LV06 - Engines - Issue 1

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6/9/03
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Page 11
Student Workbook
LV06 Engines (1)
LV06/SWB
Student Workbook for Technical Certificates in Light Vehicle Maintenance and Repair
MODULE LV06 ENGINES
Contents
Page
The Internal Combustion Engine: Petrol engines Inlet valve Exhaust valve Spark plug Piston Crankshaft Flywheel Progress check 1 Engine Design (Petrol): N. A. Otto Basic Four Stroke Cycle: Induction stroke Compression stroke Power stroke Exhaust stroke Summary Progress check 2 Compression Ratio: Calculating compression ratio Engine Design (Diesel): Rudolf Diesel The diesel engine Four stroke cycle Summary Progress check 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 12 12 14 14 14 15 16 17 ... Engine Design Two Stoke (Petrol): Induction/exhaust Ignition/power Progress check 4 Direct injection technology Engine Design Two Stroke (Diesel): Direct engine technology The two stroke diesel engine Operation of the two-stroke diesel engine Summary Progress check 5 Engine Design Rotary Engines: The Wankel engine Operation of the rotary (Wankel engine) Terminology Eccentric shaft Induction Compression Power Exhaust Summary Progress check 6 .Page 18 19 19 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 23 24 24 24 26 27 28 28 29 29 30 31
(Cont.)
-1Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Right Reserved LV06: Engines (1) Issue 1
Page
Internal Components: Valves Overhead valve layout Overhead camshaft layout Twin overhead camshafts Valve train operation Chain drive Gear drive Belt drive Scissor gear Valve timing Inlet valve timing Exhaust valve timing Timing by crank angle Valve overlap Tappet clearance Setting valve timing Timing marks Multiple valves per cylinder Increasing the cross-sectional area of the cylinder Multi-valve combustion chambers Fitting a turbo-charger Progress check 7 Types of Engine Configuration: Air-cooled engine Vee V-type engine configuration Square-four engine configuration Some less familiar cylinder arrangements Comparison between single and multi-cylinder engine Single cylinder engine Two-cylinder engine Four-stroke Inline Engine: Combustion chambers Wedge type Bath tub type Penthouse roof Cylinder block Cylinder head 32 32 32 33 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 37 38 39 39 40 41 42 43 43 44 45 46 47 47 48 48 49 49 49 49 50 50 51 51 52 53 53
...
Cylinder head tightening Gaskets Cylinder head gasket Piston construction Parts of a piston Piston shape Piston rings Compression rings Oil control rings Piston pins (gudgeon pins) Connecting rod Crankshaft Crankshaft oil seal (lip seal) Crankshaft bearings Flywheel Diesel Engines: Types of diesel engine combustion chambers Direct injection Pre-combustion chamber Swirl chamber Cylinder block Cylinder head Piston Type of Valve Gear Drive: Gear type Timing belt Progress check 8
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54 55 55 56 56 57 57 58 58 59 60 60 61 61 62 63 63 64 64 65 66 67 67 68 68 69 71
The internal combustion engine

Petrol engines Engines consist usually of 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 or more cylinders (there are exceptions e.g. 5 cylinder engines). Engines may be arranged in a straight line, flat or vee configuration. Before explaining the principles of operation of the four-stroke engine some of the main parts must be identified.
Inlet valve Opens at the correct time to allow the air/fuel mixture into the cylinder.
Exhaust valve Opens at the correct time to allow the burnt exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
Spark plug Ignites the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder, which creates rapid burning producing tremendous pressure in the cylinder and this pressure is transferred to the piston.
Piston The piston travels up and down the cylinder. The pressure on the piston is then transferred to the crankshaft. A gas tight seal is formed between the piston and cylinder bore by using piston rings.
Crankshaft The pressure on the piston is transferred to the crankshaft via the connecting rod, which converts the reciprocating action of the piston to rotary motion of the crankshaft, which turns the attached flywheel.
Flywheel Stores energy to keep the engine running during non-power strokes.
Progress check 1
Complete the following: Engine components The exercise should be carried out in the workshop. You will need to rotate a partly dismantled engine and note how the components work and the function of each component.
Component
1 Spark plug
Function
Ignites the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder
2 Inlet valve
Opens at the correct time to allow the burnt exhaust gases out of the cylinder
4 Piston
A gas tight seal is formed between the piston and the cylinder bore
The pressure on the piston is transferred to the crankshaft
7 Crankshaft
Stores energy to keep the engine running during nonpower strokes.
Engine Design (Petrol):

N.A. Otto
Nicolaus August Otto invented the four stroke cycle. He was born on 14 June 1832 in Holzhausen (Germany) and died in Cologne on 26 January 1891 aged 59. Otto began his first experiments with four-stroke engines and in 1864 together with Eugen Langen, founded the first engine company N.A Otto and Cie. He was elected to the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1996. The basic operating principles of the four-stroke engine have therefore been around for more than 100 years. Rest assured that under all those sensors and electronics the same basic principles of engine operation still exist.
Basic Four Stroke Cycle

