tools19. In this regard it has to be mentioned that the availability of ivory in large quantity might have given impetus to ivory workers. The Aitereya Brhmaa refers that in the Champa region the best species of Elephant were available and they were offered to priests as a gift20. Thus the ivory craft of this period is characterized by further refinement in the skill of application of techniques. The vital contribution of ivory

worker resulted the growth of arts and crafts industries in this contemporary period.

Wood and Bamboo Objects:Wood is the most important source of producing objects and tool implements. In the later Vedic period, wood craft had reached a high stage of specialization and mark the development of three distinct classes of artisans, namely chariot makers, armourers and carpenters. A variety of objects have been made by wood workers. In Sanskrit language the term taks an occurred for carpenter. In Greek taktan pronounced for these craftsmen. In the Vedic literature, there are
21 references denoted to the carpenter and chariot-wright (Tvas t r , 22 tast r , taks an23) and their products. The chariot maker has a high

status in society as well as in the affairs of the kingdom. In the context of general manner the carpenter who made objects for household purposes, agriculture, implements and other denoted as taks an in literature. Moreover from the Vedic texts we find that taks an24 manufactured chariots, wagons and sometimes carved with finer work also. He used the axe (Kulia, Parau and svadhiti25) and scissors26 (bhrij) as instruments for this work. The Rgveda carpenter has to be mentioned to make Ratha and Anas27.The atapatha Brhmaa states that Taks ans are auddha means impure. Their impurity was decided on the basis of the offence committed by destroy the trees. On the other hand, the rathakra retained his high status and even in post Vedic times, he was allowed to perform sacrifices and to put on sacred thread28. Sometimes they were appointed as ratnins29.

The tool and implements of Vedic ryans were superior to the Harappans. The axes heads of Harappans had to be lashed to their shafts, while the Vedic ryans had holes for the shafts on account of which they became more effective. The carpenter of the Vedic period might have used saw to work efficiently. This tool is made of iron for smooth cutting of hard wood because other metals like copper and bronze could not done this work efficiently. Thus, the work of carpenter must have been highly developed. As mandapas for sacrificial performance were made from bamboos and some other kinds of wood. All sort of work has been done by bamboo as house making, cots, chairs and winnowing of baskets of different size and shape for containing various things. The Atharvaveda mentions that house were apparently built of wood probably four pillars were erected, propped up by beams or leaning against them at an angle30. Though, Rgveda mentions that bamboos (venu) were consider as a form of property31. Ribs of bamboo cane (Vama) a ridge and a net or thatched covering over the bamboo rib probably made up the roof. The grass in bundle was used to fill in the walls which were finished with reed work32. Bamboos were frequently mentioned in the sense of cane and reed in the later Vedic literature. Numerous references occurred in the texts related to bamboo works.The Vajasney samhit refers to bidalakri as a victim in the Purusamedha33. Mahidhara explains as Vamavidrini and Vamsaptrakrini which mean female bamboo splitter and a female cane worker respectively.

Various types of objects have been made by wood and bamboo workers as upa-mantham, plough, Ratha, Pari-nah34 (box-like object), Nav, Nava or Palva (denoted to boat), vipatha35 (cart or wagon) Paryanka36 (kind of sitting objects like diwan) Arrow and bow. The objects like Nadwala37, kata38, kashipu39 (a mat or cushion), Sna, Tejani40 were made by the bamboo. These objects of wood and bamboo craft were the product of high standard craftsmanship. The exact nature of techniques for making the objects was not sure. While undoubtedly, carpenter must be familiar with the techniques of sowing, smoothening, pealing, joining and cutting because it is very difficult to make the fine wooden artifacts without having knowledge of these techniques. Thus it is evident that the wooden objects reflect the fine nature of carving work.

Leather Work:In the later Vedic age, besides all these occupation, leather work have important place in craft industries. The literature mentioned various references related to various types of skin to be used for different purposes. The skin of animal and beasts such as goat, tiger, buffaloes, bullocks, cow, deer, antelope and snake have been used for making objects. The objects included garment, shoes, containers, cords, bedcover and roofing material were prepared by animals skin. It is mentioned that god have been used to wear the hides of animal as garment for example the peculiar garment of Siva was hide of an elephant41. The Maruts wear deer skin and a muni is clad in skin or soiled garment42.

