PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUN A noun is a name of a person, place, thing, idea, living entity, action or quality.

PRONOUN A pronoun is a word which comes in place of noun in order to break the monotony of sentence and also for economy of words.

VERB A verb is a word which is used to describe an action or a state of existence

ADJECTIVE An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun or simply provides more information about a noun.

ADVERB An adverb is a word which qualifies a verb. It gives us information about how an action is performed or when an action is performed or where it is performed.

PREPOSITION A preposition is a word that denotes a relation between a noun and a pronoun in a sentence. A preposition usually comes before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase.

CONJUNCTION A conjunction is a word that joins two sentences, words or phrases together.

INTERJECTION An interjection is a word that describes a sudden outburst of emotion and is followed by an exclamatory mark.

ARTICLE An article is a word used to introduce a noun.

N !N
"# "$# A'()#A%) $ % && N % **$%)I+

)ypes of nouns
a, "# "$# N !N b, % && N N !N c, % **$%)I+$ N !N d, A'()#A%) N !N

a,

"# "$#

Noun is a word that refers to a particular person, place or thing. Names of days, weeks, months, institutions, religions, historical monuments and their adherents are proper nouns. $xception in the usage of proper nounsA proper noun can at times also act as common noun to signify a particular quality, style, characteristic or behaviour pattern.

$g.- i, /e is the modern day (hakespeare. ii, ur boss is the /itler of this age.

In the first example, 0he1 refers to a person who has the quality of 2andhi that is, he possesses nonviolent attitude, perseverance and is morally upright. In the second example, the boss has such qualities like dominating, inhuman, shrewd etc.
b,

% && N

Noun refers to a particular class or name given to a particular entity and every member of the class is also referred to with the same name. )o be precise, a common noun is a name common to all. $g.- student, human beings, men etc. %ommon nouns can be further sub divided in to two categories. i, %ount Nouns. )he entities which can be counted3 singular and plural. $g.- shop. shops ii, &ass Nouns. )he entities which cannot be counted3 no plural form. $g.- money

c,

Noun refers to a group of things, persons or animals. )hough the concept group refers to more than one entity but we usually think of group as a whole most of the time as single entity. In $nglish grammar it is important to identify the collective nouns in order to maintain subject. verb agreement in a sentence.

% **$%)I+$

$g.- Army, group, committee, society, public, troupe, majority, faculty, jury, herd, shoal, board, public, navy, council, company etc.

d,

Noun refers to entities which are intangible. )hey cannot be physically seen or touched but can be felt or experienced. )hey are sub.divided into categories such as.i, qualities. honesty, dishonesty ii, action. valour, movement iii, state. slavery, childhood, adulthood iv, Names of subjects related to. Arts, (cience, music etc.

A'()#A%)

Abstract nouns are usually derived from adjectives such as cowardice from coward etc.

2$N4$#
According to $nglish language noun gender can be divided into four categories namely.i,

&asculine- boy, bull, husband, actor etc

&asculine gender can also be considered as the personification of strength, violence such as- war, summer, death, winter etc.
ii,

5eminine- girl, wife, actress, etc

5eminine gender can be considered as representing gentleness, beauty such as- peace, spring etc.
iii,

%ommon- parent, teacher, cousin, enemy, sibling etc.

%ommon nouns deal with words which do not refer to a particular gender.
iv,

Neuter- pen, street, tree, building, book, table etc.

*ower case animals are also included in the neuter gender.

WAYS TO CHANGE MASCULINE TO FEMININE NOUNS: 4 WAYS 6, 'y adding 7ess at the end of the word $g.- poet.poetess, lion.lioness, author .authoress 8, 'y adding a word either at the beginning or at the end of the word $g.- grandfather. grandmother, milkman.milkmaid 9, 'y adding 7ine, .ix, .a, etc $g.- hero.heroine, signor.signora3 c:ar.c:arina ;, )he word might also change completely. $g.- boy- girl3 man- women, monk- nun

/owever, a word of caution is that in this world of political correctness gender differences are slowly vanishing. )hus, a company may have a chairperson and not chairwomen.