The spark ignition 4-stroke cycle engine requires 4 basic operations
The induction stroke
On the induction stroke, the inlet valve opens and the piston, moving down, creates a depression, (this is a pressure which is less than atmospheric pressure) a mixture of air/fuel which has become vaporised is pushed into the cylinder via the open inlet valve by atmospheric pressure (a high pressure always flows to a low pressure trying to make pressure equal again).
The compression stroke
When the piston reaches its lowest limit of travel it then moves upwards, as this happens the inlet valve closes. The exhaust valve remains closed so the cylinder is sealed and nothing can get in or out. As the piston moves upward the air/fuel mixture (a gas) is compressed to about one tenth its original volume. Thus the compression of the mixture increases the pressure and temperature in the cylinder. Note: Put your thumb over a bicycle pump outlet and try to push your thumb off the outlet using air pressure, work the pump fast. Did you feel the temperature rise?
The power stroke
As the piston reaches the top of its travel on the compression stroke, a spark from the spark plug ignites the mixture, the mixture burns very rapidly and the cylinder pressure increases to approximately 40 times atmospheric pressure. All of this pressure against the piston forces it down the cylinder. The power is transmitted through the connecting rod to the crankshaft, which is rotated due to the force acting on it.
The exhaust stroke
As the piston reaches the bottom of its travel (stroke) the exhaust valve opens and the expanding gas escapes to the atmosphere via the exhaust valve port. The piston then starts to move up the cylinder forcing the remaining burnt gases out through the exhaust valve port. When the piston reaches the top of its travel, the exhaust valve closes and the inlet valve opens again. The four strokes continue to repeat during engine operation.
Summary
Induction stroke
Compression stroke
Power stroke
Exhaust stroke
Progress check 2
Answer the following questions: 1. Complete the table below Website: http://www.howstuffworks.com/index.htm or: http://www.google.com (select engines and how car engines work)
Stroke Induction
Piston Travel Down
Intake Valve Intake air/fuel is drawn into the cylinder Open
Exhaust Valve Close
Compression Power Exhaust
The crankshaft rotates twice to complete the four cycles, but the camshaft, which operates the valves only rotates once, therefore the camshaft rotates at half engine speed (a 2:1 ratio).
2. When the spark plug ignites the new mixture that has entered the cylinder which component is the energy transferred to?
a) piston b) piston rings c) exhaust valve d) inlet valve.
- 10 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Right Reserved LV06: Engines (1) Issue 1
3. Fill in the gaps from the list of missing words. piston power opens up Inlet valve compressed vaporised rotated upwards temperature ignites bottom compression open increases closes top exhaust Four-strokes pressure Exhaust valve
The induction stroke On the induction stroke, the inlet valve ____________ and the ____________ moving down, creates a depression, (this is a pressure which is less than atmospheric pressure) mixture of air/fuel, which has become ____________ is being pushed into the cylinder via the open ____________ by atmospheric pressure (a high pressure always flows to a low pressure trying to make pressure equal again). The compression stroke When the piston reaches its lowest limit of travel it then moves ____________ as this happens the inlet valve ____________The exhaust valve remains closed, so the cylinder is sealed, nothing can get out or in. As the piston moves upward the air/fuel mixture (a gas) is ____________ to about one tenth its original volume. Thus the compression of the mixture increases the ____________ and ____________ in the cylinder. The power stroke As the piston reaches the ____________ of its travel on the ____________stroke, a spark from the spark plug ____________ the mixture, the mixture burns very rapidly and the cylinder pressure ____________ to approximately 40 times atmospheric pressure. All of this pressure acting against the piston forces it down the cylinder. The ____________ is transmitted through the connecting rod to the crankshaft, which is ____________due to the force acting on it.
The exhaust stroke As the piston reaches the ____________of its travel (stroke) the ____________ valve opens, the expanding gas escapes to atmosphere via the exhaust valve port, the piston then starts to move ____________ the cylinder forcing the remaining burnt gases out through the exhaust valve port, when the piston reaches the top of its travel the ____________ closes and the inlet valve opens again, the ____________ continue to repeat during engine operation.
Compression ratio
The compression ratio is important for engine performance and efficiency, the higher the compression ratio the more thermal efficient the engine is. The type of fuel used is the limiting factor with regard to a workable compression ratio. If the compression ratio is too high, the heat caused by compression of the air/fuel mixture will actually cause it to ignite without a spark, this is known as pre-ignition (when air is compressed it heats up, this concept is used to make diesel engines run). The petrol that is sold from petrol stations has limits on the compression ratios it can cope with, this is usually about 10:1, the higher the octane rating of fuel the higher the compression ratios, about 13:1 in the very best case. If alcohol is used, then the compression ratio can be raised to about 15:1. Diesel engines have a compression ratio of 16:1 to about 23:1. Calculating compression ratio
The compression ratio is influenced by: the size of the engine cylinder: i.e.. the swept volume of the piston as it moves from b.d.c to t.d.c. The capacity of the cylinder and the volume of the combustion chamber are combined to give the total volume of the cylinder.
Example:
V1 + V2 V1
32 cc + 315 cc 32 cc Compression Ratio = 10.8 : 1
Engine Design (Diesel)

Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Diesel 1853 - 1913
Rudolf Diesel was born in Paris and was the son of an Augsburg craftsman. Diesel was surrounded by poverty almost all his life. He patented the cycle of operation (four-strokes) of the compression ignition engine in 1892/1893, although it was 1897 before he got one working. He spent the rest of his life introducing his invention to the world. Diesel had many problems with manufacturing, licensing and financial stability. Once the engine had been proven, he was a rich man becoming a millionaire in 1898 from the sale of the rights to his engine. His invention is widely used today in all types of transport and manufacturing.
The diesel engine
Four stroke cycle There is a close resemblance between the operation of the four-stroke petrol engine and the four-stroke diesel engine. In the diesel engine, the fuel is not mixed with the air entering the cylinder during the inlet stroke. Only air is compressed during the compression stroke and at the end of the compression stroke fuel is injected (sprayed) into the cylinder. Since compression pressures can be as high as 23:1 and provide cylinder pressures in the region of 35 atmospheres at the end of the compression stroke, compressing the air causes a temperature rise in the cylinder to about 600 C. The temperature is high enough to ignite the diesel fuel spontaneously as it is injected into the cylinder. The high pressure of this very rapid burning process, not unlike an explosion, causes the piston to move down the cylinder the same as the piston did in the petrol engine.
Cylinder pressure = approximately 30kg/cm2 and the temperature is about 500/800C.
Summary The four strokes of the internal combustion engine are inlet (intake), compression, power (combustion) and exhaust. The four strokes require two revolutions of the crankshaft 720 degrees of rotation. How many revolutions would an eight-cylinder engine require to complete its four strokes? It only takes two revolutions of the crankshaft and one revolution of the camshaft to fire all cylinders of any four-stroke engine. The connecting rod converts the up and down movement of the piston (reciprocating motion) into the rotating motion of the crankshaft. The diesel engine differs from the petrol engine in that only air enters the cylinder during the induction stroke. The fuel is injected into the cylinder only at the end of the compression stroke. The fuel spray ignites spontaneously without the use of a spark plug, due to the high temperature of the compressed air in the cylinder. As mentioned earlier, the diesel engine operating cycle is very similar to the operating cycle of the petrol engine, but there are some notable differences.
Progress check 3
Answer the following questions 1. Write in the spaces, the comparable differences between the two engine cycles of a petrol and diesel engine Spark Ignition (Petrol) Power and speed are controlled by varying the quantity of fuel and air entering the cylinder Due to high pressures and vibration heavier components are used Fuel vaporises readily in the atmosphere, therefore is more volatile Compression ratios are 16:1 or more A spark plug is used to ignite the fuel Only air enters the cylinder 2. On a four-stroke engine, during the compression phase, which statement is correct?

