On Dynamic Effects Influencing IGBT Losses in Soft Switching Converters

ABST ACT Two !ifferent !ynamic effects influencing the insulate! gate "i#olar transistor $IGBT% losses in soft&switching converters are !emonstrate!' The first one( the Dynamic tail&charge effect shows that the tail charge is !e#en!ent not only on the a"solute value of the current at turn&off( "ut also on the !ynamics of the current' This effect may have a significant im#act on the o#timi)ation of )ero&current&switching converters' The Dynamic con!uction losses originate from the con!uctivity mo!ulation lag of the IGBT' It is shown "y e*#eriments that the on&state losses !e#en! on the o#erating fre+uency' Different metho!s to accurately !etermine the on&state losses are evaluate!' It was foun! that the "est metho! is an in!irect measurement( where the stray in!uctance is i!entifie! "y the use of an oscillating circuit' The e*#eriments are #erforme! un!er a sinusoi!al current e*citation at a fi*e! am#litu!e $1,- A% for !ifferent fre+uencies $u# to 1-. /0)%' The switching !evices use! are IGBT mo!ules rate! 1--2.-- A314-- 5 in a "ri!ge&leg configuration' 6rom the e*#eriments #erforme!( it is foun! that IGBTs of a mo!ern #unch&though $7T% !esigns have the lowest losses in the series&loa!e! resonant converters stu!ie! in this #a#er'

I. INTRODUCTION

In many in!ustrial a##lications with #ower electronic converters( it ma/es sense to o#erate the converter at high switching fre+uencies' There are two main reasons to this fact' The first is that the necessary amount of material in most #assive main&circuit com#onents is inversely #ro#ortional to the switching fre+uency( which im#lies low initial costs at high&switching fre+uencies' The secon! reason is that the !ynamic "an!wi!th is usually tightly correlate! to the switching fre+uency( ena"ling a very goo! !ynamic system #erformance at high&switching fre+uencies' 0owever( unless consi!era"le !esign efforts are ma!e( "y !ifferent means( to sha#e the switching waveforms of the semicon!uctor switches( the switching losses of the converter will "e e*cessive at high switching&fre+uencies' An attractive solution to this #ro"lem is soft&switching 81928:9' One class of converters calle! SL converter'

6ig' 1' Circuit !iagram SL

'

The SL converter is fre+uently suggeste! for in!ustrial a##lications with high switching&fre+uencies $see 6ig' 1%' ;hen this ty#e of converter is o#erate! a"ove the resonance fre+uency( the turn& on transitions e*hi"it "oth )ero&voltage switching $<5S% an! )ero& current switching $<CS% #ro#erties' The turn&off transitions( however( are =har!(> an! therefore( ca#acitive snu""ers are often em#loye! to re!uce the turn&off losses' The ca#acitive snu""er can re!uce the turn&off losses consi!era"ly( "ut not eliminate them' The reason to this is that most insulate! gate "i#olar transistors $IGBTs% have a certain magnitu!e an! !uration of the tail current( which creates turn&off losses even though a ca#acitive snu""er is em#loye!' The esta"lishe! metho! of control of SL converters is fre+uency control 81-9( 8119( an! 8119' An alternative control metho! is the #hase&shift $!uty&cycle% control 81.9' 0owever( if these two metho!s are use! in com"ination( one of the #hase legs can "e ma!e to turn off at the )ero crossing of the current( thus o"taining <CS 81,9284-9' This control strategy has "een name! Dual&Control 81?9' 6ig' 4 shows the ty#ical waveforms when using Dual Control' If the <CS turn off is assume! to "e lossless( as a conse+uence of a )ero turn&off current( the switching losses are re!uce! "y more than ,-@ com#are! to fre+uency control' This is a result of lower switching fre+uency an! that every secon! turn off is lossless' In 81?9( this i!ea has "een evaluate! e*#erimentally on a A- /;34, /0) converter using 14-53.-- A high&s#ee! non&#unch&through $B7T% 8419284,9 IGBTs' It was shown that the re!uction in the switching losses was far less than ,-@ com#are! to the fre+uency&control case' The hy#othesis of the authors is that the reason to this is the tail current 84.9284A9( an! its !ynamic !e#en!ence of the collector current' In 81?9( also a com#arison of the measure! losses to the calculate! con!uction losses is !one' The actual current waveform an! the on& state voltage !ro#( #u"lishe! "y the manufacturer( are use! in the calculations' .

It was foun! that the measure! losses were significantly higher than the calculate! ones' A #ossi"le e*#lanation to the a!!itional losses is that the con!uction losses e*hi"it su"stantial !ynamics( i'e'( a voltage !ro#(

6ig' 4' Dual control ty#ical waveforms'

;hich !e#en!s not only on the instantaneous value of the current( "ut also on the history of the current 84,9( 84?9284:9' This is referre! to as conductivity modulation lag' If this is the case( !ifferent IGBT !esigns may e*hi"it more or less of this #henomenon' An interesting conse+uence of the con!uctivity mo!ulation lag( as !escri"e! in 84:9( is that the resulting effect on the con!uction losses woul! "e )ero if the forwar! current is a sinusoi!al halfwave' Accor!ing to the e*#erimental results in 81?9( however( this !oes not seem to "e true' Coreover( 8419( 8449( an! 81-9 state a cou#ling "etween the con!uctivity mo!ulation lag an! the tail current in the case( where the current has a constant magnitu!e( "ut varia"le #ulse length' These investigations( however( only consi!er B7T !esigns' Since !ifferent IGBT !esigns have !ifferent !ynamic an! static #ro#erties( it ma/es sense to survey how IGBTs #resently availa"le on the mar/et #erform with res#ect to con!uctivity ,