The word Ajina-Vasin43 which means clothed in skin. It occurred in several texts shows, the existence of leather garment craft industry during the Vedic era. It has been suggested in one text that the upper garment of Brhmaa student should be of the skin of an antelope that of Ks atriya should be of the skin of the spotted deer that of Vaiya should be of goat skin or cow skin44. The Rgveda mention the carmamn (carmamn abhito janh) 45The leather tanners are in front, or those who are wearing leather armours. The tanned leather is mentioned at various places in the Rgveda onwords46. The stretching of hides with the help of pegs made of wood inserted into the round proves that after dressing it, the tanner made it fit for making leather goods47. The bull being fastened to the yoke with the leather thongs, varatras48 and the hand guard of the soldier was made by leather49. Generally it was cow hide or the bull hide that was used for preparing leather but at symbolic rituals the boar hide is mentioned in the context of the Rajsuya50. The skin of the red bull was used at the time of domestic rituals and that of black antelope at the time of Sranta sacrifice51. The term hides denotes commercially the row, dressed of tanned skins of wild animals52, while fur is used for ornamental skin with the hairs or wool attached53. The frequent occurrence of carmamn (tanner) testifies that the technique of tanning leather was also applied at that time. Thus, it can be inferred that the technique of cutting, shaping and sewing were practiced by the artisans engaged in leather work. The object made by leather occurred in the literature has been mentioned as :

 Upa-nah Pyuksna

54

: (shoes or sandal) : it is mentioned in the sense of bow cover

in the atapatha Brhmaa.

55

Nrti

56

: The word has been referred as the bag

made of skin.
57

Godha

: It has been mentioned in Atharvaveda in

the sense of bow string made of hide.
58

Dhavitra

: It can be considered the air blower of

leather. The reference to bellows used by the smelter of ayas is met within several texts.

Drti

59

: This is objects is used for the purpose of

holding fluids like ksira and sura.

Jya

60

: It is also denotes for bow string of thong

or hide.
61

Astarana upastarana

: The skin is mentioned to be used as

coverlet of seats in later Vedic literature.

Besides this other various types of objects has been mentioned in Vedic texts. These objects throw valuable light on the socio- economic condition and rituals expression of the contemporary society.

Glass Objects:The term ssa occur in the later Vedic literature for glass. The Vedic ryans had advanced technical knowledge of glass industry. Glass objects of several types have been unearthed from the PGW period. The Vedic texts proves the existence of glass industry. As in Atharvaveda it has been referred that the amulets made of glass were used for curing certain ailments62. The objects like beads, bangles, seals and balls were made by glass. The credit of introducing the complicated glass manufacture technique goes to PGW using people63. The glass specimens probably used as weight are noteworthy, in this contemporary period. It had some religious values as in the Rajsuya; a piece of it was placed on the hide of a tiger to be kicked off by the ks atriya going through the royal consecration ceremony64. However the antiquity of glass objects does not go beyond Painted Grey Ware period in India, particularly in the Ganga valley. The two sites like Hastinpur 65 and Ropar have so for yielded glass bangles in PGW period. Two specimens of glass bangles from PGW level from Hastinpura (Plate-XXI). Among these two bangles one is of light brown colour with triangular cross section and the other one is rectangular in cross section. Colour is not mention of this bangle. From Atranjkhera single glass bangles of green colour, semicircular in shape have been reported66. The occurrence of glass bangles from Bhagwanpura67 is remarkable from Pd: lB (Plate-XXII). The colours of glass bangles included blue, black, and white. A silver and gold colour coating applied on the glass bangles is also found. The bangles are triangular, circular, rectangular and square in the section. The similarities

in the shapes of bangles were continued in both PGW sites, Hastinpura and Bhagwanapura. These were designed as kangan, bracelets and bangles The excavation from various sites have been recovered a large number of glass beads from PGW level. Glass bead of black colour, opaque have been found from Atranjkhera68. It is irregular spherical in shape. Twenty two beads made of glass have been obtained from Sravasti half of them belongs to PGW period. Bangles were discovered from this site in different colour and shapes also. Colour mainly comprises are sea-blue and light green. A thick section of glass is indicating that probably these might be used as bracelets69. Two glass beads are found from pd. Ib from Bhagwanapura. One of these is a long convex eye bead, and other one is segmented eye bead70. The history of glass making in India had attained a high degree of perfection in the PGW period. The occurrence of glass bangles from Abhaipur from PGW level and NBPW level is noteworthy coincides (Plate-XXIII). All these objects of glass signify the smooth surface, even shape and sizes indicate further development of manufacturing technology. On the basis of this occurrence of objects of commercial value of glass can be ascertained. The specimen of glass related to the social custom or belief, status or hierarchy and caste or folk groups during the contemporary period. A close examination of the variety of objects provides eloquent testimony to the fact that a continuous development in the techniques, artistic attitude and craft ability of artisans, prevailing in the Painted Grey Ware period.

