TALAT Lecture 3706: Bending and Folding

TALAT Lecture 3706
Bending and Folding

16 pages, 19 figures
Basic Level
prepared by
K. Siegert and S. Wagner, Institut für Umformtechnik, Universität Stuttgart
Objectives:
− to describe the fundamentals of bending and folding aluminium sheet

− to describe different methods in design of folding tools
Prerequisites:
− General background in production engineering and sheet metal forming
− TALAT Lectures 3701, 3702, 3703, 3704, 3705
Date of Issue: 1996

© EAA – European Aluminium Association
3706 Bending and Folding
Table of Contents
3706 Bending and Folding...............................................................................................2

3706.01 The Folding Process.................................................................................... 3
Definition of folding ................................................................................................3
Classification of Folding Processes .........................................................................3
Fields of Application of Folding..............................................................................4
Process Steps during Folding...................................................................................4
Comparison of Fold Geometries for Drawn Parts Made of Steel and Aluminium..5
3706.02 Bending and Springback in the Folding Process ..................................... 6
The Bending Process................................................................................................6
Bending Line Geometries ........................................................................................6
Process of Bending with Counter Pressure ..............................................................7
Springback Angle: Geometric Relationship ............................................................8
Parameters Influencing Springback .........................................................................8
Springback Behaviour as a Function of the Yield Stress.........................................9
Springback as a Function of Pre-straining ...............................................................9
Failure Mechanism during Bending of Aluminium...............................................10
Tearing Behaviour as a Function of Pre-Straining.................................................10
3706.03 Pre-Folding Operation.............................................................................. 11
Bending Forces with Pre-Bending Punches Having Different Surface Forms ......11
Pre-Folding Process for Aluminium ......................................................................12
3706.04 Final Folding Operation ........................................................................... 13
Final Folding Process.............................................................................................13
Variations in Fold Geometry..................................................................................14
Final Geometry of Fold..........................................................................................14
3706.05 Literature/References ............................................................................... 15
3706.06 List of Figures............................................................................................ 16
TALAT 3706 2
3706.01 The Folding Process
Definition of folding
In DIN 8593, part 5, folding is defined as "joining by forming in such a manner that
sheets, which have been prepared at their edges, are laid or inserted in each other, the
edges being then bent over to provide a form locking joint" (Figure 3706.01.01).
Definition of folding
Folding is joining by forming in such a manner

that sheets with prepared edges, are laid or
inserted in each other, the edges then being
bent over to deliver a form locking joint.
Source: DIN 8593
alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Definition of Folding 3706.01.01
Classification of Folding Processes
Two basic types of folding processes are most frequently used (Figure 3706.01.02):
- folding with point contact, e.g. hammer folding, rolling and bordering
- folding with line contact, e.g. toggle lever system, C-frame system and press system.
Classification of folding processes

Two basic types of folding processes are in use
Folding with point contact
• hammer folding
• rolling
• bordering
Folding with line contact
• C-frame system
• Press system
• Toggle lever system
alu

Classification of Folding Processes 3706.01.02
TALAT 3706 3
Fields of Application of Folding
Figure 3706.01.03 lists the classical field of application of folding: in the packaging
industry (e.g. cans and beverage cans), in equipment construction (e.g. for ventilation
canals, in ventilation chutes, for metallic roof planking), household goods industry (e.g.
refrigerators, washing machines), in automobile construction for parts like doors,
bonnets and booth covers and generally for obtaining smooth edges or as edge stiffeners.
Fields of application of folding
Packaging industry - e.g., cans and beverage cans
Equipment construction - eg., ventilation canals,

metallic roof planking
Household goods - e.g., refrigerators, washing machines
Automobile construction - e.g., doors, bonnets
Others: -e.g., obtaining smooth edges,

edge stiffeners
Source: IfU, Stuttgart
alu
Fields of Application of Folding 3706.01.03
Process Steps during Folding
Process steps during folding
A Edge forming
(bending to 90°)
Prefolding edges to 45°

B
(bending to 135°)
Fold closing
C (bending to 180°)
alu
Process Steps during Folding 3706.01.04
Body parts are mostly folded in presses, in which the forming operation is carried out
over the whole rim of the part in two or three steps, unlike the partial round folding of
cans. The principle steps of the operation are shown in Figure 3706.01.04. In the first
step, the edges of the outer radii are bent to 90°. In the second step, the edge is bent
another 45° (bending to 135°, prefolding). In the third step, the fold is press closed
(bending to 180°, finished fold).
TALAT 3706 4
Comparison of Fold Geometries for Drawn Parts Made of Steel and Aluminium
There is a difference in the forming behaviour of aluminium and steel, the former metal
being characterised by
- a lower reduction in cross sectional area at rupture,