mo!ulation lag an! the tail&current !ynamic !e#en!ence of the collector current 8119( 8149' A!!itionally( it is valua"le to in!icate( which IGBTs are o#timi)e! for the actual a##lication( as( for instance( in 8119 an! 81.9' Stu!ies on switching losses un!er soft&switching con!itions have "een #erforme! on IGBTs with a high&"loc/ing voltage ca#a"ility 81,9' Also 14-- 5 IGBTs have "een stu!ie! in the #ast 81A9281D9' In 81:9( the <5S case is investigate! e*tensively' Still( however( state&of&the&art com#onents in th14-- 5 range suita"le for 4-24-- /; resonant converters are not covere!' Bew( or im#rove!( IGBTs are #resente! on a regular "asis 8.-928.19' In this #a#er( therefore( it is the intention of the authors to i!entify the reason to why <CS !oes not im#ly )ero switching losses an! why the con!uction losses may "e higher at high&switching fre+uencies in the case( where the current varies !uring the con!uction cycle( an! es#ecially when the waveform is a sinusoi!al half wave' A!!itionally( it is the intention of the authors to i!entify( which /in! of IGBT !esign that is most suita"le for high& fre+uency soft&switching converters in the 4-2 4-- /; range' This has alrea!y "een !one for <5S converters TABLE I LISTS OF TEST DEVICES

8..9 with an IGBT !esign of the 1::-s' This #a#er( however focuses on the <CS case' This #a#er is organi)e! as follows' In Section II( the test !evices an! their res#ective !esigns are !iscusse!' In Section III( the Dynamic tail-charge effect is investigate!' The as#ects on the Dynamic conduction losses are #resente! in Section I5' In Section 5( are the com"ine! result of the effects !iscusse! "ase! on e*#eriments on a A/;34, /0) series&resonant converter' Section 5I #rovi!es a conclusion of the wor/ #erforme!' II. TEST DEVICES A num"er of !ifferent IGBT mo!ules have "een selecte! for the measurements' These have "een selecte! on their #otential merits as switching !evices in resonant converters( as state! in Section I' In or!er to "e a"le to com#are the results among the !evices( the ratings are /e#t as similar as #ossi"le' The selecte! !evices are all half&"ri!ge mo!ules with a rate! "loc/ing voltage of 14-- 5' The current ratings range from 1-- to .-- A' Ta"le I lists the teste! !evices' The selecte! test !evices re#resent !ifferent IGBT technologies 84.9( 84,9( an! 84?9' The ty#e !escri#tion also inclu!es information on the gate structure( where $P% in!icates a #lanar structure an! $T% in!icates a trench structure' Device A is an B7T&ty#e with lifetime control of the charge carriers' Device B is of a similar !esign as A' Device C an! D inclu!e a "uffer layer an! are thus of the 7T !esign 8419284,9' They are !escri"e! "y the manufacturer as a trench&fiel! sto# !esign 84.9( 84,9( 8.19(m where Device C is sai! to "e =high&s#ee!> an! Device D =soft turn&offE'> Device E is a 7T&ty#e of an ol!er !esign' Device 6 is a =high&s#ee!> 7T&ty#e 8.49( an! thus of a similar structure as C an! D' Devices G an! 0 are of a similar !esign as Device A( i'e' B7T' Device I is a similar !esign as 6( "ut o#timi)e! for lower on&state losses' All test !evices are using the same !rive circuit in the !ifferent e*#eriments'

7 III. TAIL CURRENT The aim of this section is to investigate the !ynamic tail charge effect( i'e'( how the tail charge QT of the IGBT !e#en!s not only on the turn&off current IOFF( "ut also on the !ynamics of the con!ucte! current' ?

6ig' 1' Collector current'

TABLE II LIST OF TURN-OFF CURRENTS AND CONDUCTION ANGLES.

QT

QT is measure! for !ifferent con!uction angles on a sinusoi!al collector current( as shown in 6ig' 1 an! in!icate! in Ta"le II'The hy#othesis isG if the !ynamic tail&charge effect e*ists(QT has a lower value on the rising slo#e of the current com#are! to the falling slo#e(

for the same value of IOFF. This hy#othesis will "e e*#erimentally vali!ate! in this #a#er' D A. Methodology An IGBT "ri!ge leg is use! to e*cite an LC circuit( as shown in 6ig' .' The gate signals are time! in such away thatT2 , which serves as the !evice un!er test $DHT%( is turne! off at !ifferent occasions on the first half #erio! of the sinusoi!al current' QT is measure! at five !ifferent con!uction angles ( as liste! in Ta"le II' Initially( T1 is in the on&state( /ee#ing C fully charge!' The oscillation is initiate! "y the switching from T1 to T2' The length of the gate #ulse G4 !etermines the instant of the turn off of T2 ' The fre+uency f0 an! the am#litu!e of the current ( are given "y $1% an! $4%

where L an! C are the in!uctance an! ca#acitance values of the resonant tan/ an! E is the !c&lin/ voltage of the "ri!ge' The tests are #erforme! with =1,- A at two !ifferent values of f0 1- an! 1-. /0)' 6ig' , shows ty#ical measure! waveforms

6ig' .' Tail&charge measurement' Tr1G G4 $1- 53!iv%( Tr4G I $1-- A3!iv%( Tr1G IE $1- A3!iv%( an! timeG -', s3!iv' :