N!&'$#
Nouns can be classified in terms of singular and plural forms. )he singular form of noun can be changed into plural form in different ways. 6, &ost common and popular way of changing singular to plural is by adding an 7s at the end of a word $g.- boy- boys3 girl- girls3 toy- toys. 8, Nouns ending in 7s, .sh, .ch, .x, .o are changed by adding 7es to them $g.- bush- bushes3 buffalo- buffaloes3 catch- catches3 boxboxes $<%$")I N to 07 o1- some nouns ending in 7o can also be changed by simply adding 7s $g.- ratio- ratios3 photo- photos 9, Nouns ending with 7y with a consonant before it is changed into the plural by adding 7ies to them, of course with exception to certain words like valley- valleys. $g.- story- stories3 family- families3 fly- flies

;, %ompound nouns change from the singular to the plural form by adding an 7s to the main word5ather. in law- fathers. in 7law3 passerby- passersby etc. $<%$")I N(- spoonful- spoonfuls3 handful- handfuls =, Nouns ending in 7f > .fe take on the plural form by adding 7 ves?nife- knives3 hoof- hooves3 wife- wives $<%$")I N(- belief- beliefs3 gulf- gulfs3 brief- briefs @, (ome nouns change from singular to plural by changing the vowel only or by adding 7en&an- men3 woman- women3 foot- feet3 ox- oxen3 goose geese A, )here are some nouns which do not change their form at all$g.- sheep, deer, furniture, do:en, luggage, rupees

USAGE OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF THE NOUN 6, )here are certain nouns which are used in plural form to refer singular entity. $g.- News, politics, $conomics, Innings, &athematics, "hysics 8, Instruments that have two parts are used in the plural form

$g.- jeans, spectacles, measles, scissors, tongs, pants 9, )here are some nouns which are used in singular or plural forms depending on their context. $g.- the word 0people1 can be used in both the forms. In the collective noun it is used only in the plural form. $g.- the people have started reali:ing the effects of global warming. /owever, as a common noun the word 0people1 can be used as singular or plural. $g.- )he Indians are food living people. )he various people of India speak myriad languages. ;, (ome nouns have different meanings in the singular or plural contextsa, (ome nouns have more than one meaning in the singular with only one meaning in the plural$g.- light Bsingular,- brightness, radiance, lamp while in the plural refers only to lamps. $g.- people Bsingular,- nation, men and women, however in the plural, it refers to nations only like 0peoples of $urope1. b, )he meaning of some nouns change according to their two forms$g.- "hysic. medicine3 "hysics- branch of science

*ight. weight3 lights- lamps 5orce. strength3 forces.defense troops Air. atmosphere3 Airs. manners, affectations &anner. method3 &anners. behavior %ustom. habit3 customs. duties levied on goods or habits =, (ome nouns have different forms in the plural depending on the contextIndex- indices Balgebraic signs,, indexes. contents tables @, %ertain collective nouns take up plural verb when they stop acting as a group.$g.- )he jury unanimously decided the case )he judges in the jury were divided in their opinion. A, Nouns derived from foreign languages retain their original plural form$g.monsieur&essieurs B5rench,3 &adame&esdames B5rench,3 memorandum- memoranda B*atin, C, Abstract nouns are usually not used in the plural forms except in cases where they are used as common nouns.

N !N %A($
Nouns can be further divided into = case typesNominative, bjective and "ossessive
a,

Nominative- the noun which is used as the subject

of a verb. )he nominative precedes the verb and answers the question 0who> what1. $g.- (unita broke the window. Dho broke the windowE (unita 7 noun )he subject of the verb 0broke1. (unita is in the nominative case

b,

bjective- the noun used as the object of the verb.

It answers the question 0whom> what1 $g.- (unita broke the window. )he noun (unita performs the action of breaking the window. )hus, the object of the verb 0broke1 is window and therefore 0window1 as a noun is in the objective or accusative case.

c,

)he noun in the possession of the object and it answers the question 0whoseE1

"ossessive-

$g.- Fueen $li:abeth1s 'ritain )oday is teachers1 day 5or goodness1 sake

(heela and #am1s apartment (heela1s and #am1s apartments )he roof of the house

"# N !N
PRO + NOUN= INSTEAD NOUN "ronoun comes instead of noun and avoids repetition and monotony. $g.- Ame is a student. Ame studies in std <. Ame is a student and she studies in std <. TYPES OF PRONOUNS 6, 8, 9, ;, =, @, "$#( NA* #$*A)I+$ IN)$## 2A)I+$ 4$& N()#A)I+$ 4I()#I'!)I+$ #$5*$<I+$