- a lower ability to accommodate stress concentrations and
- a lower limit curve in the formability limit diagram (FLD).
Consequently, the experience gained with steel sheets cannot be fully transferred to
aluminium sheets. For example, while folds in steel sheets can be pressed closed, larger
radii bends are required for aluminium alloy sheets. This type of fold is called a "bead
fold" or „rope hem“, see Figure 3706.01.05.
Comparison of fold geometries for drawn parts

made of steel and aluminium
Steel Aluminium
si si
Ra2
Ra1
sa
sa
Ra2 > Ra1
Ra1 = si / 2 + sa
sa : Sheet thickness, outside

sl : Sheet thickness, inside
alu Comparison of Fold Geometries for Drawn Parts

3706.01.05
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies Made of Steel and Aluminium
In summary, steel and aluminium have different forming behaviours which make it
necessary to use different designs for folding tools.
TALAT 3706 5
3706.02 Bending and Springback in the Folding Process
The Bending Process
Folding consists of three bending operations: down-flanging to 90°, bending from 90° to
135° and finally finishing from 135° to 180°. In the standard down-flanging operation
the part is clamped on one side. The punch moves downward (or upward) forming the
flange over a predetermined inner bend radius ri, see Figure 3706.02.01.
The bending process

punch
blankholder
rST
blank
s
ri part support
alu
The Bending Process 3706.02.01
Bending Line Geometries
During bending along a straight bending axis, pure bending stresses occur. In practice,
however, the sheet parts to be folded seldom have a straight contours; curved contours
occur most often, see Figure 3706.02.02. During bending around curved edges, the
bending stress is superposed on tensile and compressive stresses.
The following types of bending line geometries exist:
− Straight bending line: In this case one has a pure bending stress.
− Concave bending line: Here bending stresses occur together with tensile stresses,
which could cause the sheet edges to tear.
− Convex bending lines: The combination of compressive and bending stresses can
lead to formation of wrinkles in the down-flange.
TALAT 3706 6
Effects of bending line geometries
• straight bending line

pure bending stresses
• concave bending line

may cause edge tearing
• convex bending line

may cause folds
alu
Bending Line Geometry 3706.02.02
Process of Bending with Counter Pressure
During bending with counter pressure (e.g. press-brake with bottoming die) the sheet
blank is bent between a punch and a bottoming die, see Figure 3706.02.03. The punch
moves downward, till the sheet blank is completely enclosed between the punch and
bottoming die. This hinders the formation of folds in convex line bending. In general,
the application of the counter pressure reduces the springback and minimises tearing
when bending along a concave line.
Process of bending with counter pressure

("down-flanging")
punch
blankholder
rSt sheet
s ri
support base
counter holder
ri : Inside radius
rSt : Punch radius

s : Sheet thickness
alu
Process of Bending with Counter Pressure 3706.02.03
TALAT 3706 7
Springback Angle: Geometric Relationship
Springback and tearing are important sources of failure during bending operations.
Springback is a result of the elastic-plastic forming behaviour of the material. After
removal of the bending moment which produced a bending angle of α2, the sheet
springs back by an angle of ∆α, see Figure 3706.02.04. Springback can be reduced or
compensated for by the proper use of material and tool technology.
Springback angle: Geometric conditions

S
ri
α1
α2
∆α
α1 Angle after removal of bending moments
∆α Springback angle
α2 Bending angle
S Sheet thickness
ri Bending radius, inside
alu
Training in Alum inium Application Technologies

Springback Angle: Geometric Conditions 3706.02.04
Parameters Influencing Springback
The main parameters influencing springback are listed in Figure 3706.02.05. By

changing the material characteristic values, e.g. increasing the modulus of elasticity and
decreasing the yield stress and strain hardening coefficient, the springback can be
minimised.
Parameters influencing springback
Material characteristic values
modulus of elasticity
yield strength (Rp0.2)
strain hardening coefficient
Geometric ratio ri / S
s: sheet thickness
ri: bending radius, inside
alu

Parameters Influencing Springback 3706.02.05
By proper choice of the geometrical ratio the smallest bending factor ri/s can be
determined for which failure is not encountered and the springback is minimum.
TALAT 3706 8
Springback Behaviour as a Function of the Yield Stress
The example in Figure 3706.02.06 shows the influence of yield stress on the springback
behaviour. For constant sheet thickness (s = 1.25 mm) springback increases with
increasing yield stress and with increasing bending radius .
Springback Behaviour as a Function of Yield Stress