The test is re#eate! at two !ifferent Iunction tem#eratures Tj $4, C an! 14, C% in or!er to investigate the im#act of the tem#erature' The high&tem#erature turn&off #erformance of early generation IGBT !esigns has also "een stu!ie! in 8.A9' It was foun! that the tail current increase! significantly when increasing the tem#erature' Three test Devices $A( C( an! D% are com#are! $see Ta"le I%' B. Results The results of the tail&charge measurements are shown in 6igs' ,2D' The current waveform $!otte! line% is shown in the figures as a reference for the rea!er' 6ig' A shows that QT !oes not follow IOFF for Device A' At 4, C QT $,% is ,-@ higher com#are! to QT $1%' In a!!ition( QT $1%<QT $,%' At 14, C( the same "ehavior( even more #ronounce!( is o"serve!' It is foun! that QT $,% is 1--@ higher than QT $1%' 6rom these o"servations( it is evi!ent that QT has a !ynamic !e#en!ence of the collector current( when o#erate! at 1,- A an! 1- /0)' The results shown in 6igs' ? an! D in!icates that no !ynamic !e#en!ence of QT can "e o"serve! for Devices C an! D when o#erate! at 1,- A an! 1- /0)' The tail&charge curve shows a very goo! symmetry $QT $,% = QT $1% an! QT $.% = QT $4%% with res#ect to the #ea/ of the current at :-' The tail&charge curve conserves the sinusoi!al sha#e of the current' 0ence( the tail charge !e#en!s only of the a"solute value of IOFF $within the accuracy of the measurement%' In or!er to investigate the

1-

6ig' ,' Device A( QT versus at 1- /0)'

6ig' A' Device C( QT versus at 1- /0)'

"ehavior at higher fre+uencies( Device C was also measure! at 1,- A an! 1-. /0)' The result is shown in 6ig' :' It a##ears that at this fre+uency( the tail&charge curves are nonsymmetrical( i'e'( QT $,% > QT
11

$1% an! QT $.% > QT $4% for "oth 4, C an! 14, C o#eration' Thus( it is in!icate! that QT has a !ynamic !e#en!ence of the collector current when measure! at 1,- A an! 1-. /0)' 11 C. Discussion 6rom the measurements( it is foun! that all the investigate! !evices $A( C( an! D% show evi!ence of the !ynamic tail&charge effect' 0owever( the onset of this effect occurs at !ifferent fre+uencies' 6or Device A( which is an B7T !evice( the effect is evi!ent alrea!y at 1- /0)' 6or Device C( which is a 7T $trench gate( fiel! sto#% !esign the effect is foun! at the fre+uency 1-. /0)' ;hen evaluating the losses !ue to the tail current( the a"solute values of QT have to "e consi!ere!' A com#arison of the a"solute values of QT for Devices A an! C shows that Device A generally has ,-@ lower values of QT than Device C' 0owever( if it is #ossi"le to switch Device C at the o#timum switching instant( it is #ossi"le to o"tain a very low QT at fre+uencies u# to 1-- /0)' This means that even though Device C generally has a higher QT com#are! to Device A( at high&switching fre+uencies an! <CS( it shows a lower a"solute value of QT ' It is the o#inion of the authors that the onset fre+uency is !etermine! "y the time constant of the con!uctivity mo!ulation' It is assume! that at fre+uencies well a"ove the onset fre+uencyQT will show lower values' 0owever( at these fre+uencies( the on&state losses will increase !rastically' The con!uctivity mo!ulation will have a minor im#act on the forwar! voltage !ro# only the COS6ET channel of the IGBT is active' In or!er to !etermine the o#timal turn&off instant of the IGBTs in the <CS leg in the converter of 6igs' 1 an! 4( a set of e*#eriments are #erforme!' In !ifferent #u"lications 81.9( 8.,9( it has "een shown that the minimum loss is achieve! when switching off slightly "efore the )ero crossing of the current

14

6ig' ?' Device D( QT versus at 1- /0)'

6ig' D' Device C( QT versus at 1-. /0)'

6ig' : shows the total losses in the <CS "ri!ge leg as a function of IOFF'

11 The converter( rate! A- /;3,.- 5dc( is o#erate! at a loa! #oint of U0 = ,. 5 an! I0 = 14- A' The switching fre+uency is 44 /0) an! Tj is A- C' IOFF is !efine! as the value of the collector current at the negative e!ge of the gate signal' The losses of Devices A an! C are com#are!' As shown in 6ig' 1-( Device C can "e o#erate! at significantly lower losses com#are! to Device A' In or!er to achieve the minimum losses of Device C( IOFF has to "e carefully tune!( while Device A is less sensitive to variations in IOFF' O"viously( Device A has a more significant tail&charge effect than Device C at this o#erating fre+uency an! tem#erature' This is( in accor!ance(with the measurements of QT ( as shown in 6igs' A an! ?' I5' COBDHCTIOB LOSSES This section of the #a#er !eals with the !ynamic #art of the on&state losses' The aim is to investigate the !ynamic "ehavior of the con!uctivity mo!ulation' The IGBT is con!ucting a half #erio! of a sinusoi!al current'

6ig'1-' Test circuit'

1.
It is e*#ecte! to o"serve a fre+uency !e#en!ence of the con!uction losses' This is referre! to as !ynamic con!uction losses' A. Methodology The !ynamic #ro#erties of the on&state voltage are stu!ie! un!er a sinusoi!al current e*citation' The current an! voltage of the DHT are recor!e!' The instantaneous #ower loss is calculate! as p(t) = i(t)u(t). $1% The IGBT con!uction losses are calculate! as the average of p(t) as P =2T_T /20p(t)dt $.% where T is the #erio! time of the sinusoi!al current' The con!uction losses P are calculate! at varying tem#eratures an! fre+uencies an! are com#are! among the !ifferent test o"Iects' The test circuit shown in 6ig' 11 is use!' It consists of two half "ri!ges connecte! to a series&resonant tan/' The switchesT1 3D1 an! T2 3D2 are use! to initiate an oscillation in the resonant tan/' The switch T4 3D4 serves as the DHT an! is continuously in the on&state' The on&state voltage UCE an! the econ!ucte! current IE of T4 3D4 are recor!e!' The switch T3 3D3 is continuously in the off&state' As !efine! "y $1% an! $4%( E is use! to control the am#litu!e of the current an! the resonant tan/ $L an! C% !etermines the fre+uency'