Compression Ignition (Diesel)
Pressure will increase but temperature will remain constant. Pressure and temperature will remain constant. Pressure will remain constant but temperature will increase. Pressure and temperature will increase in the cylinder.
3. How many revolutions will the camshaft do if the crankshaft rotates 80 times?

100 160 80 40
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Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Right Reserved
LV06: Engines (1) Issue 1
Engine Design Two Stroke (Petrol)

Operation of the two-stroke petrol engine
Compression Exhaust leaving the cylinder Inlet port closed
Crankcase induction
Transfer of air/fuel mixture into the cylinder
The two-stroke engine was developed by a Scotsman whose name was Dugald Clerk. It had two cylinders and pistons which forced the fresh mixture into the working cylinder. Later Joseph Day modified Clerks engine by using space in the crankcase, thus removing the need for a second cylinder. The two stroke engine is much simpler that the four-stroke in that it has fewer moving parts, there are no valves or camshafts, lubrication is achieved by mixing oil with the petrol. The complete cycle of operation is carried out in only two-strokes of the piston, which means that some elements of phases of operation must be carried out simultaneously. It has always been considered a disadvantage that the four-stroke has three idle strokes between working strokes, thus the need for a heavier flywheel. A common misunderstanding is that the two-stroke develops twice the power of a four-stroke, but this is not the case due to lower efficiency caused by mixing new gas with burnt gas which causes some loss of fresh mixture entering the cylinder. This cannot be avoided due to the design features of the engine causing poor scavenging of the burnt exhaust gas.
Induction/exhaust The piston moves down the cylinder and uncovers both the transfer port and exhaust ports. The downward force of the piston on the gas underneath it increases the pressure on the fuel/air/oil mixture in the crankcase. Oil mist clings to the moving parts to lubricate them while the fuel/air mixture is being pumped from the crankcase via the transfer port into the combustion chamber. The air/fuel/oil mixture is then compressed as the piston moves up the cylinder. As the piston moves up the cylinder it creates a depression in the crankcase, the volume of the crankcase increases, therefore fuel/air/oil mixture enters the crankcase ready for the piston uncovering the transfer port. On some engines there is a valve fitted between the carburettor and the crankcase, which stops the tendency for some of the fuel/air mixture to blow back through the carburettor where the fuel and air mix.
Power
Exhaust
Crankcase induction A inlet port B exhaust port C transfer port
Crankcase compression
Ignition/power Both the inlet and exhaust ports are closed, the pressure of the burning expanding gases forces the piston down the cylinder. The pressure in the crankcase rises and during the down-stroke the piston uncovers the exhaust port allowing the burnt gases to escape. As this happens the transfer port is uncovered, fuel/air/oil mixture rises into the combustion cylinder and the process starts all over again.
Progress check 4
Answer the following questions:
1. One complete cycle is completed in __________degrees of crankshaft rotation.
2. The crankcase is sealed in order to _______________________________
3. Advantages of a two-stroke engine over the four-stoke are: a) ______________________________________________________
b)_______________________________________________________
c)_______________________________________________________
4. A four cylinder four stroke engine has a firing order of 1,3,4,2 firing. If the piston in number 2 cylinder is at TDC on the firing stroke. In which position is the piston in number 1 cylinder?
(a) T.D.C on the induction stroke (b) B.D.C on the firing stroke (c) T.D.C on the compression stroke (d) B.D.C on the compression stroke.
Engine Design Two Stroke (Diesel)

Direct injection technology The SR DITECH is the worlds first scooter to feature a revolutionary direct electronic injection engine. Unlike traditional two-stroke engines, petrol/air/oil mixture no longer takes place within the crankcase. Petrol/air mixture is injected directly into the combustion chamber electronically. The special fuel injector mixes petrol and air from a compressor and then injects it into the combustion chamber. By keeping the oil separate and in a reservoir (the oil is pressure fed and is undiluted by fuel providing optimum lubrication), which is used for lubrication alone, pollution is therefore reduced by 80% with respect to a traditional 50cc engine. Topping up is only necessary at approximately 4,500 km. The two-stroke diesel engine
Exhaust valves Injector Supercharger (blower)
Inlet ports
Air intake
Air box
Air box
The two-stroke diesel engine compresses air only, it then injects the fuel directly into the compressed air. In the petrol engine two-stroke there is loss of fuel to the exhaust when both ports are open, but in the diesel this does not apply, all the fuel is burnt in the combustion chamber.
Operation of the two-stroke diesel engine Two or four exhaust valves may be found at the top of the cylinder (some engines have used ports instead of valves, e.g. Tilling Stevens TS3), which are designed to open simultaneously. The piston is designed similarly to the petrol two-stroke engine in that it is elongated so that it can act as the inlet valve. At the bottom of the piston stroke it uncovers the air intake ports, the intake air is pressurised by a turbocharger or supercharger. When the piston is at the top of its travel in the cylinder the air is compressed within the combustion chamber, fuel is then injected (sprayed) into the compressed air, which reaches a temperature of about 650C. Fuel having a self-ignition temperature of about 400C ignites. This is the same combustion process as the four-stroke diesel engine. The pressure created by the burning of the fuel, drives the piston down the cylinder. This is the power stroke. When the piston nears the bottom of its stroke the exhaust valves open allowing the exhaust gas to rush out of the cylinder. When the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke it uncovers the air intake ports. Pressurised air from the turbocharger, or supercharger (whichever is used) forces out the remainder of the exhaust gases, this is known as scavenging. The exhaust valves close and the piston starts to rise up the cylinder, covering the intake ports and compressing the fresh charge of air. This is the compression stroke. The cycle repeats itself. Note: Turbochargers and superchargers are a type of forced induction system which compress the air going into the cylinder. Squeezing more air into the cylinder makes it possible to add more fuel, therefore more power is developed. The turbocharger is driven by the exhaust gas and the supercharger is driven by belt or shaft directly from the engine. Summary In the two-stroke diesel engine only air fills the cylinder, whereas in the petrol engine, air and fuel are mixed together before entering the cylinder or are mixed in the cylinder (direct fuel injection). The diesel engine does not suffer the environmental problems that the twostroke petrol engine does. The two-stroke diesel engine must be fitted with a turbocharger or a supercharger, making it more expensive.
Progress check 5
1.
Complete the following sentences:
Heat to ignite the fuel in a diesel engine is produced by ____________
The combustion chamber in a diesel engine is ___________ because a _______ is required.
The two-stroke petrol engine has a high loss of mixture through the ______________________ but the two-stroke diesel does not suffer this disadvantage because __________________________________________
In the two stroke diesel engine the fresh charge of air is delivered by the use of a _____________________________________________
2.
What is the turbo charger driven by?