Sheet Thickness: 1.25mm without prestraining
Orientation of bending axis to rolling direction (RD): parallel
5182-0 Mill-finish
7 Rp0,2 = 137 N/mm2
6
6016-T4 EDT
Springback [dgr]
5 Rp0,2 = 127 N/mm2

4 5182-0 Isomill
3 Rp0,2 = 126 N/mm2
2 6016-T4 Isomill-R
Rp0,2 = 113 N/mm2
1
0
1 2 3 4
Bending radius ri -> [mm]
alu

Springback Behaviour as a Function of Yield Stress 3706.02.06
Springback as a Function of Pre-straining
The springback angle of prestrained sheets depends on the degree of prestraining and the
hardening, Figure 3706.02.07. The samples shown here were prestrained to 5 %, 10 %
and 15 % before being bent to radii of 1, 2, 3 and 4 mm.
Springback as a function of prestraining

Material: AlMg0,4Si1,2-ka ; Surface: Mill-finish; Sheet thickness s= 1,25 mm
Bending axis parallel with RD Bending axis square with RD

12 12
Springback angle → [dgr]
Springback angle → [dgr]
Fractures in relation Fractures in relation

10 10
with roughness with roughness
15% 15%
8 8
10% 10%
6 6
5% 5%
4 4
0% 0%
2 2
0 0
1 2 3 4 mm 1 2 3 4 mm
Source: IfU, Stuttgart Bending radius ri → Bending radius ri →
alu

Springback as a Function of Prestraining 3706.02.07
TALAT 3706 9
It is clearly evident here that the springback also depends on the position of the bending
axis with respect to the rolling direction. For the sheets in mill finish condition shown
here, the springback angle is higher when the bending axis is at 90° to the rolling
direction than when it is parallel to the rolling direction.
The increase in springback with 1 mm bending radius and additional prestraining is a

result of the formation of cracks.
Failure Mechanism during Bending of Aluminium
The formation of cracks in the outside fibres subjected to tensile stresses during bending
is considered to be the failure criterion. Akeret describes the failure mechanism during
bending as follows: The start of the bending process is accompanied by a roughening of
the surface (orange peeling) which gets more pronounced as the bending proceeds, thus
forming deeper surface valleys which produce notch effects, thereby initiating cracks
which finally cause failure, see Figure 3706.02.08.
The tearing behaviour is influenced by the material characteristic values, sheet

thickness, bending radius, rolling direction and the surface structure.
Failure mechanism during bending of aluminium

Surface roughening
(orange peeling)
Formation of roughness
"Valleys"
RD, s, r, surface condition Material characteristics
Depth of roughness "valleys"

increases (notch effects)
Cracks, tears from base of the

deepest roughness "valley"
Source: Akeret
alu

Failure Mechanism During Bending of Aluminium 3706.02.08
Tearing Behaviour as a Function of Pre-Straining
Figure 3706.02.09 illustrates the tearing behaviour as a function of the degree of

(uniaxial) prestraining and the inner bending radius. Above the straight line G1, i.e. at
small bend radii and high degrees of prestraining, cracks and tears are encountered.
Thus in parts having undergone larger amounts of deformation prior to bending, larger
bending radii should be chosen. In the region between the straight lines G1 and G2, both
TALAT 3706 10
surface roughening and cracks start to appear. Successful bending operations can be
performed below line G2
Tearing behaviour as a function of prestraining
Alloys:
15 %
AlMg0,4Si1,2-T4
G1
Crack initiation or tears AlMg5Mn-0
G2
10 % Surfaces:
uniaxed prestraining →
Mill-finish
roughness Lasertex
or Isomill
5%
cracks Isomill-D
Good parts Isomill-R
EDT
0% Sheet thickness: 1.25 mm
0 1 2 3 4
Bending radius ri → [mm]
alu

