CHAPTER 2 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA LOGIC AND LOGIC GATES Basic Theorems and Properties of Boo ean A !

e"ra# Duality - We simply interchange OR and AND operators and replace 1s by 0s and 0s by 1s. Also, the duality principle states that if t o !oolean e"pressions are e#ual, then their duals are also e#ual. $"% X & 0 ' X ( X )1 ' X !asic *heorem - !oolean Addition% o " & 0 ' 0 & " ' " +0 is called the additi,e identityo " & 1 ' 1 +X ' AB & C AB & C & 1 ' 1- !oolean .ultiplication o "$0'0 o " $ 1 ' 1$ " ' " +1 is called the multiplicati,e identity- /dempotent 0a s o "&"'" o ""'" - /n,olution 0a o +"1-1 ' " - 0a s of 2omplement o " & "1 ' 1 o " $ "1 ' 0 - 2ommutati,e 0a s o "&y'y&" o "y'y" - Associati,e 0a s o +" & y- & 3 ' " & +y & 3- ' " & y & 3 o +" $ y- $ 3 ' " +y $ 3- ' " $ y $ 3 - Distributi,e 0a o " $ +y & 3- ' +" $ y- & +" $ 3o " & +y $ 3- ' +" & y- $ +" & 3- De.organ1s 0a s o +" & y-1 ' "1 y1 o +" $ y-1 ' "1 & y1 - 2onsensus 0a o " $ y & "1 $ 3 & y $ 3 ' " $ y & "1 $ 3 *he term y3 is referred to as the 4consensus term4. A consensus term is a redundant term and it can be eliminated. 5i,en a pair of terms for hich a ,ariable appears in one term and the complement of that ,ariable in another term, the consensus term is formed by multiplying the t o original terms together, lea,ing out the selected ,ariables and its complement.

A field is a set of elements, together ith t o binary operators. *he set of real numbers together ith the binary operators & and $ form the field of real numbers. *he field of real numbers is the basis for arithmetic and ordinary algebra. *he operators and postulates ha,e the follo ing meanings% o *he binary operator & defines addition. o *he additi,e identity is 0. o *he additi,e in,erse defines subtraction. o *he binary operator $ defines multiplication. o *he multiplicati,e identity is 1. o *he multiplicati,e in,erse of a ' 1/a defines subtraction, i.e. a $ 1/a = 1. o *he only distributi,e la applicable is that of $ o,er &% a (b + c) = (a $ b) & (a $ c) A t o6,alued !oolean Algebra is defined on a set of 7 elements, B ' 80, 19, ith rules for the 7 binary operators & and $ x 0 0 1 1 y 0 1 0 1 x$ y 0 0 0 1 " 0 0 1 1 y 0 1 0 1 "&y 0 1 1 1 " 0 1 " 1 0

"

y 3 +" $ y0 0

y&3 & +" $ 30 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

"$

+y & 3-

"$y

"$3

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

*ruth table to ,erify the Distributi,e 0a . A) X Y X+Y X + Y B) X Y X Y X Y

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

1 1 0 0

1 0 1 0

1 0 0 0

*ruth table to ,erify De.organs 0a . +" & y- ' " y

+" ) y- ' " & y

Lo!ic Gates

Operator Precedence
*he operator precedence for e,aluating !oolean e"pressions is +1- +-, +7- NO*, +:AND, and +;- OR. $"% +x & y-.

%enn Dia!ram - <ee =ig. 7 > 1, 7 > 7 ?age ;;. Boo ean &'nctions - A !oolean function is an e"pression formed ith binary ,ariables, the 7 t o binary operators OR and AND, and unary operator NOT( parentheses, and an e#ual sign) =or a gi,en ,alue of the ,ariables, the function can be either * or +. - $"% F1 = xyz. *he function is e#ual to 1 if x ' 1 and y ' 1 z ' 1@ other ise F1 ' 0. - *o represent a function in a truth table, e a list of 7 n combinations of +s and *s of n binary ,ariables and a column to sho the combination for hich the function ' *, +.

*able 767 Tr'th ta" es for F1 = xyz( F2 = x + yz( F3 = xyz + xyz + xy( and F4 = xy + xz x 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 z 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 F1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 F2 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 F3 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 F4 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

* o functions of n binary ,alues are said to be e#ual if they ha,e the same n ,alue for all possible 7 combination of the n ,ariables. =: and =; A !oolean function may be transformed from an algebraic e"pression into a logic diagram composed of AND, OR, and NO* gates. =ig. 7 > ;. <ince are =: and =; e#ual !oolean functions, it is more economical to implement the =; form than the =: form.

