HISTORY AND SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY

(2) What is Microbiology? (a) Microbiology is "the study of microbes, organisms so small that a microscope is needed to study them." (b) Microbiology, as a science, may be differentiated along organism lines ("the variety of kinds of microbes") and in terms of techniques and goals ("the kind of work microbiologists do") (4) Bacteria (chapters , !, ", #, $) (a) %he bacteria have the following characteristics& (i) 'elatively small (ii) (ingle)celled (iii) *o nucleus or other membrane)bound organelles (iv) (imple morphologies (v) +rimarily synthesi,ers or absorbers (i.e., not engulfers) (b) Most bacteria do not cause human diseases, but most infectious diseases are caused by bacteria (and viruses) (c) More typically, bacteria are beneficial, whether to ecosystems or directly to individual organisms (d) -bacteria (.oogle (earch)/ -index/ (5) Algae (chapters , 00) (a) %he algae have the following characteristics& (i) 1oth unicellular and multicellular types (ii) .enerally aquatic (iii) 2ontain nucleus and other membrane)bound organelles (iv) +hotosynthetic (b) 3lgae typically are beneficial (to ecosystems) though some can cause damage (c) 4nly a few contribute to human disease (d) -algae (.oogle (earch)/ -eukaryotic microorganisms and parasites, algae (supplementary lecture) (Micro5ude)/ -index/ (6) Fungi (chapters , 00) (a) %he fungi generally have the following characteristics& (i) 1oth unicellular and multicellular types (ii) .enerally not aquatic (i.e., prefer dryer environments) (iii) 2ontain nuclei and other membrane)bound organelles (iv) *utrient absorbers (not photosynthetic and not engulfers) (v) 5ecomposers (b) (ingle)celled fungi are called yeasts (c) Multicelled fungi are called molds (d) %here are a number of fungi)caused human diseases (e.g., athletes foot, 2andida yeast infections) (e) 6n the environment fungi serve as plant symbionts and decomposers (f) -fungi or fungus (.oogle (earch)/ -eukaryotic microorganisms and parasites, fungi (supplemental lecture) (Micro5ude)/ -index/ (7) Viruses (chapters #, 07) (a) (b) (c) 8iruses are not cells 6nstead they are acellular, obligate intracellular parasites (i.e., they must invade a cell to replicate) .enerally viruses are much smaller than cellular organisms