6ig' 11' E*citation of resonant tan/' Tr1G IE $,- A3!iv%( Tr4G UCE $4 53!iv%( an! timeG -'4 ms3!iv'

1,

6our !ifferent metho!s to measure uCE(t) have "een evaluate!' 1% Direct measurement( on the IGBT chi#' 4% Direct measurement( through the gate 1% In!irect measurement( i!entification of LS "y a current ram#' .% In!irect measurement( i!entification of LS "y an oscillating circuit'

Fig. 12. Equivalen !i"!ui #$ a %al$-&"i'ge IGBT (#'ule in!lu'ing ) "a* in'u! an!e)

1A

Fig. 1+. Si(,li$ie' !i"!ui .

The Cetho!s 1 an! 4 aim for a measurement of uCE(t)( not inclu!ing the voltage !ro# of LS , while Cetho!s 1 an! . com#ensate for LS in the #ost#rocessing of the recor!e! !ata'

1) Direct Measurement, on the IGBT-Chi ! The #ower mo!ule

is o#ene!( as shown in 6ig' 1A$a%( an! a !e!icate! voltage #ro"e is use! to measure the voltage !irectly on the chi#( as shown in 6ig' 1A$"%' The "on!ing #a!s at the surface of the chi# an! the co##er foil to which the chi# is sol!ere! are use! as measurement #oints' The silicone gel( which #rotects the !ifferent chi#s insi!e the mo!ule( is #enetrate! in or!er to ma/e contact' This metho! gives e*cellent measurement results( "ut it also !rastically re!uces the "loc/ing ca#a"ility an! the relia"ility of the !evice' The result of the measurement is shown in 6ig' 11' The voltage uCE1$t% is measure! at the #ower terminals of the mo!ule( while uCE4$t% is measure! !irectly on the chi#' The voltage uLs $t% is calculate! as the !ifference of uCE1$t% an! uCE4$t%' As shown in 6ig' 14( uLs $t% is lea!ing "y :-J' 0ence( the #arasitic im#e!ance is in!uctive an! the in!uctance LS is !etermine! "y LS KLuLs34MfLNE where f is the fre+uency( LNE is the #ea/ value of iE $t%( an! LuLs is the #ea/ value of uLs $t%' 4% Direct Ceasurement( Through the Gate ConnectionsG An analysis of the layout of the o#ene! !evice( use! inCetho! 1( yiel!s that the in!uctances LSE1 an! LSC4 in 6ig' 1. are small' 1? A!!itionally( the DHT is continuously on which im#lies that the gate current is constant an! very low $O1 mA%' Therefore( the gate connections e1 an! e4 in 6ig' 1- can "e use! to #ro"e uCE$t%' The result is shown in 6ig' 11' The voltage uCE1$t% is measure! at the connections e1 an! e4( as shown in 6ig' 1.( of the mo!ule' 1% In!irect Ceasurement( I!entification of LS "y a Current am#G The test circuit( shown in 6ig' 11( is change! "y shorting the ca#acitor C( as shown in 6ig' 11' ;hile /ee#ing T. continuously con!ucting( the turn OB of T1 a##lies E across the in!uctor L( resulting in a current ram# with constant rate&of&rise di3dt= i_ 0 ( through T4 ' Turning&off T1 forces the current to commutate to D2 ( which i!eally ma/es the current to freewheel at a constant am#litu!e di/dt = 0'

6ig' 1.' Direct measurement of UCE' Tr1G iE (t)$,- A3!iv%( Tr4G uCE3 (t) $1 53!iv%( Tr1G uCE2 (t) $1 53!iv%( an! Tr.G uCE1 (t)uCE3 (t) $1 53!iv%'

1D

Fig. 15. Test circuit, current ramp.

6ig' 1A' Estimation of Ls ( ste# in di"dt' Tr1G iE (t) $,- A3!iv%( Tr4G uCE (t) $1 53!iv%( an! , s3!iv'

Thus( a ste# change of the rate&of&rise of the current is o"taine!' This results in a corres#on!ing ste#&change in the IGBT forwar! voltage #CE( as a conse+uence of the voltage !ro# across LS ' 0ence( LS is calculate! as followsG

LS =UCE/i 6ig' 1, shows the oscillograms of Cetho! 1' As in!icate! "y the figure( the #recision of the rea!ing of#CE is not very high' The two main causes for the inaccuracy are the switching oscillations an! the !ynamic 1: saturation of uCE(t)' Conse+uently( the accuracy of the estimation of LS is com#ara"ly low'
0

$) Indirect Measurement, Identification of LS %y an &scillating Circuit!

By shorting T2 $see 6ig' 1:%( an! a!!ing a snu""er ca#acitor CS ( the circuit shown in 6ig' 41$a% is forme!' A##lying a gate #ulse to T3 generates a current ram# in the in!uctor L' A!!itionally an oscillation through CS is initiate!'