the intake air drive belt drive gear the exhaust gases
Engine Design Rotary Engines:

The Wankel engine
Felix Wankel 1902 - 1988
Felix Wankel conceived the idea of a rotary engine in 1924 and attempted a patent in 1926. Prior to 1910, two thousand patents for rotary engines were filed. There were also designs of rotary engines by Hornblower, Murdoch, Bramah, Flint, Poole, Wright, Marriot and Trotter and at least a dozen others. To satisfy the criteria requirements for a rotary engine, every moving part must rotate including the timing mechanism.
Operation of the rotary (Wankel engine) The reverse rotary engine
An alternative earlier design of rotary engine. The engine consists of a rotor, which is free to rotate in an oval chamber of a special shape, which is known as a epitrochoidal.
In the centre of the epitrochoidal housing is an eccentric cam. The three edged rotor turns around the eccentric cam on ball or roller bearings. There are three chambers, these chambers are made gas tight by the use of seals at each apex, which are in continuous contact with the bore at all times. In every three revolutions of the shaft the rotor rotates once.
A typical rotary engine
Terminology Rotor: The rotor is somewhat triangular in shape and is roughly equivalent to a piston in a conventional engine.
Apex
Rotor
Eccentric shaft and gear
Spark plug
Epitrochoidal shaped rotor
Apex: Each rotor has three apices, which are the points of the rotor.
Eccentric shaft The rotors drive the eccentric shaft, which is the equivalent of the crankshaft in a piston engine.
A single element is equivalent to a single cylinder two-stroke engine. If two elements are used then the engine would be the equivalent of a four cylinder four-stroke engine, this engine would be referred to as a two rotor or twin rotor engine. The Wankel engine has 48% fewer parts, which is about a third of the bulk weight of a reciprocating engine. Higher engine speeds are possible due to rotating motion rather than reciprocating motion, but this advantage is offset by the fact that there is a lack of torque at low speeds, which accounts for a greater fuel consumption. The high surface area heat contact during combustion demands extensive water-cooling.
Induction
The intake ports are uncovered by the rotor, at which time, the chamber opening to the port will be increasing volume. Rotation is anti-clockwise (looking from the flywheel end of the engine).
Compression
The rotor is moving in its housing so that the volume of its closed chamber is decreased.
Power
The expanding gas forces the rotor in a direction that expands the chamber containing the burning gases and in the process rotates the eccentric shaft.
Exhaust
The leading apex of the combustion chamber uncovers the exhaust port in the rotor housing through which the burnt gas is discharged.
Summary
Fresh air/fuel mixture is being induced into chamber A, from the inlet port. Chamber B is decreasing in size and is approaching the end of the compression stroke. Chamber C is at the beginning of the exhaust stroke, and this chamber is just opening to the exhaust port.
Progress check 6
Answer the following questions
1.
Sketch the position of the rotor when on the power stroke. State what is happening in the other two chambers.
2.
In comparison to a reciprocating engine a Wankel engine has: a) more engine parts b) less engine parts c) the same d) the design of both engine types is the same.
Internal Components
Valves
Valves are the greatest restriction in the intake system, by increasing the number of valves per cylinder intake flow can be increased. Because the cylinder is round in shape the combustion chamber has a limited space to put the valves. By increasing the number of valves more opening area is achieved, which reduces the restriction.
Overhead valve layout
Valves are arranged in a straight line above the cylinders. The valves are operated by push rods from a camshaft in the crankcase. The main disadvantages of this system compared to the overhead camshaft system is: more moving parts leading to increased wear expansion and contraction of the push rods, cylinder head and block affects the valve clearance.
Overhead camshaft layout
the overhead camshaft layout is very popular, it has less moving parts than the push rod operated valve system the overhead camshaft arrangement lends itself readily to multi-valve arrangements.
An alternative is the direct acting camshaft arrangement as shown above.
Twin overhead camshafts
In this arrangement multi-valves can easily be accommodated.
Valve train operation
Chain drive If the crankshaft and the camshaft are close together a short chain can be used to connect the crankshaft sprocket to the camshaft sprocket. The camshaft sprocket is twice the size of the crankshaft sprocket and this provides a 2:1 gear ratio (the camshaft rotates at half the engine speed). Compensation for wear is achieved by using a chain tensioner, this is usually automatically adjusted by spring or oil pressure. The tensioner is fitted on the slack side of the chain.
When chains are used to carry the drive up to the cylinder head from the crankshaft a more complex arrangement is used to prevent chain flutter or noise. Manufacturers take into consideration the length of the chain, the thermal expansion of the cylinder block and the cylinder head.
Gear drive
When the crankshaft is fitted close to the camshaft a gear drive can be used. If there is a lot of distance between the two shafts, the gear train would include an idler gear to cover the increased distance between the gears. To reduce noise helical gears are used.
Belt drive
G Type F Type
Overhead camshafts are normally driven by a belt. There are teeth on the inside of the belt which run completely around the belt. The teeth ensure correct valve timing is maintained (no slip). In the F Type the intake camshaft is rotated by the exhaust camshaft gear.
Scissor gear
A scissor gear (sub-gear) is fitted, which eliminates any tooth chatter (the gear is spring loaded which takes up clearance in between the gear teeth). The main advantage of the belt drive is that it is much cheaper than the chain or gear type. It requires no lubrication and is an efficient way of driving a camshaft that is mounted a good distance from the crankshaft. Maintenance is simple, the belt can be removed easily to enable the removal of the cylinder head. The main disadvantage is the life of the belt. It needs to be changed more frequently than the chain or gear and does not warn of an impending failure, it silently fails. Although these belts are made of rubber reinforced by fibreglass to make breakages rare, when they fail a great deal of damage can be caused to the engine, if for example the piston strikes an open valve. Whenever a chain belt or gear is removed the valve timing must be reset. Valve timing To obtain the maximum power output it is necessary to fill the cylinder with as much fuel/air mixture as possible. It is also necessary to remove as much of the exhaust gas as possible. Incorrect valve timing causes uneven idling and a loss of engine power. If the timing belt or chain became worn the valve timing would be retarded. Inlet valve timing At the beginning of the four-stroke cycle, the inlet valve starts to open just before top dead centre, this is to ensure that it is fully open early in the induction stroke. This ensures the incoming fuel/air mixture keeps up with the piston as it moves down the cylinder and the result is a better filling of the cylinder.