8iruses either cause diseases or are sufficiently benign that they infect without causing damage to the host9 in some cases viruses can be beneficial to their hosts (e.g., lysogenic conversion) (e) -virology and introduction (.oogle (earch)/ -viruses (Micro5ude)/ -index/ (#) roto!oa (chapters , 00) (a) %he proto,oa generally have the following characteristics& (i) :nicellular (ii) 3quatic (or, minimally, grow and reproduce in moist environments) (iii) 2ontain nucleus and other membrane)bound organelles (iv) Mostly engulfers though some absorbers and, depending on the classification scheme, also photosynthesi,ers (b) %he absorbers tend to be parasitic and cause disease (c) -proto,oa, parasitology (.oogle (earch)/ -eukaryotic microorganisms and parasites, proto,oa (supplemental lecture) (Micro5ude)/ -index/ (") #el$inths (chapter 00) (a) %hese are parasitic worms (as well numerous non)parasitic types) (b) +arasitic worms are a province of microbiology because (i) %hey share with other microorganisms their capacity to cause infectious disease (ii) %hey are studied using techniques which overlap those employed to study other microorganisms (e.g., microscopes) (c) ;elminths, however, are certainly not as small as the more)typical ob<ects of microbiological study (i.e., bacteria, viruses, proto,oa, etc.) (d) -helminths, parasitic worms (.oogle (earch)/ -eukaryotic microorganisms and parasites (Micro5ude)/ -multicellular parasites (supplemental lecture) (Micro5ude)/ -index/ (%&) Arthro'ods (a) %hough not considered microorganisms, arthropods (e.g., insects) are important vectors of infectious)disease propagation (b) =or e>ample, mosquitoes transmit malaria, which is caused by a proto,oa (c) -arthropod vector, arthropod vectors (.oogle (earch)/ -eukaryotic microorganisms and parasites (Micro5ude)/ -arthropod vectors (supplemental lecture) (Micro5ude)/ -index/ (%() #istory o) $icrobiology (a) ?e will briefly outline the history of microbiology in terms of the achievements of a few individuals (yes, this will be on the test) including (i) 'obert ;ooke (ii) 3nton van @eeuwenhoek (iii) %hose individuals involved directly in defining the germ theory of disease (b) -microbiology and history (.oogle (earch)/ -significant events of the last 02A years (3merican (ociety for Microbiology)/ -index/ (%*) #oo+e, -obert (.%665) (a) 1uilder of the first (or, at least, an early) compound microscope (b) 2oined the term cell (c) -+erhaps his most famous microscopical observation was his study of thin slices of cork. ;e wrote& B6 could e>ceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous these pores, or cells, were indeed the first microscopical pores 6 ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for 6 had not met with any ?riter or +erson, that had made any mention of them before this.B ;ooke had discovered plant cells )) more precisely, what ;ooke saw were the cell walls in cork tissue" (Cnter Cvolution& %heory and ;istory)/ (d) -'obert ;ooke (.oogle (earch)/ -'obert ;ooke (0!DA)0"7D) (Cnter Cvolution& %heory and ;istory)/ -index/ (%4) /an 0eeu1enhoe+, Anton ($id to late %6&&s, early %7&&s) (a) %he first microbiologist (@eeuwenhoek is more)or)less pronounced layu)wen)hook) (b) =irst to use microscopes to view microorganisms (c) -van @eeuwenhoek (.oogle (earch)/ -3ntony van @eeuwenhoek (0!D2)0"2D) (Cnter Cvolution& %heory and ;istory)/ -history of the microscope(1rian E. =ord)/ -@eeuwenhoek

(d)

microscope (Molecular C>pressions Museum of Microscopy)/ -@eeuwenhoekBs perception of the spermato,oa(niclely places @eeuwenhoek in his time) (Fygote)/ -index/ (%5) 2er$ theory o) disease (a) %he germ theory of disease is the idea that diseases may be caused by microscopic organisms (i.e., not visible to the naked eye), a.k.a., microbes (b) %he germ theory of disease was not quick to catch on because of the contrasting concept of spontaneous generation which is an idea that life can arise spontaneously from no longer living things9 for e>ample, (i) %he "spontaneous" clouding of clear broth (ii) %he occurrence of maggots on meat (c) %he idea of spontaneous generation was debunked by e>periments by (i) =rancesco 'edi (ii) @ouis +asteur (iii) Ctc. (d) 4thers that contributed to the development and practical application of the germ theory of disease include (i) 'obert Goch (ii) 6gna, (emmelweis (iii) Eoseph @ister (iv) Cdward Eenner (v) 3le>ander =leming (vi) Ctc. (e) -germ theory of disease (.oogle (earch)/ -index/ (%6) -edi, Francesco (a) (howed that meat protected from flies via a gau,e barrier did not develop maggots, hence were not spontaneously generated (%7) asteur, 0ouis ($id to late %3&&s) (a) 1uilding on the e>periments of others, +asteur showed that boiled broth did not become cloudy (turbid) when air but not dust could contact the broth (b) 1uilt elegant "swan)necked" flasks which trapped dust (and microorganisms) along their curved necks, thus showing that neither air nor broth were sufficient to allow the generation of microorganisms (it is the microorganisms, e.g., bacteria, that scatter light thereby producing turbidity in broth cultures) (c) +asteur additionally showed that cotton plugs (a primitive air)filtration device) could prevent