A,

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Ist "$#( N

8nd "$#( N

9rd

(ingul ar Nominativ e bjective I &e

"lural singula plural (ingular r De !s ur urs Hou Hou Hour Hours Hou Hou Hour /e>she>It

plural )hey

/im >/er>It )hem /is >/er>It )heir

"ossessiv &y e &ine

Hours /is>/ers>It )heirs s

6, PERSONAL- It should be kept in mind that the personal pronouns which come instead of noun must conform with the gender, number and person of the noun it replaces. $g.- (ana cannot attend the party. (he is not well. )he book is stolen. It is not in its place. 8, Nouns> pronouns joined by 0and1, or, 0nor1

$g.- )he teacher and the students are planning to go on a picnic )he &.4 and treasurer is going to the (tates $ither 4inesh or you has to pay the penalty. Neither the doctor nor the nurse is present. $xception.- Neither the doctors nor the nurses neglected their responsibilities. RELATIVE PRONOUN A relative pronoun is used to join a phrase or clause with another phrase or clause. )he relative pronouns are- 0who1, 0whom1, 0that1 and 0which1. $g.- )his is the shop that you recommended. In this statement the pronouns relate to the nouns that precede them and therefore they are called relative pronoun.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN An interrogative pronoun is asked to question. Dhat> Dhich> Dho> Dhom> Dhose. $g.- Dhat did you doE Dhom were you speaking withE Dhose bag is thisE Dho said thatE

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN )hese pronouns refer to nouns simultaneously. )he verb is in the singular form. $g.- $ach of these students belongs to theI.. $ither and Neither

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN A demonstrative pronoun refers to or points to or identifies a noun or pronoun. 0)his1 or 0these1 refers to entities that are closer in space or time while 0that1 or 0those1 refers to entities that are far away in terms of space or time. )he demonstrative pronouns are 0this1 and 0that1 are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases while 0these1 and 0those1 are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. $g.- )his is the book I was talking about. )hese are the books I got from the library. )hat villa belongs to my grandfather. )hese hills surround the valley from all sides. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN )he reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of the clause or sentence. $g.- singular. &yself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself "lural. ourselves, yourselves, themselves

$g.- /e hurt himself in the accident. EMPHATIC PRONOUN An emphatic pronoun is identical in form to reflexive pronoun with only difference it is used to emphasise its antecedent. $g.- I myself saw the accident POSSESSIVE PRONOUN A possessive pronoun refers to the owner of a particular entity. )he possessive personal pronouns are 0mine1, 0yours1, 0hers1, 0his1, 0its1, 0ours1 and 0their1 $g.- 6, I looked at him 8, Dho is going for the filmE B the nominative is used when the pronoun performs the action, 9, I looked at him ;, Dhom are you chatting withE B)he objective is used when the pronoun is the receiver of the action, =, It is me BDhen the pronoun acts as the complement of the verb 0to be1, it should be in the nominative form, @, It was she who spoke with me. BDhen the pronoun functions as the object of a verb or preposition, it should be in the objective form,

ller tha n I Ba m, BD he n the no un +$#' forms a very important part of $nglish sentences and refers to action foll being done by somebody or is done to some body. ow s 0th an1 or 0as1 the ver b is LEXICAL im REFLEXIVE plie d,

VERB

VERB

)#AN(I)I+$

AUXILIARY

IN)#AN(I)I+$

1) LEXICAL VERB *exical verb tells us of an action performed by the subject of a sentence. *exical verb can be classified into.a, )ransitive verb )ransitive verb passes the action to the object of the sentence. $g.- &anasi broke the vase. b, Intransitive verb Intransitive verb do not pass the action to the object of the sentence. $g.- &anasi laughed.

SUBJECT, VERB AGREEMENT 6, A verb must agree with the subject in number and person.

$g.- 'irds fly 'ird flies )he nurse and the friend of 4r. #ao are sick. )he nurse and friend of 4r. #ao is sick. 8, Nouns as subjects joined with the rest of the sentence by words as 0with1, 0and not1, 0along with1 take singular verb since they are parenthetical and do not affect the verb of the sentence. $g.- )he teacher, along with her students, are going for a picnic. )he teacher, along with students, is going for a picnic.

9, "hrasal verbs "hrasal verbs consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a preposition. "hrasal verbs in many cases have layers of meaning and do not restrict itself to literal meaning. $g.- stand out, stand up, stand against, stand for etc.