6ig' 1?' Sim#lifie! circuit( snu""er oscillation' $a% Test circuit' $"% E+uivalent commutation circuit

6ig' 1D' Snu""er circuit oscillations' Tr1G iE $t% $,- A3!iv%( Tr4G uCE $t% $,- 53!iv%( an! timeG 1 Ps3!iv' 4-

0owever( !ue to its short !uration( it !oes not affect the inten!e! o#eration of the circuit' ;hen T1 is turne! off( the in!uctor current first commutates from T1 to CS ( an! secon! from CS to D. ' 6ig' 1D shows the e+uivalent commutation circuit for the secon! commutation' LCs is the #arasitic in!uctance of CS ';hen D. starts to con!uct a resonant circuit is forme! "y the series connection of LS ( LCs ( an! CS ' The resonance fre+uency is given "y f- K134M$LCs Q LS %CS' 0ence( LS can "e e*#resse! as followsG LS K T43.M4CSR LCs $?% $D%

where T- is the #erio! time of the resonance T- K 13f- ' 6ig' 1D shows the oscillograms relate! to the turn off of T1 ' This metho! gives a very #recise measurement of LS given that CS an! LCs can "e accurately i!entifie!'

B' Synthesis of Cetho!ology

The use! metho! for the measurement of the IGBT forwar! voltage !ro# is a com"ination of the Cetho!s 1 an! . in a ste#wise a##roach' In a first ste#( Cetho! 1 is use! to accurately i!entify LS on a reference IGBT mo!ule' In a secon! ste# a snu""er ca#acitor is connecte! to
the reference mo!ule using the

6ig' 1:' Device A( #I characteristic' Tr1G 4, C an! Tr4G 14, C 41

6ig' 4-' Device C( #I characteristic' Tr1G 4, C an! Tr4G 14, C'

snu""er resonance to !etermine the stray in!uctance LCs of the snu""er circuit( given "y $?%' The ca#acitance CS of the snu""er circuit ismeasure! "y means of an im#e!ance analy)er' The thir! ste# involves the measurement of HCE for !ifferent IGBT mo!ules "y means of Cetho! .( using $D% to calculate LS from the #arameter values of the snu""er circuit an! the #erio! time of the oscillations' C' Ceasurements The on&state voltage is recor!e! using the test circuit shown in 6ig' 11' The am#litu!e of the current is /e#t constant at 1,- A for all measurements' The measurements are #erforme! at three !ifferent fre+uencies $?',( 1-( an! 1-. /0)% as well as at two !ifferent Iunction tem#eratures TI $4, JC an! 14, JC%' A!c e+uivalent of the on&state voltage versus current is recor!e!' Hsing the circuit of 6ig' 1:' The voltage is measure! at the slow !ecay of the current !uring the freewheeling through D4 ( as shown in 6ig' 4-' 6igs' 41 an! 4. show the results for DevicesA an! C( res#ectively' It is o"serve! that Device C has a significantly lower on&state voltage' 6ig' 4, shows the influence of thetem#erature at the three !ifferent fre+uencies for Device A' 6igs' 4A an!

4? com#are the on&state voltage at the !ifferent fre+uencies $inclu!ing the !c e+uivalent%( at $a% 4, JC an! $"% 14, JC( for Devices A an! C( res#ectively' In or!er to com#are HCE at !ifferent fre+uencies the *&a*is is scale! as the angle of the sinusoi!al current' 6rom the figures( it can "e o"serve! that the on&state voltage is increase! at higher fre+uencies' It is also o"serve! that the higher tem#erature $14, JC% gives a higher on&state voltage(com#are! to the lower tem#erature 4, C 44

'
6ig' 41' Device A( HCE ( Tr1G 4,JC an! Tr4G 14, JC' $a% ?', /0)'

Com#aring the two !evices yiel!s that Device A has a longer time constant for the con!uctivity mo!ulation #rocess com#are! to Device C' It is also shown that for "oth !evices the time constant is increase! at the higher tem#erature' As an e*am#le( the lagging of the con!uctivity mo!ulation is evi!ent in 6ig' 4A$a% when com#aring Tr1 $!c e+v% an! Tr4 $?', /0)%' Before :- $-2:-%( Tr4 shows a higher on&state voltage( while "eyon! :- $:-21D-%( the on&state voltage islower com#are! to Tr1' During the initial :-( the current isincreasing( the time constant of the con!uctivity mo!ulation #revents the !evice to fully saturate' During the latter #art of the con!uction interval( there is an e*cess of charges com#are! to the actual current( which results in a lower on&state voltagecom#are! to the stationary case Tr1 $!c e+v%'

41

6ig' 44' Device A( HCE ( Tr1G !c e+v( Tr4G ?', /0)( Tr1G 1- /0)( an! Tr.G 1-. /0)' $a% TI 4, JC' $"% TI 14, JC'

6rom the analysis of 6igs' 4- an! 41( it a##ears that( for a rising current $diE (t)/dt > 0%( the time nee!e! to fully !evelo# the con!uctivity mo!ulation causes an a!!itional voltage !ro#'In a similar way( for a !ecreasing current $diE (t)/dt < 0%( the voltage !ro# is re!uce! !ue to the e*cess of charges' At the lower fre+uency ?', /0)( these two effects are "alancing an! !o not a!! significantly to the losses' 0owever( at the highest fre+uency 1-. /0)( the increase of the on&state voltage !uring the first #art of the sinusoi!al current is heavily !ominating over the !ecrease !uring the latter #art' As a conse+uence( the #ower loss is significantly higher at the highest fre+uency' 0ence( the measurement #roves the fre+uency !e#en!ency of the on&state losses( referre! to as !ynamic con!uction losses' 4.'