microbes from reaching otherwise air)e>posed sterile broths (d) *ote that +asteur was fortunate that the foods he boiled into broths did not contain bacterial spores since such spores are resistant to killing by boiling (e) +asteur invented pasteuri,ation, the heating of foods to eliminate harmful microorganisms while retaining not)harmful microorganisms (f) ;e was responsible for the association of specific microbes with diseases (g) ;e development the rabies vaccine (as well as other vaccines) (h) (discovered Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Pneumococcus) (i) -@ouis +asteur (.oogle (earch)/ -@ouis +asteur (0#22)0#$A) (3ccess C>cellence)/ -index/ (%3) 4och, -obert (late %3&&s, early %"&&s) (a) 6dentified the bacteria that cause anthra>, tuberculosis, cholera (b) 2ontributed significantly to the development of pure culture technique (c) 6ntroduction of agar to microbiology (d) GochBs +ostulates, a way of ascribing a particular infectious disease to a particular, causing microorganism

-'obert Goch (.oogle (earch)/ -'obert Goch (0# D)0$07) (Medicine %hrough %ime)/ -index/ (0$) 5e$$el1eis, 6gna! ($id7late %3&&s) (a) 6nstituted hand washing as a means of minimi,ing surgical infection (a means of aseptic technique) (b) "'ecogni,ed a connection between autopsies and puerperal (childbed) fever. Many physicians went directly from performing autopsies to e>amining women in labor without so much as washing their hands. ?hen (emmelweis attempted to encourage more sanitary practices, he was ridiculed and harassed until he had a nervous breakdown and was sent to an asylum. :ltimately, he suffered the curious irony of succumbing to an infection caused by the same organism that produces puerperal fever." (c) -6gna, (emmelweis (.oogle (earch)/ -index/ ((&) 0ister, 8ose'h ($id7late %3&&s) (a) 1uilding on the work of +asteur (anti)spontaneous generation) and (emmelweis (aseptic technique), @ister instituted the use of chemical antimicrobials for the "saniti,ation" of ob<ects that come into contact with surgical wounds (b) 2onsidered the "father of antiseptic surgery" (c) -Eoseph @ister (.oogle (earch)/ -index/ ((%) 8enner, 9d1ard (late %7&&s) (a) :se of cowpo> virus to vaccinate against smallpo> virus (b) -Cdward Eenner (.oogle (earch)/ -index/ ((() Fle$$ing, Alexander (early %"&&s) (a) 5iscovered penicillin, an antibiotic (b) -3le>ander =lemming (.oogle (earch)/ -index/ ((*) :he$othera'y (a) 2hemotherapy is the treatment of disease using chemicals administered to the diseased body (b) -antimicrobial therapy (Micro5ude)/ -index/ ((4) Antibiotic (a) 3 kind of antibacterial chemotherapeutic derived from natural sources (e.g., other bacteria) (b) -antimicrobial therapy (Micro5ude)/ -index/ ((5) Molecular genetics (a) 6n addition to the germ theory of disease, microorganisms have served as important biochemical and genetic model systems (b) %hat is, typically it is easier to study things in microorganisms than in larger organisms because microorganisms generally are cheaper and easier to work with, plus share many important characteristics with larger organisms (c) =or e>ample, understanding the molecular role of 5*3 in the hereditary process occurred as a consequence of studies employing microorganisms (indeed, ?atson, of ?atson and 2rick, studied the viruses of bacteria) (d) -'ecombinant 5*3 and engineering, 5*3 technology (Micro5ude)/ -index/ ((6) Molecular biology (a) Molecular biology is a field that evolved from molecular genetics and microbiology (b) Molecular biology (e.g., genetic engineering) is a series of techniques including such things as gene cloning and 5*3 sequencing (which are techniques that have traditionally employed microorganisms in their implementation) (c) %hese are very important tools which are serving to revolutioni,e how people to and what they can do in biology and medicine (including microbiology) (d) =or e>ample, entire genomes of certain microorganisms (a number growing monthly) have been completely sequenced (e) -molecular biology (Micro5ude)/ -index/

(e)