The degree of early opening 6 - 10 degrees depends upon the type of engine and normal cruising required. To take full advantage of the speed of flow of the incoming fuel/air mixture the inlet valve is kept open after bottom dead centre. Late closing allows time for the inertia of the fast column of gas in the induction manifold to help the mixture to push its way into the cylinder, although the piston has started to move a little up the cylinder again on the compression stroke. A closing angle of between 40 and 50 is common. This system of early opening and late closing of the inlet valve ensures the highest possible volumetric efficiency (see multiple valves and turbo charging). Exhaust valve timing The exhaust valve opens before bottom dead centre - early opening, this allows the burnt gas pressure in the cylinder to fall to nearly atmospheric pressure by escaping past the open valve. This occurs before the piston starts to move up the cylinder. Early opening of the exhaust valve prevents 'back pressure' on the piston during the exhaust stroke when it pushes the burnt gas out of the cylinder. The exhaust valve closes just after top dead centre - late closing. Keeping the exhaust valve open later allows the exhaust gas to rush out of the cylinder at very high speed, the movement of the gas continues after the piston has stopped moving up the cylinder, this creates a scavenging affect and clears the combustion chamber of remaining gas.
Timing by crank angle The amount of early opening or late closing of the valves is measured by the position of the crankshaft. When it is stated that the inlet valve opens 6 - 10 degrees before top dead centre and closes 40 - 50 degrees after top dead centre, it means that the valve begins to open when the crankshaft is 6 - 10 degrees before top dead centre and closes when the crankshaft is 40 - 50 degrees past bottom dead centre.
Valve overlap
Valve inserts
Valve seat
Inlet and exhaust valve slightly open at the same time
Cylinder head gasket
The fact that the inlet valve opens early and the exhaust valve closes late means that both valves are open together, this is known as valve overlap. With proper timing the incoming new mixture does not have time to leave the cylinder through the exhaust port before the exhaust valve closes. The new incoming mixture helps push out the old burnt gases, and a depression is created due to the outgoing exhaust gas, which helps start filling the cylinder.
Tappet clearance
Tappet clearance is important with regard to valve timing and must be carefully adjusted to manufacturers recommended settings. The effect of too little clearance is that the valve will open too early and close later than intended, while too much clearance will cause the valve to open late and close early. Incorrect tappet clearance on one cylinder or more cylinders will cause the valve timing to vary between different cylinders. Less than the recommended clearance will cause valves and their seating to burn, more than the recommended clearance will cause noisy running and lack of power.
Cam Feeler gauge
Setting valve timing
Valve timing can be set at inlet valve opening, inlet valve closing, exhaust valve opening or exhaust valve closing. In practice the inlet valve opening is the one at which the valve timing is usually set, by reference to timing marks on the flywheel or crankshaft pulley, or by measuring the vertical distance the piston is from top dead centre. (this measurement is taken from the piston crown by means of a clock gauge or dial indicator). Indications for checking or resetting valve timing are generally markings on the faces of the timing chain sprockets (chain driven), on the timing gear wheels (gear driven) or camshaft-timing pulley (belt driven). Crankshaft position markings may be found on the front or rear face of the flywheel or on the crankshaft pulley.
Timing marks
Correct alignment of these marks is essential for efficient performance of the engine. Caution: If the timing is incorrect by too much then damage to the engine may result when attempting to start it. It is wise, if unsure, to rotate the engine by hand two complete turns before attempting to start it using the starter motor, this will ensure clearance between the valves and the pistons, therefore reducing the chance of damage due to contact.
If the timing belt is removed to be re-used draw a direction arrow on the belt to ensure correct direction of travel. Place match marks on the pulley and belt as shown. Dont forget that correct timing belt tension is very important.
Multiple valves per cylinder An engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy, the more heat energy the more mechanical energy (power) produced. Engine designers strive to produce as much heat energy inside the cylinder as possible. There are two ways to do this, to pump more fuel into the cylinder or burn the fuel more efficiently and effectively. The chemical reaction of the burning process demands a large amount of oxygen. In normal engines the amount of oxygen falls short of requirements, which leads to incomplete combustion. The valve acts like a regulator and restricts the passage of inlet and exhaust gases, thus filling and emptying the cylinder effectively is linked to the valve. The major aim of all engine designers is to ensure that the cylinder gets as much fuel/air mixture possible. Increasing the cross-sectional area of the cylinder Increasing the bore of the cylinder may cause two major problems. First it will cause a corresponding decrease in the stroke length (the distance the piston moves up the cylinder (remember the two stroke and four stroke cycle) so that the cylinder volume remains the same. An engine with a very short stroke will suffer from limited torque and be high on revolutions per minute after a certain limit is undesirable. In the second case, if the bore size is not restricted and the stroke is allowed to increase then the overall size of the engine and overall size of the vehicle will also increase, leading to a poor power-to-weight ratio. Increasing the number of valves means we can increase the volumetric efficiency of the engine (allow more air into the cylinder within a limited time).
Multi-valve combustion chambers