It is also evi!ent( from a com#arison of Devices A an! C( that the fre+uency res#onse is !ifferent among the !evices' The o#erational tem#erature of the chi# also affects the fre+uency res#onse'

C' (esults
The IGBT con!uction losses P have "een !etermine! using $4%' 6ig' 41 shows the resulting losses for the !ifferent test !evices in
Ta"le I'

The losses are #resente!( for each !evice( at two !ifferent fre+uencies ?', an! 1- /0)( an! at two !ifferent tem#eratures 4, C an! 14, C';hen analy)ing 6ig' 4D( it is evi!ent that all !evices havea higher con!uction loss at the higher fre+uency com#are! to the lower one' This is vali! for low tem#erature as well as for high tem#erature' It is also o"serve! that( for all !evices( the loss increase is higher at the higher tem#erature' It is also o"serve! that for some Devices E an! 6( the con!uction losses
have negative tem#erature !e#en!ence' The con!uction losses !ecrease at higher tem#eratures' This is ty#ical for 7T !evices 84.9'

4,

6ig' 44' Device C( UCE ( Tr1G !c e+v( Tr4G ?', /0)( Tr1G 1- /0)( an! Tr.G 1-. /0)' $a% Tj 4, C' $"% Tj 14, C

6ig' 41' IGBT con!uction lossesS 1G ?', /0) 4, JC( 4G 1- /0) 4, JC( 1G ?', /0) 14, JC( an! .G 1/0) 14,JC'

4A

IGBT mo!ules( the stan!ar! !eviation of the losses was 4'?.@( while the stan!ar! !eviation of the loa! current was 1'-@' 0ence( it is the o#inion of the authors that the results of the measurements( on single s#ecimens( #resente! in this #a#er can "e generali)e! to the !ifferent IGBT !esigns' As !iscusse! in Section I5&A( any !ifference in the !elays of the recor!e! signals iE (t) an! uCE(t)( may contri"ute to the total error of the #ower loss calculation' In the actual test setu#( the ma*imum value of the !ifference is estimate! to 1-- ns( which at 1-. /0) corres#on!s to a #hase angle = 1'?' Conse+uently( the contri"ution to the total error may "e estimate! from ) = *cos = *-'::D( which in!icates a contri"ution <-'4@' This is small com#are! to other error sources( such as the accuracies of the #ro"es an! the vertical am#lifiers of the oscillosco#e'

Fig. 2-. IGBT l#))e). Devi!e A/ )#li' line an' Devi!e C/ '# e' line.

4?

5' COBCLHSIOB

Two !ifferent loss #henomena affecting the #erformance of soft&switching converters have "een !emonstrate! "y e*#eriments' The Dynamic tail-charge effect im#lies that at high fre+uencies( the turn&off losses !e#en! not only on the a"solute value of the current at turn off( "ut also on the !ynamics of the current #rior to the turn off( i'e'( the tail charge will not "e e+ual to )ero at a )ero&current turn off' The Dynamic conduction losses !emonstrate the fre+uency !e#en!ency of the con!uction losses when con!ucting a sinusoi!al current' It was foun! that the "est metho! to accurately !etermine the on&state voltage of the IGBT chi# is to measure the voltage at the terminals of the mo!ule an! com#ensate for the voltage !ro# of the stray in!uctance of the mo!ule' The stray in!uctance is i!entifie! "y the use of an oscillating circuit( which is cali"rate! "y a !irect measurement of the on&state voltage on the IGBT chi#' The two loss #henomena are conse+uences of the con!uctivity mo!ulation lag of the IGBT' As this !e#en!s on the actual !esign an! the #ro#erties of the silicon layers( !ifferent IGBTs show !ifferent "ehavior with res#ect to the !emonstrate! effects' The #erforme! e*#eriments clearly in!icate that IGBTs of a mo!ern 7T !esign have the lowest losses in the investigate! series&resonant converters'

4D

AC0NO1LEDG2ENT

The authors woul! li/e to than/ C' Ba/ows/i for sharinghis !ee# /nowle!ge in theory an! !esign of #ower semicon!uctors' They woul! also li/e to than/ T' Linner for his contri"utions to the #ower loss measurements' They woul! also than/ to ' Al Sun!oo/ for "eing of great hel# with the e*#erimental arrangements an! S' Salami for his wor/ on the !ata #ost #rocessing'

4:

E6E EBCES

819 T' T' Song( 0' ;uang( 0' Chung( S' Ta#hui( an! A' Ioinovici( =A highvoltage <5<CS DC&DC converter with low voltage stress(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 41( no' A( ##' 4A1-24A.?( Bov' 4--D' 849 D' 6u( 6' C' Lee( U' Vui( an! 6' ;ang( =A novel high&#ower&!ensity three& level LCC resonant converter with constant&#ower&factor&control for charging a##lications(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 41( no' ,( ##' 4.1124.4-( Se#' 4--D' 819 C' C' Bingham( U' A' Ang( C' 7' 6oster( an! D' A' Stone( =Analysis an! control of !aul&out#ut LCLC resonant converters with significant lea/age in!u/tance(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 41( no' .( ##' 1?4.21?14( ' 4--D' 8.9 T' A' Carr( B' ow!en( an! T' C' Bal!a( =A three&level full&"ri!ge )erocurrent switching converter with a sim#lifie! switching scheme(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 4.( no' 4( ##' 14:211D( 6e"' 4--:' 8,9 W' ;ang( 6' C' Lee( G' 0ua( an! D' BoroIevic( =A com#arative stu!y of switching losses of IGBTs un!er har!&switching( )ero&voltage&switching( an! )ero&current&switching(> in )roc' I+++ )+*C( 1::.( ##' 11:A214-1' 8A9 G' Ivens/y( A' Wats( an! S' Ben&Uaa/ov( = e!ucing IGBT losses in <CS series resonant converters(> I+++ Trans' Ind' +lectron'( vol' .A( no' 1( ##' A?2 ?.( 6e"' 1:::'