However the beginning of ivory artifacts shows a high degree of skill in craftsmanship. The objects speak about the artistic merit, maturity, aesthetic sense and sophistication of tastes of their creature. All the small item of material culture i.e. ivory, leather, wood, bamboo and glass suggest the growth of material prosperity in the contemporary period and change the socio-economy life of the occupants during successive level. The marked progress in all arts and crafts industries witness the development in trade and commerce in the subsequent period also.

REFERENCE
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RV.1.20.6, 1.61.4 RV.9.112.1; AV.10.6.3 ma Brhmani bardhanasavibhyam santu santam Ya taks ana ratha ivocsocam brhannam h II RV.5.73.101

25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

RV.1.162.9; 1.162.18 RV.4.2.14, AV.20.127.4. RV. 8.91.7 Roy, B.P. Later Vedic Economy,1984, p.293 MS.2.6.5.4; 38; VS.18.27 Sinha, R., Handicrafts of Vedic age, p.65 RV.8.55.3 Handicrafts in Vedic Age, p.65 VI, I. p.533 AV. XIX .48.1 Asva S.Su.VIII.6.9 Kausi. Up.1.5 Vaj.Sam. XXX.16 Tatt.Sam.V.3.12, 2; Sat. Br. XIII.3.1.3 AV, V, 1.38.5 Kath. Sam. XXII.13; Ait. Br. 1.11 VS.16.51

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45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51.

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CONCLUSION

Our interpretation of past depends upon our perception of present. The only way to reconstruct the past is to first collect information on all possible aspects and then produce a synthesis. The present study is based on all the relevant sources of information through the literary and archaeological findings the researcher revealed the developed state of arts and crafts in a particular period. The work represents a well developed stage of economy and creates an excellent environment for the advancement of contemporary society. The rise of territorial states in the post Vedic centuries was made possible by the growth of agriculture. Economy of this age was predominantly rural. While the discovery of iron from PGW sites is landmark advancement in the history of agriculture and opened new vistas for development in various fields. The literary accounts of beginning of Pachla in the Vedic (Rgveda, Sama, Atharva, Yajur, Epic and Puranic) tradition provides us legendary accounts. The socio-economic life in the Kuru Pachla region and their activities can be reconstructed at three steps in the Gangetic basin viz. 1. Black and Red ware phase (in middle Ganga Plain). 2. Painted Grey ware phase (in Upper Gangetic Plain). 3. The early phase of Northern Black Polished Ware. (covering virtually the entire Gangetic plains. The later phase of northern black polished ware cotton.

Emergence of art and craft organization, trade and commerce, increasing demand of market, developed agricultural pursuits, surplus production, existence of centerd political and social stratification can be regarded as an important traits accompanying urbanization. The period from 1000 B.C.to 600 B.C. noted as an era of development in social economic phenomenon. It had made a transition from pastoralism to territorialism and states a gradual and continues emergence of urban centres. The use of iron in the PGW period was confined mainly to war weapons and agricultural implements also. Iron tools from PGW level comprises spearhead, arrowhead, blades and agricultural implements like hoe, axe, sickle and exceptional ploughshare from Jakhera and Ganawaria. Iron implements played a distinguish role in agriculture, production, metal technology and state urbanization. The discovery of iron from the PGW level ascertained the chronology and antiquity of iron. However the origin of iron was still in debate of historians while it can be realized that Aryans were the first user of iron. The commencement of iron technology in India exhibits a remarkable antiquity. The geological, archaeological and ethnographic studies opaquely depicts that iron ores was abundant in various regions of India and it is understood that easy availability of iron ore may have enhanced technological innovations. At Bhagwanapura, Dadheri, Nagar, Katpalon and other sites found the interlocking of PGW with late Harappans. Though iron is absent from these phases yet such evidences may be valuable in finding out the gradual continuity and transformation from Bronze age to Iron age. Though, it is the matter of scientific interest in understanding the properties and manufacturing process of pre-industrial Indian steel