Exhaust port Nissan three valve combustion chamber, one exhaust port and two inlet ports
Inlet port Two valve wedge combustion chamber Exhaust port
Inlet ports Five valve combustion chamber. Three intake ports at the top and two larger exhaust valves are at the bottom Inlet ports
Exhaust ports Four valve layout
Exhaust ports
Using just two valves leaves most of the cylinder bore area unused, by reducing the size of the valves it is possible to fit three valves per cylinder. If the valves are made smaller it makes it possible to fit four valves per cylinder or five or even six.
So the more valves fitted the greater is the volumetric efficiency and the greater the power produced. The main disadvantage of increasing the number of valves is that the strength of the cylinder head would be affected, so five and six valve engines are not as popular as the four valve. Note: Maserati experimented with the six-valve configuration for a while but reverted to the standard layout. Honda also tried an experiment with an oval piston and eight valves per cylinder but this idea was soon discarded as it was too complex.
Fitting a turbo-charger The turbo-charger supplies pressurised air to the cylinder without altering the timing of the valves, therefore more fuel/air mixture can enter under pressure into the cylinder increasing volumetric efficiency. Although the turbo charger may be a very viable option, it is expensive and adds significantly to the cost. In certain cases a turbocharger may not always be a viable option.
Progress check 7
1. The main components of the piston and connecting rod (excluding the piston and connecting rod) assembly are:

piston rings, combustion chamber, small end, big end, piston bosses. gudgeon pin, main bearing, small end, piston bosses, crankshaft web. piston rings, gudgeon pin, big end, small end, crankshaft journal. piston rings, gudgeon pin, big end, small end, piston bosses.
2. In a 2 stroke motorcycle engine, what is the purpose of the piston rings:

prevent oil leaks seal the small clearance between the crankshaft journal and main
bearing.
seal the small clearance between the gudgeon pin and small end. seal the small clearance between the piston and the cylinder wall.
3. Which one of the following statements in relation to the four-stroke cycle is FALSE?

The inlet valve opens on the exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve opens on the firing stroke. Valve overlap occurs when both inlet and exhaust valves are open. The inlet valve opens on the induction stroke.
Types of Engine Configuration

Flat (horizontally opposed) configuration.
Air-cooled engine
A flat engine, known as an opposed cylinder engine, has cylinders which are laid flat in a two bank configuration, this design requires very little vertical clearance, but is much wider than the standard in-line engines or vee type configurations, therefore additional width is required. Cooling is more efficient due to the increased surface area of the cylinders. A well-known engine with this arrangement is the Volkswagen. Engine balance is superior to that of the in-line engine, torque is smooth allowing a lighter flywheel to be used.
Vee V-type engine configuration
An engine classified as a vee or V-type is one were there are two banks of cylinders attached to a single crankshaft. These engines can have cylinders positioned at 60 or 90 degrees to each other. The main advantage is that the block can be shorter and lower in height than the in-line engine of the same number of cylinders and capacity. Reduced bonnet height, increased passenger space and storage area are all advantages gained from this type of engine configuration.
Square-four engine configuration
Crankshafts
Crankshaft connecting gear
Less familiar cylinder arrangements
Some less familiar cylinder arrangements
Horizontal in-line
Radial
Twin radial
Inverted in-line
Triple in-line or double V
Quad opposed cylinder
Four cylinders can be arranged to form a square, this is two, two-cylinder engines arranged side- by-side. Crankshafts are inter-connected, by gears, the arrangement of the cylinders in staggered pairs results in a more compact and shorter engine. Comparison between a single and a multi-cylinder engine Single cylinder engine The simplest form of an engine is the single cylinder which may operate on the two and four-stroke cycle. When operating in the four-stroke cycle the crankshaft receives one power stroke in every 720 degrees of rotation. When operating in the two-stroke cycle there is one power stroke for every 360 degrees. The crankshaft torque is uneven and therefore a heavy flywheel has to be used to carry the crankshaft over the idle strokes or non-power strokes. Note: The power stroke does not provide a constant force on the crankshaft, but is instead sudden and short and the power rapidly falls off. Two-cylinder engine Crankshaft torque is smoother that that of the single cylinder when operated on the four-stroke cycle there is a power stroke every 360 degrees of crankshaft rotation, this arrangement is often used for motor cycle engines.
Four-stroke Inline Engine

This is the most popular arrangement for use in motor vehicles, the cylinders are arranged in a line above the crankshaft. Piston one and four are at top dead centre together when piston two and three will be at bottom dead centre. This arrangement provides a power impulse every 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation. The torque output is smoother, due to the fact that as one power stroke is ending another is beginning, so a flywheel is still required to smooth out the torque output, but it need only be light in comparison. As this engine is like a two cylinder placed end-to-end the overall balance is good and the rocking effects of the power strokes are neutralised, although it is not completely in balance. Because the forces do not work in opposition, lighter piston and connecting rods can be used. By increasing the number of cylinders a very smooth engine can be achieved.
Combustion chambers Hemispherical

This type has a very small surface area thus heat loss is kept to a minimum therefore a higher thermal efficiency is achieved. Larger valves can be used but the mechanism is more complicated.
This type of combustion chamber shape has a small surface area, which reduces heat loss and provides a higher thermal efficiency when compared to other types. The hemispherical shape is an ideal design of combustion chamber. The main disadvantage is that it has a more complicated valve mechanism.
Wedge type
There is less thermal loss with this type of combustion chamber and the valve mechanism is simpler than that of the hemispherical type
This type of combustion chamber also has low thermal loss. The main advantage is its valve mechanism is far simpler than the hemispherical type.
Bath tub type

Simple construction and least expensive. Valve diameter is limited and efficiency is poor
The construction is simple and cost is low. The main disadvantage of this type of combustion chamber is that the valves are limited in diameter. The intake and exhaust efficiency is poor compared to the hemispherical type.
Penthouse roof
Exhaust valves
Inlet valves
This type is used in virtually all engines that have multi-valves per cylinder, this is because the camshaft arrangements can be easily installed. It is called a penthouse roof due to its trapezoidal cross section. This combustion chamber provides a larger amount of squish effect and faster combustion due to having the spark plug in the centre of the combustion chamber, similar to the hemispherical combustion chamber.
Cylinder block
Cylinder block without liners
Dry liner
Wet liner
Cylinder blocks are made from cast iron or aluminium alloy. Aluminium alloy radiates heat easily and is much lighter that cast iron, cast iron is more rigid. The cylinders may be integral with the cylinder block in the case of cast iron, but cylinder liners must be used for the aluminium alloy block. The cylinder liners may be wet or dry type. The cylinders are sealed on top by the cylinder head, which is separated by the cylinder head gasket ensuring a gas, oil and water- tight seal. The crankcase is at the bottom of the block and fitted to the crankcase is the oil sump. The cylinders are surrounded by water jackets for cooling purposes.
Cylinder head
The cylinder head must be able to withstand high temperatures and pressures. Cylinder heads are made from cast iron or aluminium alloy the same as the cylinder block and have water jackets for cooling. The combustion chambers and valve mechanisms are housed in the cylinder head.
Cylinder head tightening
(a) Torque each bolt to 29nm /