ADJECTIVE
An adjective gives us more information about noun. TYPES OF ADJECTIVE 6, Fuality 8, Fuantity

9, Numeral ;, 4emonstrative =, Interrogative @, 4istributive

1) A !"#$%&"' () *+,-%$. $g.- )he "acific cean is the largest ocean of the world.

8, A !"#$%&" () *+,/$%$. Bhow much, $g.- Hou should take great care of your health. /e has no ego. 9, A !"#$%&" () /+01"2 Bhow many, a, %ardinal. one, two, three b, rdinal. first, second, third

Dhen used together ordinal comes first and then cardinal. $g.- In the first row there are @ students.

4) D"0(/'$2,$%&" A !"#$%&"' $g.- )his cricket bat is big )hose hills surround the village.

=, I/$"22(3,$%&" A !"#$%&"' $g.- Dhich student are you talking aboutE Dhose vehicle is thisE 4) D%'$2%1+$%&" A !"#$%&"' $g.- $ach woman carried a basket. $very word of it is true. $ither pen will do.

F(20,$%(/ () , !"#$%&"' 6, Adjectives formed from nouns $g.- maturity- mature, girl- girlish3 child- childish 8, Adjectives formed from nouns $g.- break- broken3 talk- talkative 9, Adjectives formed from adjectives $g.- black- blackish3 comic- comical3 sick- sickly.

Adjectives ending in 0.ing1 and 0.ed1 Dhile describing a situation we add 0.ing1 to the adjectives and while describing the effect of the situation on a person we add 0. ed1 to the adjective.

$g.- &y job is boring. I1m bored with my job.

DEGREE OF COMPARISON

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& #$ '$A!)I5!* & () '$A!)I5!* *$(($# D #($ *$A() D #()

ADVERB
Adverb is a word that qualifies a verb )H"$( 6, )I&$ 5 A4+$#'(

8, 5#$F!$N%H 9, "*A%$ ;, &ANN$# =, F!AN)I)H @, A55I#&A)I N A, #$A( N C, IN)$## 2A)I+$ J, #$*A)I+$ # N$2A)I N

6, Adverb of time Bwhen, $g.- I visit library everyday )he students arrived late in class

8, Adverb of frequency Bhow often, $g.- I visit temple frequently 4o you come here alwaysE

9, Adverb of place Bwhere, $g.- Dhy don1t you move aheadE "lease come back.

;, Adverb of manner Bhow, $g.- /e laughed loudly. "lease speak clearly.

=, Adverb of degree or quantity Bhow much, in what degree, $g.- )his is too bad. I am quite happy.

@, Adverbs of affirmation or negation $g.- (he will definitely come to the party. I cannot recogni:e him.

A, Adverbs of reason $g.- /ence, I will go ahead of you.

C, Interrogative adverbs $g.- Dhere is your sisterE /ow are you feelingE

J, #elative adverbs

$g.- Is this place where the battle was foughtE

ADVERBS5 FORMS 6, (ome adverbs have the same form as that of adjectives $g.- /e sang in a loud voice. Badj, 4o not be loud. Badv, 8, (ome adverbs can be used in both the forms $g.- "lease be loud "lease speak loudly /owever, the meaning might change sometimes. $g.- Hou really worked hard for your project. Hou hardly worked for your project.

)here are many adverbs which are made from an adjective K .*y Adjectives- Fuick, serious, bad, careful, quiet, heavy Adverb - Fuickly, seriously, badly, carefully, quietly, heavily Not all words ending in 0.ly1 are adverbs, some adjectives also end with 0.ly1 $g.- friendly, lively, lovely, silly, elderly, lonely

$g.- Ann is a careful driver. Ann drove carefully through the rocky terrain.