which came to be known in Europe as wootz. Steel production is very important and certainly useful for ancient iron working style. The Smiths knew how to control temperature of furnace and produce steel based on their close observation and long experience. The PGW levels at Atranjikhera (900 B.C.) also revealed evidence of wrought iron and mild steel (D.P. Agrawal 1983). Since very few samples were analyzed, we do not know if carburization was consistent and done for most of the objects. From eastern India also, a few artifacts have been subjected to metallographic and chemical examination. Some of them yielded evidence of low carbon steel in early first millennium B.C. In Eastern India the first or early stage of iron technology is characterized by wrought iron (900 B.C.); second stage (as the beginning of iron age) is characterized by the introduction of carburization. The iron pillar a belonging to 4th century A.D. was a wrought iron pillar manufactured by forge welding and the entire pillar was rounded off with forge hammering and cold working (Chakrabarti 1988: 119). It has been called the restless wonder by some scholars. Subsequently the smiths mastered iron technology and developed purification technique of iron and produced wootz, which became world famous as Damascus steel. The famous Damascened sword blades was reputed to have come from India. A variety of arts and crafts were studied in the present work in many ways viz pottery, ivory, bead, terracotta, metal, textile and others. The state of arts and crafts in a particular age reflects the number of industries, technical activities techniques made of production, types of goods and materials. The techniques used for making these crafts were simple and in some cases as same as in the preceding periods. The PGW period marks a revolutionary usurge in the field of arts and crafts

industry and change the whole phenomenon of society. The later Vedic text indicates an advanced stage of economy and crafts an excellent environment of for the advancement or arts and crafts. As far as textile industry is concerned weaving was an important profession for both men and women. Not only weaving industry was into existence but also various textile industries like dying (rajayitri), embroidery (pesakari) spinning also as a medium of development in PGW culture. The Vedic Aryans used woolen garments abundantly as it was regarded as ceremonially pure. Discovery of knitting needles from Hastinapura excavations, spindle whorls from various sites of PGW period and a sherd bearing cotton cloth impression from PGW level at Atranjikhera represent that PGW people used cotton clothes also. Various types of beads were recovered from several PGW sites may be considered as example of great skill craftsmanship and ornamentation. Beads have dating value as well as help to understand the beliefs customs social and economic condition and trade links with other countries. Beads are gradually continuous flourishing industry from Indus to NBPW culture.

Discovery of some new shapes like spherical, short convex and truncated boicone in beads was remarkable upsurge in the field of arts and crafts in PGW culture. The raw material and unfinished beads from Atranjikhera indicates a important local beads manufacturing center. The advancement in economy led a way for developed trade and commerce in PGW period. From Sravasti a long barrel lapis lazuli bead was reported in 6th c.B.C. Same indentical bead was recovered from Taxila. This evidence proves the commercial contacts between these Janapadas. It may be considered that this bead was imported from Taxila or, it was the center of commercial activities. Painted Grey Ware was the earliest decorated pottery in the sequence of pottery types from the sites of the Kuru-Pachla region. First discovered from Ahichchhatra then from Hastinapura and other important sites of northern India. The pottery shows a remarkable consistency in made of decoration in the field of ceramic industry. As evident from its name is grey colored pottery made by well litigated clay painted in deep chocolate or black colours with white and red pigments had attained high standard in making ceramic art. PGW is a copper-iron culture attributed to the Aryans. Painting is a significant characteristic of PG ware and it gives way to the lusture of the NBP ware. Both wares comprise as deluxe ware and have a close resemblance in their shape, size, fabric and their section. A high degree of terracotta art was prevailing at this period. A variety of objects were unearhed from PGW sites. The interesting terracotta violin shaped human figurines were recovered from Jakera and Baghwanapura. These figurines show the excellent artistic attitude and represent similar culture of making terracottas. Terracotta Mother Goddess from both sites recovered from contemporary period are prominent evidence of ritual and religious practices. It may be adopted