It is important that the cylinder head is tightened to the cylinder block according to manufacturers recommendations; otherwise distortion to the cylinder head may occur, or the life of the cylinder head gasket may be shortened.
Gaskets
Gaskets are thin sheets of flexible materials that are used to separate two metal components. They allow metal parts to be mated together without losing fluids that are transferred between the two. Normally when two pieces of metal are mated, there are minute machining differences in the surfaces that would allow high pressure fluids or gases to escape and relieve pressure. In an internal combustion engine, fluid flow between parts is vital for engine operation. Gaskets help the engine transfer these fluids with less loss. Gaskets are commonly made from brass, steel, carbon, graphite coatings and rubber compounds. In addition to providing more conductive passages for fluids to flow, they also serve as insulation to isolate some parts from shock or vibrations that could cause leaks, and create tighter fitting parts that are more likely to stay in place.
Cylinder head gasket The gasket is fitted between the cylinder block and cylinder head and it has to withstand heat and pressure under all conditions. Often the cylinder head gasket is made from carbon clad sheet steel. The carbon is coated with graphite to aid removal of the cylinder head if maintenance becomes necessary (it prevents it sticking to the cylinder head and block).
Piston construction
The most important function is that the piston should be able to withstand the combustion pressure and to be able to transmit the force to the crankshaft via the connecting rod. Pistons must also withstand high temperatures and speed for sustained periods. Normally pistons are made from aluminium alloy because it has the ability to conduct heat easily and is light in weight. Cast iron is sometimes used for heavy engines, occasionally a piston with a cast iron crown and aluminium skirt may be used. Pistons must have clearance in the cylinder to enable them to move up and down freely but also to allow for expansion. Piston clearance depends largely on the size of the piston and cylinder but would generally range between 0.02 to 0.12 mm.
Parts of a piston
Piston shape
Pistons are tapered - they are smaller at the top (the crown) than the bottom (the skirt). There is therefore a greater clearance between the piston and the cylinder at the top of the piston than at the bottom. Pistons are designed slightly oval in some cases, this is due to having a greater mass of metal around the gudgeon pin bosses and the fact that heat cannot escape as easily (more mass of metal the longer it takes for heat to disperse). When the engine is at normal temperature the piston becomes round and its contour matches that of the cylinder.
Piston rings
Piston rings prevent fuel/air mixture and combustion gas from leaking past the piston. They prevent oil from entering the combustion chamber. Also they conduct heat to the cylinder walls therefore helping the cooling process. Piston rings are normally made of chromium cast iron.
Compression rings
This type of piston ring prevents leakage of air/fuel mixture and burnt gases into the crankcase. Often there are two compression rings but more can be fitted depending upon the type of engine. Piston rings are marked top, second ring etc. sometimes they are numbered, 1 being the top ring and 2 the second ring, and so on.
Oil control rings This type of piston ring scrapes off excessive oil from the sides of the cylinder bore to prevent it from entering the combustion chamber. If two compression rings are used the oil ring would be called the third ring and so on.
Piston pins (gudgeon pins)
Piston pin as viewed from underneath the piston
The piston is connected to the connecting rod (small or little end) by a piston pin. The pin is kept in position by a circlip or a bolt, some types are a press fit (interference fit) in the connecting rod. Press fit or bolted are referred to as semi-floating, the pin can only rotate in either the connecting rod or the piston, but not both. If the pin can rotate in the piston and connecting rod it is referred too as a fully floating type.
Fixed type
Fully floating type
Bolted type
Press-fit type
Connecting rod
The purpose of the connecting rod is to transmit the force exerted on the piston to the crankshaft. It houses the small end bearing and the big end bearing. The position of the crankshaft pin journal oil hole and the oil jet coincide just before top dead centre, and oil is sprayed out through the oil jet. If the connecting rod is assembled with the front and back reversed, the cylinder will receive insufficient lubrication.
Crankshaft
Crankshaft w ebs
Five m ain bearings
The reciprocating motion of the connecting rod is converted to rotary motion by the crankshaft. The crankshaft must rotate at high speed and be able to withstand the torque produced by the engine. For this reason it is usually made from high-grade carbon steel, which has a good wear resistance. The crankshaft contains oil holes to supply lubricating oil to the crankshaft journals, connecting rod bearings, pistons, cylinders etc. Thrust bearings are fitted to take up end float in the crankshaft. This end float is adjusted by selecting and using thrust bearings of different thickness.
Crankshaft oil seal (lip seal)
The lip type seal as shown is normally fitted at the front and rear of the crankshaft
Lip seal
The seal consists of a specially shaped synthetic rubber and a supporting steel shell. The seal is fitted into a recess in the crankcase housing. The lip is held in contact with the crankshaft by a radial spring and the sharp edge of the seal points inwards to the oil, this ensures that oil does not leak out of the sump via the crankshaft which could lead to contamination of the clutch assembly.
Crankshaft bearings Due to the loads caused by combustion pressure, and because the crankshaft and components rotate at high speeds, bearings must be fitted. Crankshaft bearings are lubricated by the engine oil, the bearings take the form of a shell, which is made of steel the bearing surface is coated with white metal, kelmet or aluminium. White metal: consists of tin, lead antimony and zinc, it is often used in low power engines. Kelmet metal: consists of a copper and lead alloy, it is very strong and has greater fatigue resistance than white metal, it is used for high performance engines. Aluminium metal: is alloyed with tin it has good wear resistance and handles heat better than kelmet and white metal.
Flywheel
Ring gear Clutch face Crankshaft mounting bolts
Clutch pressure plate dowels
The flywheel is a heavy cast iron wheel, which is bolted to the crankshaft, usually at the rear. Its purpose is to maintain rotational force developed during combustion through the idling strokes of the engine (inertia). It also helps to smooth out fluctuations between power strokes, between engine cylinders and during exhaust, induction and compression strokes. The starter ring gear is fitted around the flywheels circumference, which allows the starter pinion to engage with it for starting purposes.
Diesel Engines
As mentioned previously, the air inside the cylinder under compression becomes hot and fuel is then injected into this air, which burns very rapidly forcing the piston down the cylinder. Petrol engines admit fuel/air into the cylinder and it is ready mixed and is ignited by a spark. Because diesel engines have greater compression pressures and temperatures than petrol engines and due to the combustion process a much heavier and stronger engine construction is required.
Types of diesel engine combustion chambers Careful design of the combustion chamber ensures good performance of the diesel engine, since this is one of the most important considerations with regard to engine performance. Adding air swirl by designing a specially formed intake port or adding a pre-combustion chamber improves the combustion efficiency and therefore increasing power output.
Direct injection
Multi-spherical
Hemispherical
Spherical
The combustion chamber is provided in the piston crown and may have one of several shapes: Multi-spherical, hemispherical and spherical.
Pre-combustion chamber
Fuel is sprayed into a pre-combustion chamber where the fuel begins to burn. The un-burnt fuel is forced down the passageway into the main chamber where complete combustion takes place.
Swirl chamber
The air being compressed enters a swirl chamber which causes turbulence, fuel is injected into the swirl chamber and is burnt. Further combustion of the fuel takes place in the main combustion chamber.
Cylinder block
The cylinder block is usually made from ordinary or treated cast iron. It is very similar to that of the petrol engine, but it must be stronger due to the higher levels of stress, and vibration. The pistons slide in removable liners, which may be dry slip or wet type. Some cylinder blocks dont have liners, they are constructed of special alloys which can withstand the frictional wear and this allows for a slight decrease in the size and weight of the engine.
Cylinder head
Glow plug
Injector
Swirl chamber
Injector
Glow plug Combustion chamber
Due to the combustion chamber having higher compression ratios, the combustion chamber is smaller in comparison to that of the petrol engine. Similar to the cylinder block the cylinder head is built stronger and is therefore heavier and sturdier so that higher combustion pressures and greater vibration can be withstood. The cylinder head contains the swirl chamber, and this contains the injector nozzle which sprays the fuel into the cylinder, and a glow plug, which acts as an electrical heater to assist starting when the engine is cold.
Piston
The piston must withstand stress and high pressures. Because the combustion chamber is small there is little clearance between the valves and the piston, therefore the top of the piston is provided with a machined cut-out, which in the direct injection type forms part of the combustion chamber shape. Note: In the direct injection type of combustion chamber the fuel is injected directly into the chamber above the piston. In the indirect injection type of combustion chamber the injector injects into a pre-combustion chamber (swirl chamber).
Type of valve gear drive