8?9 O' De"lec/er( A' Coretti( an! 6' 5alleXe( =Com#arative stu!y of softswitche! isolate! DC&DC converters for au*iliary railway su##ly(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 41( no' ,( ##' 441D2444:( Se#' 4--D' 8D9 D' 5' Go!/e( W' ChatterIee( an! B' G' 6ernan!es( =Three&#hase three level( soft switche!( #hase shifte! 7;C DC&DC converter for high #ower a##lications(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 41( no' 1( ##' 141.2144?( Cay 4--D' 18:9 C'Boarage( S' Tiwari( S' Bhar!waI( an! S'Wotaiah( =Afull&"ri!geDC&DC converter with )ero&voltage&switching over the entire conversion ranges(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 41( no' .( ##' 1?.121?,-( Tul' 4--D'

81-9 ' L' Steigerwal!( =A com#arison of half&"ri!ge resonant converter to#ologies(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 1( no' 4( ##' 1?.21D4( A#r' 1:DD' 8119 A' 6' ;ituls/i an! ' ;' Eric/son( =Stea!y&state analysis of the series resonant converter(> I+++ Trans' -eros ' +lectron' *yst'( vol' AES&41( no' A( ##' ?:12?::( Bov' 1:D,' 8149 T' Wrishnaswami an! B' Cohan( =Three&#ort series&resonant DC&DC convereter to interface renewa"le energy sources with "i!irectional loa! an! energy storage #orts(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 4.( no' 1-( ##' 44D:2 44:?( Oct' 4--:' 8119 A' Bucher( T' Duer"aum( D' Wue"rich( an! C' Schmi!( =Consi!eration of con!uction losses for the series resonant converter "y means of sim#le e*tension to the S7A a##roach(> in )roc' +)+ )+MC .//0( ##' 4..2 4.:' 81.9 C' Ba/ao/a( S' Bgai( U' T' Wim( U' Ogino( an! U' Cura/ami( =The state of the art #hase&shifte! <5S&7;C series an! #arallel resonant converters using internal #arasitic circuit com#onents an! new !igital control(> in )roc' )+*C 111.( ##' A42?81,9 5' 5lat/ovic( C' T' Schutten( an! ' L' Steigerwal!( =Au*iliary sreies resonant converterG A new converter for high&voltage( high&#ower a##lications(> in 7roc' 7ESC 1::A( ##' .:12.::'

81A9 6' Cavalcante an! T' Wolar( =Design of a , /; high out#ut voltage series#arallel resonant DC&DC converter(> in 7roc' 7ESC 4--1( ##' 1D-?2 1D1.' 81?9 7' ansta!( 0'&7' Bee( an! T' Linner( =A novel control strategy a##lie! to the series loa!e! resonant converter(> #resente! at the E7E( Dres!en( Germany( 4--,' 81D9 T' A' Cartin& amos( A' C' 7ernia( T' Dia)( 6' Buno( an! T' A' Cartine)( =7ower su##ly for a high&voltage a##lication(> IEEE Trans' 7ower Electron'( vol' 41( no' .( ##' 1A-D21A1:( Tul' 4--D' 11 81:9 T' Biela( H' Ba!stue"ner( an! T' ;' Wolar( =Design of a ,&/;( 1&H( 1/;3!m1 resonant DC&DC converter for telecom a##lications(> IEEE Trans' 7ower Electron'( vol' 4.( no' ?( ##' 1?-121?1-( Tul' 4--:'

84-9 T'&6' Chen( '&U' Chen( an! T'&T' Liang( =Stu!y an! im#lementation of a single&stage current&fe! "oost 76C converter with <CS for high voltage a##lications(> IEEE Trans' 7ower Electron'( vol' 41( no' 1( ##' 1?:21DA( Tan' 4--D' 8419 T' Uamashita( T' U' Uama!a( S' Hchi!a( 0' Uamaguchi( an! S' Ishi)awa( =A relation "etween !ynamic saturation characteristics an! tail current of non& #unchthrough IGBT(> in 7roc' Conf' ec' 11st IAS Annu' Ceeting( 1::A( ##' 1.4,21.14' 449 T' Uamashita( T' Uama!a( B' SoeIima( 0' Uamaguchi( an! 0' 0aruguchi( =A relation "etween !ynamic saturation characteristics an! tail current of non& #unchthrough IGBTs $II%YEffective switching loss estimation(> in Conf' ec' 14n! IAS Annu' Ceeting( 1::?( ##' 14A?214?4' 8419 A' Elasser( 5' 7arthasarathy( an! D' A Torrey( =A stu!y of the internal !evice !ynamics of #unch&through an! non #unch&through IGBTs un!er )ero&current switching(> IEEE Trans' 7ower Electron'( vol' 14( no' 1( ##' 4121,( Tan' 1::?' 84.9 5' W' Whanna( The Insulate! Gate Bi#olar Transistor $IGBT%G Theory an! Design' 7iscataway( BTG IEEE 7ress( 4--1' ISBB -&.?1&41D.,&?' 84,9 B' T' Baliga( 6un!amentals of 7ower Semicon!uctor Devices' Bew Uor/G S#ringer&5erlag( 4--D' ISBB :?D&-&1D?&.?111&-' 84A9 A' 7etterteig( T' Lo!e( an! T' C' Hn!elan!( =IGBT turn&off losses for har! switching an! with ca#acitive snu""ers(> in 7roc' Conf' ec' 4Ath IAS Annu' Ceeting( 1::1( ##' 1,-121,-?' 84?9 B' Cohan( T' C' Hn!elan!( an! ;' 7' o""ins( 7ower ElectronicsG Converters( A##lications( an! Design' Bew Uor/G ;iley( 1::,' ISBB -&.?1& 1.4-D&,' 84D9 I' ;i!IaIa( A' Wurnia( W' Shenai( an! D' C' Divan( =Switching !ynamics of IGBTEs in soft&switching converters(> IEEE Trans' Electron Devices( vol' .4( no' 1( ##' ..,2.,.( Car' 1::,' 14 84:9 0' 0' Li( A' Wurnia( D' Divan( an! W' Shenai( =0ighZtem#erature turnoff#erformance of IGBTs in resonant converters(> in 7roc' IEEE 7ESC( 1::,( ##' 4,A24,D'