ADVERB OF DEGREE6 COMPARISON " (I)I+$ 'A4 (DI5)*H 5A() 5A# &!%/ *A)$ % &"A#I( N D #($ & #$ (DI5)*H 5A()$# 5!#)/$# & #$ *A)$# (!"$#*A)I+$ D #() & () (DI5)*H 5A()$() 5!#)/$() & () *A()

% NL!N%)I N
If we divide the word 0conjunction1 into two, we get 0con1 which means coming in contact or in touch and 0junction1 means to join. )hus, conjunction as parts of speech brings two words or phrases or sentences together and joins them to form one whole sentence. )here are three types of conjunctions.6, %o 7 ordinating conjunction 8, %o 7 relative conjunction

9, (ubordinating conjunction

6, %o 7 ordinating conjunction %o. ordinating conjunctions join two independent sentences of equal importance together to form one sentence. $g.- It is raining and I will go out to play. )he party was good but the food was not tasty 8,%o. relative conjunction %o. relative conjunctions always come in pairs in a sentence. 5or example.- $itherI or, Neither I nor, No soonerI than, Not onlyI but also $g.- $ither you must leave or face the punishment.

9, (ubordinating conjunction (ubordinating conjunction joins two clauses one of which is dependent on the other. )hese can be divided into seven types.$g.- Hou are shorter than I am. $g.- It was so foggy that we could hardly see each other. $g.- De went to play after it stopped raining. $g.- Hou can leave the country if you have a valid passport. $g.- De work so that we can earn money.

$g.- )he tourists visited the city although it was tense after the terrorist attack. $g.- I went to the doctor because I was sick.

A#)I%*$
A )he Bdefinite, (ingu lar and "lural . Indefinite An

(ingular 'efore a vowel sound

A or An is called indefinite article because it does not point out any particular or definite person or thing.

RULES 6,As a general rule, a common noun in singular number must have an article before it. $g.- )his a book )he book is on the table $xception. A common noun in the singular number will not have an article before it when it is used in the general sense. $g.- &an is mortal. N )$.- Dhen we speak of a person or thing for the first time we generally use the Indefinite Article a or an3 but when we speak of the same person or thing a second time we use the 4efinite Article 0the1. $g.- At the end of the road there is a shop. )he shop remains closed most of the time. 8,As a general rule, %ommon Noun in the plural number do not have the 4efinite article 0the1 placed before them.

$g.- 'irds build nests. %hildren like chocolates. N )$.- /owever, when we speak of particular person or things that we have already mentioned before or that are known to us, we use 4efinite Article. $g.- )he children of this house do not like the sweets that are sold in the market.

USE OF THE I, Dhen we refer to some particular person or thing. $g.- )he girls of this school are very intelligent. 8,Dhen a (ingular Noun is used to indicate a whole class. $g.- )he dog is a faithful animal. )he rose smells sweet. 9,'efore the names of rivers, seas, oceans, gulfs, mountain ranges and group of islands. $g.- )he 2anges )he 'ay of 'engal )he /imalayas N )$.- De say- the "unjab, the 4eccan, the !nited (tates of America.

;,'efore the names of newspapers and sacred books. $g.- )he )imes of India. )he +edas =,'efore common nouns which are names of things unique of their kind. $g.- )he moon is shining in the sky )he world is full of sorrow. @, 'efore directions $g.- )he sun rises in the $ast and sets in the Dest. A, 'efore the names of races or nations $g.- )he /indus )he $nglish defeated the 5rench. N )$.- 0)he1 is not used before the names of languages. $g.- $nglish is easier than /indi. C,'efore Adjectives in the superlative degree and before Numeral Adjectives. $g.- )his is the best book that I have read. 4ecember is the last month of the year. J,'efore an adjective when the noun is understood. $g.- )he rich B rich men, should help the poor B poor men,. rdinal

&I((I N

5 0)/$1 A#)I%*$

0)he1 article is omitted before. 6, "roper noun a, Names of towns $g.- 4elhi, &umbai etc. 8, Names of countries $g.- India, %hina, Nepal etc 9, Names of personalities $g.- Nehru, Indira 2andhi, %hurchill etc ;, Names of mountain peaks $g.- &ount $verest, &ount Abu etc. =, Names of streets $g.-&ahatma 2andhi street, "ark street etc. @, Names of the days of the week $g.- (unday, &onday, Dednesday etc A, Names of the months of the year $g.ctober, Luly etc.

"#$" (I)I N
A preposition is a word which is placed before a noun or a pronoun to show the relation in which the person or thing denoted by the noun stands to something else. $g.- )he box is on the table. )he sky is above us.

IN)$#L$%)I N
An interjection is a word that is added to a sentence to convey sudden burst of emotions. It is not grammatically related to any part of the sentence. An Interjection is depicted in the sentence with an exclamatory mark B M ,. $g.h 2odM Dhat a mess. !hM AhM uchM.