from prior proto historic culture. Terracotta discs reported from Jakhera having various religious symbols like plus-minus, sun, and swastika can be attached to brahmanical religious significance. Besides this, the discovery of common burial tradition or mortuary custom from Abhipur and Baghwanapura provide a detailed background of PGW culture and traditions. PG ware represents a village cultural trait and specialized craftsmanship of potter art. It served as an important medium to know the material and economic life of people. To recapitulate, certain craft industries e.g. iron, wootz steel, potteries and other artistic items which were predominant in 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. became a pride for this innovative era. There is a need for further excavation in order to know the particulars of second urbanization in Northern India. Infact in all PGW sites the excavations are vertical. Not a single planned horizontal excavation has been done to investigate the planning of PGW cities. However, a wide road (4.25 m), a moat and a bund from Jakhera appears to be quite important as far as settlement system of PGW culture is concerned. Where as Harappan sites were excavated horizontally to furnish various information of their urbanization. A mutual or reciprocal action between PGW culture and Indus culture would come into limelight whenever new discoveries would be conducted. Therefore, through the efforts of research study from the literary, archaeological and notable historians debate, the researcher was able to accumulate meagre information about PGW refinement persisting in 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. in Northern India.

APPENDIX
LIST OF EXPLORED PGW SITES IN PANCHALA REGION: Sources: 1. Exploration report of Bareilly District by the Department of Ancient History and Culture M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, ed. IAR 1991-92, A Review, p. 104. 2. Pandey Rajeev Kr., Sahajahanpur Ka Purratattva (From Early to 1200 A.D.), 2001. 3. Sharma Manoj, Bareilly Ka Puratattva (From Early to 1200 A.D.) 2002. 4. Goswami K.C., Badaun Ka Puratattvik Adhyayan (From Early to 1200 A.D) 2003. 5. Tiwari D.P. Excavation of Saunphari and explorations in Ganga plain, 2004, p. 229.

NAME OF THE SITES Aalampur2 Aayan 2 Aaliapur5 Amgaon4 Badsahpur Khera4 Bajirgani4 Barnighat4 Bautha5 Bandsar3 Bhawanipur4

NAME OF THE DISTRICT Sahajhanpur Sahajhanpur Pilibhit Badaun Badaun Badaun Badaun Pilibhit Bareilly Badaun

Bilai5 Bilaspur5 Billuri Khera1 Binavar4 Dalippur3 Dehna2 Dehralalpur3 Dorapur Khera3 Fatehganj3 Fatehpur4 Fazilpur2 Galdia2 Gandharpur2 Ghullia2 Gruia4 Gulola Khera2 Guryani4 Gwarkhera2 Hatra4 Hajratpur3 Ismailpur3 Jalalabad2 Jora Bohur2 Kadarganj3 Kallia Kazimpur4 Kandela4 Kannia4 Katmala5

Philibhit Pilibhit Bareilly Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Bareilly Bareilly Bareilly Badaun Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Badaun Sahajahanpur Badaun Sahajahanpur Badaun Bareilly Bareilly Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Bareilly Badaun Badaun Badaun Pilibhit

Khakai Kathra4 Kharasani1 Khera2 Khera Bajhena2 Kisura 4 Kutubapur2 Lakhanpur2 Lillor3 Loda Bahur4 Manva4 Mohmadganj Khera4 Mati2 Musajhag4 Natia Khera3 Nigohi2 Nizamudinpur Shad4 Nurpur2 Pachowmi1 Pagar5 Palai4 Palia Gurjur4 Palia Mehandikhear4 Parasakhera1 Posil2 Rahtuliya3 Ramjanpur Kachha Khera 4 Rampura Rayasthan3 Rota4

Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Badaun Sahajahanpur Badaun Bareilly Badaun Badaun Badaun Sahajahanpur Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Badaun Sahajahanpur Bareilly Pilibhit Badaun Badaun Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Bareilly Badaun Bareilly Badaun

Sahbaznagar2 Sainthal1 Sanua 3 Sarki Kazimpur4 Sehra Bichalia4 Shergarh2 Simarya5 Sirsa4 Sisora4 Talgaon4 Telhar Khera1 Thikuri4 Tialapur4 Tiharkheara3 Unkalon2 Unchagaon1

Sahajahanpur Bareilly Bareilly Badaun Badaun Sahajahanpur Pilibhit Badaun Badaun Badaun Bareilly Badaun Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Bareilly

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