81-9 A' Bhalla( T' Gla!ish( an! G' Dolny( =Effect of IGBT switching !ynamics on loss calculations in high s#ee! a##lications(> IEEE Electron Device Lett'( vol' 4-( no' 1( ##' ,12,1( Tan' 1::-' 8119 S' 6uIita( W' 0' 0ussein( S'Witamura( an! T'Uamaguchi( =Investigation on IGBT high&fre+uency #lasma e*traction transient time oscillation(> IEEE Trans' 7ower Electron'( vol' 4.( no' A( ##' 1,?-21,?A( Tun' 4--:' 8149 S' T' Wong( L'&W' 0gwen!son( C' Sweet( D' Wumar( an! E' C' S' Barayanan( =Turn&off "ehavior of 1'4 /534, A B7T&CIGBT un!er clam#e! in!uctive loa! switching(> IEEE Trans' 7ower Electron'( vol' 4.( no' .( ##' 11--211-A( A#r' 4--:' 8119 T' ';arren( W' A' osows/i( an! D' T' 7erreault( =Transistor selection an! !esign of a 506 DC&DC #ower converter(> IEEE Trans' 7ower Electron'( vol' 41( no' 1( ##' 4?21?( Tan' 4--D' 81.9 6' Wlevelan!( =O#timum utili)ation of #ower semicon!uctors in high#ower high&fre+uency resonant converters for in!uction heating(> 7h'D' thesis( BTBH( Tai#ei( Taiwan( Tun' 4--1' 81,9 W' 6uIii( 7' Woellens"erger( an! ';' De Donc/er( =Characteri)ation an! com#arision of high "loc/ing voltage IGBTs an! IEGTs un!er har!& an! soft& switching con!itions(> IEEE Trans' 7ower Electron'( vol' 41( no' 1( ##' 1?42 1?:( Tan' 4--D' 81A9 A' Elasser( C' T' Schutten( 5' 5lat/ovic( D' A Torrey( an! C' 0'Wheraluwala( =Switching losses of IGBT un!er )ero&voltage an! )erocurrent switching(> in 7roc' 7ESC 1::A( ##' A--2A-?' 81?9 D' B' Berning an! A' ' 0efner( =IGBT mo!el vali!ation for softswitching a##lications(> IEEE Trans' In!' A##l'( vol' 1?( no' 4( ##' A,-2 AA-( Car'3A#r' 4--1' 81D9 S' A))o#ar!i( T'&C' 5inassa( E' ;oirgar!( C' <ar!ini( an! O' Briat( =A systematic har!& an! soft&switching #erformances evaluation of 14-- 5 #unchthrough IGBT structures(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 1:( no' 1( ##' 41124.1( Tan' 4--.' 11 81:9 B'&C' Song an! A ' 0efner( =Switching characteristics of B7T& an! 7TIGBTs un!er )ero&voltage switching con!itions(> in )roc' I+++ )+*C( 1:::( ##' ?442?4D'

8.-9 ' 6rancis an! C' Sol!ano( =A new SC7S non #unch thru IGBT re#lace mosfet in SC7S high fre+uency a##lications(> in )roc' -)+C .//2( 6e"' :211( vol' II( ##' :,12:,?' 8.19 0' 0us/en an! 6' Stuc/ler( =6iel!sto# IGBT with COS&li/e $tailless% turn& off(> in )roc' I+++ I*D*)( A#r' 1.21?( 4--1( ##' 11D21.-' 8.49 0' Ta/ahashi( 0' 0aruguchi( an! T' Uama!a( =Carrier store! trenchgate "i#olar transistor $CSTBT% 2A novel #ower !evice for high voltage a##lication&(> in )roc' I+++ I*D*) 1113( ##' 1.:21,4' 8.19 D';' Green( W' 5' 5ershinin(C' Sweet( an! E'C' S' Barayanan( =Ano!e engineering for the insulate! gate "i#olar transistorYA com#arative review(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 44( no' ,( ##' 1D,?21DAA( Se#' 4--?' 8..9 A' Wurnia( 0' Cherra!i( an! D' C' Divan( =Im#act of IGBT "ehaviour on !esign o#timi)ation of soft switching inverter to#ologies(> I+++ Trans' Ind' - l'( vol' 11( no' 4( ##' 4D-24DA( Car'3A#r' 1::,' 8.,9 6' Wlevelan!( T' C' Hn!elan!( an! T' ogne( =IGBTs an! shott/y !io!es in high #ower high fre+uency a##lications(> #resente! at the E7E 1:::( Lausanne( Swit)erlan!' 8.A9 A' Wurnia( O' 0' Stielau( G' 5en/ataramanan( an! D' C' Divan( =Loss mechanisms In IGBTEs un!er )ero voltage switching(> in )roc' I+++ )+*C( 1::4( ##' 1-1121-1?' .?9 T'&L' Schanen( C' Cartin( D' 6rey( an! '&T' 7asterc)y/( =Im#e!ance criterion for #ower mo!ules com#arison(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 41( no' 1( ##' 1D24A( Tan' 4--A' 8.D9 L' Uang an!;' G' 0' O!en!aal( =Ceasurement&Base! metho! to characteri)e #arasitic #arameters of the integrate! #ower electronics mo!ules(> I+++ Trans' )o,er +lectron'( vol' 44( no' 1( ##' ,.2A4( Tan' 4--?' 1.