Algebraic .anipulation A literal is a primed or unprimed ,ariable. When a !oolean function is implemented ith logic gates. $ach literal in the function designates an input to a gate, and each term is implemented ith a gate. *he number of literals in a !oolean function can be minimi3ed by algebraic manipulations. *here are no specific rules to follo that ill guarantee the final ans er. *he only method a,ailable is a cut6and6try procedure employing postulates, basic theorems, and other manipulation method that becomes familiar ith use.

$"%

<implify the follo ing !oolean functions to a minimum number of literals. 1. 2. 3. 4. x + x y = (x + x) (x + y) = 1 (x + y) = x + y x (x + y) = (x x) + (x y) = 0 + xy = xy x y z + x y z + x y = x z (y + y) + x y = x z + x y x y + x z + y z = x y + x z + y z (x + x) = x y + x z + x y z + x y z = x y (1 + z) + x z (1 + y) = x y + x z A. (x + y) (x + z) (y + z) = (x + y) (x + z) by d ality !r"# ! ncti"n 4 .

(x + y) (x + z) (y + z)

= (x $ x + x $ z + x $ z + y $ z) (y + z) 0 = (x $ y$ z + x $ z $ z + x $ y $ y + x $ y $ z + y $ z $ z + y $ z $ z) z y z z = (x $ y$ z + x $ z + x $ y + x $ y $ z + y $ z) = x $ z (1 + y) + x $ y (1 + z) + y $ z = 1 1 = x $ z + x $ y + y $ z = x $ x + x $ z + x% $ y + y $ z =0 = (x + y) (x + z)

=unctions 1 and 7 are the duals of each other and use dual e"pressions in corresponding steps.

Complement of a function *he complement of a function F is F and is obtained from an interchange of 0s for 1s and 1s for 0s in the ,alues of F. *he complement of a function may be deri,ed algebraically through De.organs (A + B + C + & + ' + F) (A B C & ' F) = A B C & ' F = A + B + C + & + ' + F

*he generali3ed form of De.organs theorem states that the complement of a function is obtained by interchanging AND and OR operates and complementing each literal. F1 = x y z + x y z F1 = (x + y + z) (x + y + z) F2 = x (y z + y z) F2 = x + (y + z) (y + z) A function can be specified or represented in any of the follo ing ays% o A truth table o A circuit o A !oolean e"pression <O? +<um Of ?roducts ?O< +?roduct of <ums 2anonical <O? 2anonical ?O<

Representations of A &'nction
-

Canonica And Standard &orms ,interms and ,a-terms - A binary ,ariable may appear in normal form +x- or in complement form +x- $"% * o binary ,ariables x and y combined ith an AND gate. *here are four combinations% xy( xy( xy( ) xy. - $ach of these four AND terms represents one of the distinct areas in the Benn diagram and is called a #inter# or a *tandard +r"d ct. - <imilarly, n ,ariables can be combined to form 2n minterms. *he 2n different minterms may be determined by a method similar to the table sho n belo . - $ach minterm is obtained from an AND term of the n ,ariables, ith each ,ariable being primed if the corresponding bit of the binary number is a 0 and unprimed if a 1. - /n a similar fashion, n ,ariables can be combined to form 2n #axter#* or *tandard * #*. *he 2n different ma"terms may be determined by a method similar to the table sho n belo . - $ach ma"term is obtained from an OR term of the n ,ariables, ith each ,ariable being primed if the corresponding bit of the binary number is a 1 and unprimed if a 0. - $ach ma"term is the complement of its corresponding minterm, and ,ice ,ersa. - A !oolean function may be e"pressed algebraically from a gi,en truth table by forming a minterm for each combination of the ,ariables that produces a 1 in the function and then taCing the OR of those terms. .interms " 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 3 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 *erm x, y, z, x, y, z x, y z, x, y z x y, z, x y, z x y z, xyz .a"terms Designation *erm #0 #1 #2 #3 #4 #. #/ #0 x+y+z x + y + z, x + y, + z x + y, + z, x, + y + z x, + y + z, x, + y, + z x, + y, + z, Designation -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -. -/ -0