Tearing Behaviour as a Function of Prestraining 3706.02.09
3706.03 Pre-Folding Operation
Bending Forces with Pre-Bending Punches Having Different Surface Forms
During prefolding (bending from 90° to 135°), an effort is made to maintain a constant
radius required for the first bending operation, as explained earlier. The prefolding with
tools having a 45° angle is common for steel sheets but has been found to be unsuitable
for aluminium sheets, since the bending strain will concentrate at the zone of the initial
radius of the down-flange causing this radius to decrease. A solution is illustrated in the
lower part of Figure 3706.03.01.
Figure 3706.03.01 shows the forces acting when different tool angles are used and also
for tools with a curved working surface. It is clear from the figure that a large vertical
force component Fy acting at the beginning of the folding operation causes a
compression and a back-bending moment. Therefore, folding should be started with as
high a horizontal force component Fx as possible. As bending proceeds, the horizontal
force component should decrease, with the vertical force component increasing at the
same time. This procedure can be achieved with a suitable design of the pre-folding
tool.
TALAT 3706 11
Bending forces during tilting
with different tool geometries
45° F = F = const.
35° FX = const. X Y
FY = const.
FX FX < FY FX
FN => high compression
FY FY FN
M+ M+
60° FX = const.
FX
FY = const. FN FN
FX > FY FN FN
FY FN
M+
M+ Start conditions: FX = FN , FY = 0
End conditions: FX = 0 , FY = FN
alu
Bending Forces during Tilting with different tool geometries 3706.03.01
Pre-Folding Process for Aluminium
The pre-folding of aluminium sheets should preferably be carried out using punches
with a curved surface, Figure 3706.03.02, so that the bent sheet part can be rounded as
in the bordering operation. In order to compensate for the springback, the punch is
constructed with an entry angle of β. The angle αv should be 2° to 4°smaller than 45° so
that when the stress on the bending part is removed, an angle of αv + ∆αv, which is
smaller than or equal to 45°, is obtained.
Tilting process
RStv
αV < 45°
β
α + ∆α
Inside sheet
Punch Outside sheet
Part support
rStv
alu
Tilting Process 3706.03.02
TALAT 3706 12
3706.04 Final Folding Operation
Final Folding Process
If the minimum radius set during 90° down-flanging and during pre-folding to 135° is
successfully maintained, then crack-free folds can be obtained in most cases even during
the final folding to 180°.
In order to maintain the bead (rope hem) radius during the final folding operation, the
punch can be designed with an inclined surface with an angle α to the horizontal which
can be varied, depending on the sheet thickness and the minimum allowable inside
bending radius, Figure 3706.04.01.
Final folding process

Punch
α + ∆α
Interior sheet
Exterior sheet
Part support
alu

Final folding process 3706.04.01
In order to ensure that the fold edge, which in most cases is also a visible surface, is free
of surface markings, the final folding operation has to be conducted without any contact
between the tool and the folded edge. Experiments were conducted with an adjustable
stopper for positioning the parts to be folded. The stopper is designed to permit
movement during the forming operation. Experiments with a rigid, motion-free stopper
have shown that during folding along a convex line, the folding edge is heavily
compressed.
The contour line of the inside sheet or the inside part must correspond to the bending
line geometry of the outside part.
TALAT 3706 13
Variations in Fold Geometry
In order to adjust the final folding tool to conform to the geometrical requirements given
by the sheet thickness and the smallest possible bending radius, the angle α of the
folding punch can be varied to suit the final geometry of the fold, see Figure
3706.04.02.
Variation in fold geometry
Upper die
α'
α
Interior sheet
R'
R
Exterior sheet
alu

Variation in Fold Geometry 3706.04.02
Final Geometry of Fold
The final geometry of the fold is usually defined as a function of the sheet thickness sa
of the outer sheet metal part. The minimum radii which can be obtained during folding
are important points to consider, see Figure 3706.04.03.
Final geometry of fold
f: Flanged part pressed flat

l: Ending of radial part
l f Ra1, Ra2: Exterior radius at fold end
α: Fold flange angle of inclination
h: Fold height
α Ra2
si: Interior sheet thickness
sa: Exterior sheet thickness
h si
sa
Ra1
alu
Final Geometry of Fold 3706.04.03
TALAT 3706 14
Figure 3706.04.03 illustrates that the outside radii of the fold edge (Ra1, Ra2) of a bead
fold can be varied. These radii depend on the inside bending radius ri used for the 90°
bending as well as on the geometry or angle α of the final folding punch.
3706.05 Literature/References
[1] Siegert, K.: "Vergleich zwischen Karosserieblechen aus Aluminium und aus
Stahl". ALUMINIUM 59(1983), p. 363-366; p. 438-442
[2] Ostermann F.: "Aluminium-Werkstofftechnik für den Automobilbau". Vol. 375,

Expert Verlag
[3] Schaub, W.: "Untersuchung der Verfahrensgrenzen bei 180°-Biegen von Fein-
und Mittelblechen". Reports of the Institut für Umformtechnik No. 52, University
of Stuttgart. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer 1980
[4] Wolff, N. P.: Interrelation between part and die design for aluminum auto body
panels. SAE paper 780392.
[5] Minimising the weight and cost of an aluminum deck lid. SAE paper 810783.
[6] Siegert, K.: "Umformen von Aluminiumblechen im Karosseriebau". In