Gear type
Gears or a belt may be used, which drive the camshaft, injection pump and auxiliaries. The timing gears are helical, make little noise and run smoothly, they have timing marks stamped on them to assist with correct assembly. The gears are made from carbon steel and are surface hardened (alloy steels are sometimes used).
Timing belt
The timing belt is made from heat resistant rubber and is non-elastic. The teeth are covered with wear resistant canvas. The tension of the belt is adjusted by the timing belt idler. The life expectancy of a belt is in the region of 60,000 miles. It is important that manufacturers recommendations are adhered to. Some manufacturers install a timing belt wear indicator light which warns the driver when is time to replace the belt. It should be noted that the valve drive mechanism is required to drive the injection pump and in some cases the oil pump, therefore greater load demands are placed upon the timing belt, gears or chain.
Timing marks are shown on the injector pump drive pulley. Timing of the valves and pump must be set if the timing belt has been removed or replaced.
Diesel valve timing diagram
Progress check 8
1. List five advantages of diesel engines when compared to a petrol engine
2. List five disadvantages of the diesel engine when compared to a petrol engine:

LV06 - Engines - Issue 1

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LV06 Engines (1)

MODULE LV06 ENGINES

The internal combustion engine

The pressure on the piston is transferred to the crankshaft

Stores energy to keep the engine running during nonpower strokes.

Engine Design (Petrol):

Basic Four Stroke Cycle

The induction stroke

The compression stroke

The power stroke

The exhaust stroke

Piston Travel Down

Intake Valve Intake air/fuel is drawn into the cylinder Open

Exhaust Valve Close

Compression Power Exhaust

a) piston b) piston rings c) exhaust valve d) inlet valve.

32 cc + 315 cc 32 cc Compression Ratio = 10.8 : 1

Engine Design (Diesel)

Rudolf Diesel 1853 - 1913

The diesel engine

Cylinder pressure = approximately 30kg/cm2 and the temperature is about 500/800C.

Compression Ignition (Diesel)

Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Right Reserved

LV06: Engines (1) Issue 1

Engine Design Two Stroke (Petrol)

Compression Exhaust leaving the cylinder Inlet port closed

Transfer of air/fuel mixture into the cylinder

Crankcase induction A inlet port B exhaust port C transfer port

1. One complete cycle is completed in __________degrees of crankshaft rotation.

2. The crankcase is sealed in order to _______________________________

3. Advantages of a two-stroke engine over the four-stoke are: a) ______________________________________________________

Engine Design Two Stroke (Diesel)

Complete the following sentences:

Heat to ignite the fuel in a diesel engine is produced by ____________

The combustion chamber in a diesel engine is ___________ because a _______ is required.

What is the turbo charger driven by?

Engine Design Rotary Engines:

Felix Wankel 1902 - 1988

Operation of the rotary (Wankel engine) The reverse rotary engine

A typical rotary engine

Eccentric shaft and gear

Epitrochoidal shaped rotor

Overhead valve layout

Overhead camshaft layout

An alternative is the direct acting camshaft arrangement as shown above.

Twin overhead camshafts

In this arrangement multi-valves can easily be accommodated.

Valve train operation

Inlet and exhaust valve slightly open at the same time

Cylinder head gasket

Cam Feeler gauge

Setting valve timing

Multi-valve combustion chambers

Inlet port Two valve wedge combustion chamber Exhaust port

Exhaust ports Four valve layout

2. In a 2 stroke motorcycle engine, what is the purpose of the piston rings:

Types of Engine Configuration

Vee V-type engine configuration

Square-four engine configuration

Crankshaft connecting gear

Less familiar cylinder arrangements

Some less familiar cylinder arrangements

Triple in-line or double V

The combustion chamber in a diesel engine is _____ because a _ is required.