$"% the function in the follo ing table is determined by e"pressing the combination of 001, 100, and 111 as xyz, xyz, and xyz. <ince each one of these minterms results in !1 ', e should ha,e !1 ' xyz + xyz & xyz = #1 & #4 & #0 <imilarly, e can ,erify that !2 ' xyz + xyz & xyz + xyz = #3 & #. & #/ & #0 *he complement of !1 is Dmay be read from the truth table by forming a minterm for each combination that produces a 0 in the function and then ORing those termsE% !1 ' xyz + xyz & xyz + xyz + xyz

=unctions of *hree Bariables x 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 F ncti"n !1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 F ncti"n !2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 y z

/f e taCe the complement of f1, e obtain the function f1% !1 ' +x + y + z) (x + y + z) +x + y + z) +x + y + z) (x + y + z) = - 0 $ -2 $ -3 $ -. $ - / - <imilarly, it is possible to read the e"pression for !2 from the table% !2 ' +x + y + z) (x + y + z) +x + y + z) +x + y + z) (x + y + z) = - 0 $ -1 $ -2 $ - 4 !oolean functions e"pressed as a sum of minterms or products of ma"terms are said to be in can"nical !"r#

<um of .interms *ruth *able for F = A + B C A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 F 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 F (A( B( C) ' F +1, ;, A, G, H$"% $"press the function F = A + BC in a sum of minterms. *he function has 7 ,ariables. *erm A is missing 7 ,ariables% A = A (B + B) = AB + AB 1"2 A i* #i**in3 1 4ariable A = AB (C + C) + AB (C + C) A = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC !2 is missing one ,ariable% BC = BC (A + A) = ABC + ABC 1"2 2e c"#bine ter#* F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC = #1 + #4 + #. + #/ + #0 F (A( B( C) ' F +1, ;, A, G, H-

?roduct of .a"terms *ruth *able for F = xy + xz x 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 z 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 F 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1

56e * # "! #inter#* i* F (x( y( z) ' F +1, :, G, H*he sum of ma"terms is F (x( y( z) ' I +0, 7, ;, A$"% $"press the !oolean function F = xy + xz in a product of ma"terms. 2on,ert the function into OR terms using the distributi,e la % F = xy + xy = (xy + x) (xy + z) = (x + x) (y + x) (x + z) (y + z) = (x + y) (x + z) (y + z) *he function has : ,ariables% ", y, ( 3. $ach OR term is missing one ,ariable% x + y = x + y + zz = (x + y +z) (x + y + z) x + z = x + z + yy = (x + y + z) (x + y + z) y + z = y + z + xx = (x + y + z) (x + y + z) 2ombine the terms and remo,e the terms that appear more than once% F = (x + y + z) (x + y + z) (x + y +z) (x + y + z) = -0 + -2 + -4 + -. *he function is e"pressed as follo s% F (x( y( z) = I (0( 2( 4( .)

2on,ersion bet een 2anonical =orms

$"% *he complement of F (A( B( C) = 7 (1( 4( .( /( 0) i* F (A( B( C) = 7 (0( 2( 3) = #0 + #2 + #3 /f e apply the complement of F using De.organs theorem, e obtain F in a different form% = ' +#0 + #2 + #3) = #0 $ #2 $ #3 ' -0 + -2 + -3 ' I (0( 2( 3)

*he last con,ersion follo s from the definition of minterms and ma"terms. /t is clear that the follo ing relation holds true% #8 ' -8 the ma"term ith subscript 8 is a complement of the minterm ith the same subscript 8( and ,ice ,ersa. *o con,ert from one canonical form to another, interchange the symbol F and I and list those numbers missing from the original form.

Inte!rated Circ'its .IC/

/ts a small silicon semiconductor, called a chip, containing the electronic components for the digital gates. *he gates are interconnected inside the chip to form the re#uired circuit.

0e,els of /ntegration - 9#all:*cale ;nte3rati"n +<</-% contains se,eral independent gates in a single pacCage. *he number of gates is usually fe er than 10. - -edi #:*cale ;nte3rati"n +.</-% ha,e a comple"ity bet een 10 and 100 gates in a single pacCage. *hey perform specific digital operations such as decoders, adders, and multiple"ers. - <ar3e:*cale ;nte3rati"n +0</-% contains bet een 100 and 1000s gates in a single pacCage. *he number of gates is usually fe er than 10. *hey include processors, memory chips, and programmable logic de,ices. - =ery <ar3e:*cale ;nte3rati"n +B0</-% contains thousands of gates in a single pacCage. $"amples are large memory arrays and comple" microcomputer chips.