Symposium band "Blechbearbeitung Technologie der Zukunft", Deutsche
Forschungsgesellschaft für Blechverarbeitung 1989.
[7] Akeret, R.: "Versagensmechanismen beim Biegen von Aluminium und

Grenzender Biegbarkeit". ALUMINIUM 54 (1978), p. 117-123
[8] Akeret, R.: "Versagen von Aluminium bei der Umformung infolge lokalisierter
Schiebezonen". ALUMINIUM 54 (1978), p. 193-198.
[9] Akeret, R.; Rodriques, P.M.B.: "Metallkundliche Probleme der Umformbarkeit

von Aluminiumwerkstoffen". In Lange, K. (ed.): Grundlagen Technologie
Werkstoffe. Oberursel: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Metallkunde (DGM) 1983.
[10] Rodrigues, P.M.B.; Akeret, R.: "Surface roughening and strain inhogogenities in
Aluminium sheet forming". Proc. 12th Conf. IDDRG; S. Margherita. Ligure 1982.
TALAT 3706 15
3706.06 List of Figures
Figure No. Figure Title (Overhead)

3706.01.01 Definition of Folding
3706.01.02 Classification of Folding Processes
3706.01.03 Fields of Application of Folding
3706.01.04 Process Steps during Folding
3706.01.05 Comparison of Fold eometries for Drawn Parts Made of Steel and
Aluminium
3706.02.01 The Bending Process

3706.02.02 Bending Line Geometry
3706.02.03 Process of Bending with Counter Pressure
3706.02.04 Springback Angle: Geometric Conditions
3706.02.05 Parameters Influencing Springback
3706.02.06 Springback Behaviour as a Function of Yield Stress
3706.02.07 Springback as a Function of Prestraining
3706.02.08 Failure Mechanism during Bending of Aluminium
3706.02.09 Tearing Behaviour as a Function of Prestraining
3706.03.01 Bending Forces during Tilting with Different Tool Geometries

3706.03.02 Tilting Process
3706.04.01 Final Folding Process

3706.04.02 Variation in Fold Geometry
3706.04.03 Final Geometry of Fold
TALAT 3706 16

TALAT Lecture 3706: Bending and Folding

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TALAT Lecture 3706

Bending and Folding

− to describe the fundamentals of bending and folding aluminium sheet

Date of Issue: 1996

3706 Bending and Folding...............................................................................................2

Folding is joining by forming in such a manner

Source: DIN 8593

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Classification of Folding Processes

Classification of folding processes

Folding with point contact

Folding with line contact

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Fields of application of folding

Packaging industry - e.g., cans and beverage cans

Equipment construction - eg., ventilation canals,

Automobile construction - e.g., doors, bonnets

Others: -e.g., obtaining smooth edges,

Source: IfU, Stuttgart

Process Steps during Folding

Process steps during folding

Prefolding edges to 45°

- a lower reduction in cross sectional area at rupture,

Comparison of fold geometries for drawn parts

sa : Sheet thickness, outside

alu Comparison of Fold Geometries for Drawn Parts

The Bending Process

The bending process

Source: IfU, Stuttgart

Bending Line Geometries

The following types of bending line geometries exist:

• straight bending line

• concave bending line

• convex bending line

Source: IfU, Stuttgart

Process of Bending with Counter Pressure

Process of bending with counter pressure

rSt : Punch radius

Source: IfU, Stuttgart

Springback angle: Geometric conditions

Training in Alum inium Application Technologies

Parameters Influencing Springback

The main parameters influencing springback are listed in Figure 3706.02.05. By

Parameters influencing springback

Material characteristic values

Source: IfU, Stuttgart

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Springback Behaviour as a Function of Yield Stress

5 Rp0,2 = 127 N/mm2

Source: IfU, Stuttgart

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Springback as a Function of Pre-straining

Springback as a function of prestraining

Bending axis parallel with RD Bending axis square with RD

Fractures in relation Fractures in relation

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

The increase in springback with 1 mm bending radius and additional prestraining is a

Failure Mechanism during Bending of Aluminium

The tearing behaviour is influenced by the material characteristic values, sheet

Failure mechanism during bending of aluminium

RD, s, r, surface condition Material characteristics

Depth of roughness "valleys"

Cracks, tears from base of the

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies