FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS Bourdon Tube

The Bourdon Tube is a nonliquid pressure measurement device. It is widely used in applications where inexpensive static pressure measurements are needed. A typical Bourdon tube contains a curved tube that is open to external pressure input on one end and is coupled mechanically to an indicating needle on the other end, as shown schematically below.

Typical Bourdon Tube Pressure Gages Internal linkages have been simplified.

The external pressure is guided into the tube and causes it to flex, resulting in a change in curvature of the tube. These curvature changes are linked to the dial indicator for a number readout. Alternatively, a strain gage circuit can be attached on the tube to convert the pressure induced deflections into electric voltage signals. These signals can then be output electronically, rather than mechanically with the dial indicator. ! Pros" #ortable $onvenient %o leveling required

! Cons" &imited to static or quasi static measurements. Accuracy may be insufficient for many applications. A mercury barometer can be used to calibrate and check Bourdon Tubes.

iap!rag" Pressure Gage

The iap!rag" Pressure Gage uses the elastic deformation of a diaphragm 'i.e. membrane( instead of a liquid level to measure the difference between an unknown pressure and a reference pressure. A typical )iaphragm pressure gage contains a capsule divided by a diaphragm, as shown in the schematic below. *ne side of the diaphragm is open to the external targeted pressure, PExt, and the other side is connected to a known pressure, PRef,. The pressure difference, PExt PRef, mechanically deflects the diaphragm.

Typical iap!rag" Pressure Gage The membrane deflection can be measured in any number of ways. +or example, it can be detected via a mechanically coupled indicating needle, an attached strain gage, a linear variable differential transformer '&,)T- see the schematic below(, or with many other displacement.velocity sensors. *nce known, the deflection can be converted to a pressure loading using plate theory.

L# T$Based iap!rag" Pressure Gage

Pros and Cons ! Pros" /uch faster frequency response than 0 tubes. Accuracy up to 12.34 of full scale. 5ood linearity when the deflection is no larger than the order of the diaphragm thickness. ! Cons" /ore expensive then other pressure sensors.

Pitot-Static tube:

This page shows a schematic drawing of a pitot-static tube. Pitot-Static tubes, which are also called Prandtl tubes, are used on aircraft as speedometers. The actual tube on the aircraft is around 10 inches (25 centimeters) long with a 1 2 inch (1 centimeter) diameter. !e"eral small holes are drilled around the outside of the tube and a center hole is drilled down the a#is of the tube. The outside holes are connected to one side of a de"ice called a pressure transducer. The center hole in the tube is $ept separate from the outside holes and is connected to the other side of the transducer. The transducer measures the difference in pressure in the two groups of tubes b% measuring the strain in a thin element using an electronic strain gauge. The pitot-static tube is mounted on the aircraft, or in a wind tunnel , so that the center tube is alwa%s pointed in

the direction of the flow and the outside holes are perpendicular to the center tube. &n some airplanes the pitot-static tube is put on a longer boom stic$ing out of the nose of the plane or the wing. Difference in Static and Total Pressure !ince the outside holes are perpendicular to the direction of flow, these tubes are pressuri'ed b% the local random component of the air "elocit%. The pressure in these tubes is the static pressure (ps) discussed in (ernoulli)s e*uation. The center tube, howe"er, is pointed in the direction of tra"el and is pressuri'ed b% both the random and the ordered air "elocit%. The pressure in this tube is the total pressure (pt) discussed in (ernoulli)s e*uation. The pressure transducer measures the difference in total and static pressure which is the d%namic pressure q. measurement + * + pt - ps Solve for Velocity ,ith the difference in pressures measured and $nowing the local "alue of air densit% from pressure and temperature measurements, we can use (ernoulli)s e*uation to gi"e us the "elocit%. &n the graphic, the -ree$ s%mbol rho is used for the dair densit%. .n this te#t, we will use the letter r. (ernoulli)s e*uation states that the static pressure plus one half the densit% times the "elocit% V s*uared is e*ual to the total pressure. ps / .5 0 r 0 1 22 + pt !ol"ing for 13 1 22 + 2 0 4pt - ps5 r 1 + s*rt 62 0 4pt - ps5 r 7 where sqrt denotes the s*uare root function. There are some practical limitations to the use of a pitot-static tube3 1. .f the "elocit% is low, the difference in pressures is "er% small and hard to accuratel% measure with the transducer. 8rrors in the instrument could be greater than the measurement9 !o pitot-static tubes don)t wor$ "er% well for "er% low "elocities. 6. .f the "elocit% is "er% high (supersonic), we)"e "iolated the assumptions of (ernoulli)s e*uation and the measurement is wrong again. :t the front of the tube, a shoc$ wa"e appears that will change the total pressure. There are corrections for the shoc$ wa"e that can be applied to allow us to use pitot-static tubes for high speed aircraft. ;. .f the tubes become clogged or pinched, the resulting pressures at the transducer are not the total and static pressures of the e#ternal flow. The transducer output is then used to calculate a "elocit% that is not the actual "elocit% of the flow. !e"eral %ears ago, there were reports of icing problems occuring on airliner pitot-static probes. &utput from the probes was used as part of the auto-pilot and flight control s%stem. The solution to the icing problem was to install heaters on the probes to insure that the probe was not clogged b% ice build-up. Notice - In using this equation to determine the velocity, we must be very careful and use the proper units of measure. The air density must be specified as mass / volume ( g/m!" or slug/ft!"# while the pressure is specified as force / area ( $a or lbs/ft!%#.

%l&i"e&er
An al&i"e&er is an instrument used to measure the altitude of an ob7ect above a fixed level. The measurement of altitude is called al&i"e&ry, which is related to the term bathymetry, the measurement of depth underwater.

Aircraft instrumentation
Pressure altimeter
)igital barometric pressure sensor for altitude measurement in consumer electronic applications A pressure altimeter 'also called barometric altimeter( is the altimeter found in most aircraft. In it, an aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric pressure from a static port outside the aircraft. Air pressure decreases with an increase of altitude8approximately 922 hectopascals per :22 meters or one inch of mercury per 9222 feet near sea level. The altimeter is calibrated to show the pressure directly as an altitude above mean sea level, in accordance with a mathematical model defined by the International ;tandard Atmosphere 'I;A(. *lder aircraft used a simple aneroid barometer where the needle made less than one revolution around the face from <ero to full scale. /odern aircraft use a =sensitive altimeter= which has a primary needle that makes multiple revolutions, and one or more secondary needles that show the number of revolutions, similar to a clock face. In other words, each needle points to a different digit of the current altitude measurement. *n a sensitive altimeter, the sea level reference pressure can be ad7usted by a setting knob. The reference pressure, in inches of mercury in $anada and the 0; and hectopascals 'previously millibars( elsewhere, is displayed in the Kollsman window, visible at the right side of the aircraft altimeter shown here. This is necessary, since sea level reference atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and the movement of pressure systems in the atmosphere. In aviation terminology, the regional or local air pressure at mean sea level '/;&( is called the >%? or =altimeter setting=, and the pressure which will calibrate the altimeter to show the height above ground at a given airfield is called the >+@ of the field. An altimeter cannot, however, be ad7usted for variations in air temperature. )ifferences in temperature from the I;A model will, therefore, cause errors in indicated altitude. Aollsman type barometric aircraft altimeter as used in %orth America displaying an altitude of :2 feet. The calibration formula for an altimeter, up to BC,2D2 feet '99,222 m(, can be written as"

where h is the indicated altitude in feet, P is the static pressure and Pref is the reference pressure 'use same units for both(. This is derived from the barometric formula using the scale height for the troposphere.

Radar altimeter
/ain article" Eadar altimeter A radar altimeter measures altitude more directly, using the time taken for a radio signal to reflect from the surface back to the aircraft. The radar altimeter is used to measure height above ground level during landing in commercial and military aircraft. Eadar altimeters are also a component of terrain avoidance warning systems, warning the pilot if the aircraft is flying too low, or if there is rising terrain ahead. Eadar altimeter technology is also used in terrain following radar allowing fighter aircraft to fly at very low altitude.

lobal Positionin! System

5lobal #ositioning ;ystem '5#;( receivers can also determine altitude by trilateration with four or more satellites. ?owever, altitude determined using autonomous 5#; is not precise or accurate enough to supersede the pressure altimeter for aviation use without using some method of augmentation.

Mac!"e&er
A Mac!"e&er is an aircraft pitot static system flight instrument that shows the ratio of the true airspeed to the speed of sound, a dimensionless quantity called /ach number. This is shown on a /achmeter as a decimal fraction. An aircraft flying at the speed of sound is flying at a /ach number of one, expressed as Mach 1.

Use
As an aircraft in transonic flight approaches the speed of sound, it first reaches its critical mach number, where air flowing over low pressure areas of its surface locally reaches the speed of sound, forming shock waves. The indicated airspeed for this condition changes with ambient pressure, which in turn changes with altitude. Therefore, indicated airspeed is not entirely adequate to warn the pilot of the impending problems. /ach number is more useful, and most high speed aircraft are limited to a maximum operating /ach number, also known as MM'. +or example, if the MM' is /ach 2.:B, then at B2,222 feet 'D,9FF m( where the speed of sound under standard conditions is 3D2 knots '9,2DB km.h- CGD mph(, the true airspeed at //* is F:D knots 'D2C km.h- 3CB mph(. The speed of sound increases with air temperature, so at /ach 2.:B at 92,222 feet 'B,2F: m( where the air is much warmer than at B2,222 feet 'D,9FF m(, the true airspeed at //* would be 3B2 knots 'D:6 km.hC92 mph(.

Operation
;ome older mechanical /achmeters use an altitude aneroid inside the instrument that converts pitot static pressure into /ach number. /odern electronic /achmeters use information from an air data computer system.

%irspeed
%irspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air. Among the common conventions for qualifying airspeed are" indicated airspeed '=IA;=(, calibrated airspeed '=$A;=(, true airspeed '=TA;=(, equivalent airspeed '=@A;=( and density airspeed. The measurement and indication of airspeed is ordinarily accomplished on board an aircraft by an airspeed indicator '=A;I=( connected to a pitot static system. The pitot static system comprises one or more pitot probes 'or tubes( facing the on coming air flow to measure pitot pressure 'also called stagnation, total or ram pressure( and one or more static ports to measure the static pressure in the air flow. These two pressures are compared by the A;I to give an IA; reading.

Indicated airspeed
/ain article" Indicated airspeed Indicated airspeed 'IA;( is the airspeed indicator reading 'A;IE( uncorrected for instrument, position, and other errors. +rom current @A;A definitions" Indicated airspeed means the speed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static airspeed indicator calibrated to reflect standard atmosphere adiabatic compressible flow at sea level uncorrected for airspeed system errors. H9I *utside of the former ;oviet bloc, most airspeed indicators show the speed in knots i.e. nautical miles per hour. ;ome light aircraft have airspeed indicators showing speed in miles per hour. An airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge with the pressure reading expressed in units of speed, rather than pressure. The airspeed is derived from the difference between the ram air pressure from the pitot tube, or stagnation pressure, and the static pressure. The pitot tube is mounted facing forward- the static pressure is frequently detected at static ports on one or both sides of the aircraft. ;ometimes both pressure sources are combined in a single probe, a pitot static tube. The static pressure measurement is sub7ect to error due to inability to place the static ports at positions where the pressure is true static pressure at all airspeeds and attitudes. The correction for this error is the position error correction '#@$( and varies for different aircraft and airspeeds.

+urther errors of 924 or more are common if the airplane is flown in JuncoordinatedK flight.

Calibrated airspeed
/ain article" $alibrated airspeed $alibrated airspeed '$A;( is indicated airspeed corrected for instrument errors, position error 'due to incorrect pressure at the static port( and installation errors. $alibrated airspeed values less than the speed of sound at standard sea level 'CC9.FG:: knots( are calculated as follows"

minus position and installation error correction. Lhere is the calibrated airspeed, is the impact pressure 'inches ?g( sensed by the pitot tube, is 6D.D696C inches ?g- static air pressure at standard sea level, is CC9.FG:: knots-, speed of sound at standard sea level. 0nits other than knots and inches of mercury can be used, if used consistently. This expression is based on the form of BernoulliMs equation applicable to a perfect, compressible gas. The values for P2 and A2 are consistent with the I;A i.e. the conditions under which airspeed indicators are calibrated.

Equivalent airspeed
/ain article" @quivalent airspeed @quivalent airspeed '@A;( is defined as the speed at sea level that would produce the same incompressible dynamic pressure as the true airspeed at the altitude at which the vehicle is flying. An aircraft in forward flight is sub7ect to the effects of compressibility. &ikewise, the calibrated airspeed is a function of the compressible impact pressure. @A;, on the other hand, is a measure of airspeed that is a function of incompressible dynamic pressure. ;tructural analysis is often in terms of incompressible dynamic pressure, so that equivalent airspeed is a useful speed for structural testing. At sea level, standard day, calibrated airspeed and equivalent airspeed are equal 'or equivalent(, but only at that condition. +or the performance engineer, there is no practical reason to use equivalent airspeed for anything. ?owever, structural analysis is often performed in terms of equivalent airspeed 'since it is a direct function of the incompressible dynamic pressure(, so the performance engineer needs to be able to convert Ve to parameters that are more useful.H9I

&et represent the dynamic pressure Then the relationship between the pressure difference system and the dynamic pressure is given by"

. sensed by a pitot static

Lhere is the /ach number, is the true airspeed, is the equivalent airspeed, is the ratio of the specific heats of air and is the air density. The ratio of the specific heats, , is 9.F in air. ;ubstituting this value gives"

'This section needs editing due to confusion between , 'TA;( and ,i '$A;( and ambiguity regarding A;I calibration incompressible flow equation above or compressible flow equation under calibrated airspeedN If the A;I is calibrated to the $A; calibration equation which 'for subsonic speeds( eliminates compressibility error at standard sea level then the compressibility correction above is not valid. ;ee also link to equivalent airspeed( This approximation is valid up to about /ach 6.B. ;ource" Aerodynamics of a Compressible Fl id! &iepmann and #uckett 9DFG. #ublishers Oohn Liley P ;ons Inc. The difference between calibrated airspeed and equivalent airspeed is negligible at low /ach numbers rising to B4 at /ach 2.3 and 9B4 at /ach 9 depending on altitude. The significance of equivalent airspeed is that at /ach numbers below the onset of wave drag, all of the aerodynamic forces and moments on an aircraft scale with the square of the equivalent airspeed. The equivalent airspeed is closely related to the Indicated airspeed speed shown by the airspeed indicator. Thus, the handling and MfeelM of an aircraft, and the aerodynamic loads upon it, at a given equivalent airspeed, are very nearly constant and equal to those at ;&, I;A irrespective of the actual flight conditions.

True airspeed
/ain article" True airspeed True airspeed 'TA;( is the physical speed of the aircraft relative to the air surrounding the aircraft. The true airspeed is a vector quantity. The relationship between the true airspeed and the speed with respect to the ground 'V"(is"

Lhere" Vw Q Lindspeed vector Aircraft flight instruments, however, donMt compute true airspeed as a function of groundspeed and windspeed. They use impact and static pressures as well as a temperature input. Basically, true airspeed is calibrated airspeed that is corrected for pressure altitude and temperature. The result is the true physical speed of the aircraft plus or minus the wind component. True Airspeed is equal to calibrated airspeed at standard sea level conditions. The simplest way to compute true airspeed is using a function of /ach number"

Lhere" A2 Q ;peed of sound at standard sea level 'CC9.FG:: knots( M Q /ach number # Q Temperature 'kelvins( #2 Q ;tandard sea level temperature '6::.93 kelvin( *r if /ach number is not known"

Lhere" A2 Q ;peed of sound at standard sea level 'CC9.FG:: knots( $c Q Impact pressure 'in?g( P Q ;tatic pressure 'in?g(

# Q Temperature 'kelvin( #2 Q ;tandard sea level temperature '6::.93 kelvin( The above equation is only for /ach numbers less than 9.2. True airspeed differs from the equivalent airspeed because the airspeed indicator is calibrated at ;&, I;A conditions, where the air density is 9.663 kg.mR , whereas the air density in flight normally differs from this value.

Thus

Lhere is the air density at the flight condition. The air density may be calculated from"

Lhere is the air pressure at the flight condition, is the air pressure at sea level Q 929B.6 h#a, is the air temperature at the flight condition, is the air temperature at sea level, I;A Q 6::.93 A. ;ource" Aerodynamics of a Compressible Fl id! &iepmann and #uckett 9DFG. #ublishers Oohn Liley P ;ons Inc.

Groundspeed
/ain article" 5roundspeed 5roundspeed is the speed of the aircraft relative to the ground rather than through the air, which can itself be moving.

Turn indica&or
A &urn indica&or is an aircraft flight instrument that shows the rate of turn. It is used by the pilot to maintain control when flying under Instrument flight rules.

Types
The first gyroscopic aircraft instrument was the &urn and ban( indica&or 'also known as &urn indica&or in &!e needle and ball, or more recently &urn and slip indica&or(. The ma7or limitation of this instrument is that it senses rotation only about the vertical axis of the aircraft. It tells nothing of the rotation around the longitudinal axis, which in normal flight occurs before the aircraft begins to turn. The &urn coordina&or was created to overcome this problem by having its gimbal frame angled upward about B2S from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. This allows it to sense both roll and yaw.

Use and operation

#recession causes a force applied to a spinning wheel to be felt D2S from the point of application in the direction of rotation. +urther information" Turn and bank indicator and Turn coordinator The dial of these instruments is usually marked =6 min. turn=, although some turn and slip indicators used in faster aircraft like the $oncorde are marked =F min. turn=. In gliders, the calibration spring is usually set for a one minute standard rate turn. A standard rate turn is being made whenever the needle aligns with a turn marking '=doghouse=(. Both instruments incorporate an inclinometer like indicator, which is either a pendulum or a black glass ball sealed inside a curved glass tube that is partially filled with a liquid similar to the fluid used in a compass. This ball measures the relative strength of the force

of gravity and the force of inertia caused by a turn. Lhen the aircraft is flying straight and level, there is no inertia acting on the ball, and it remains in the center of the tube between two wires. In a turn made with a bank angle that is too steep, the force of gravity is greater than the inertia and the ball rolls down to the inside of the turn. If the turn is made with too shallow a bank angle, the inertia is greater than gravity and the ball rolls upward to the outside of the turn. The ball does not indicate the amount of bank, neither is it limited to an indication of slip- it only indicates the relationship between the angle of bank and the rate of yaw.

Turn and ban( indica&or

In aviation, the &urn and ban( indica&or 'or &urn and slip indica&or( shows the rate of turn and the coordination 'slip or skid( of the turn. The rate of turn is indicated from a rate gyroscopically and the coordination of the turn is shown by either a pendulum or a heavy ball mounted in a curved sealed glass tube. %o pitch information is provided.

Use
The rate of turn is the rate at which the airplane is changing its heading, sensed by a rate gyro held in gymbals and restrained by springs. Tick marks, sometimes called =dog houses= on some makes of instruments because of their shape, generally show a Mstandard rate turnM. The standard rate 'Ra&e 'ne( for most airplanes is three degrees per second, or two minutes per BC2 degrees 'marked =6 min. turn=- some turn and slip indicators used in faster aircraft like the $oncorde are marked =F min. turn=, while gliders are usually set to one minute turns(. In clouds, using these figures =timed turns= can be made in order to conform with the required Air Traffic patterns. +or a change of heading of D2 degrees, a rate one turn for B2 seconds is required. The ball or pendulum indicator detects whether the aircraft is side slipping during a turn. In a properly co ordinated turn, no sideslip should be present because having a non <ero sideslip angle causes extra aerodynamic drag.

Operation

#recession causes a force applied to a spinning wheel to be felt D2S from the point of application in the direction of rotation. Eate instruments such as the turn and slip indicator operate on gyroscopic precession. #recession is the characteristic of a gyroscope that causes an applied force to produce a movement, not at the point of application, but at a point D2S from the point of application in the direction of rotation. The turn indicator is a small gyroscope spun either by air or by an electric motor. The gyro is mounted in a single gimbal with its spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft and the axis of the gimbal parallel with the longitudinal axis. Lhen the aircraft yaws, or rotates about its vertical axis 'aircraft(, it produces a force in the hori<ontal plane that, due to precession, causes the gyro and its gimbal to rotate about the gimbal axis. It is restrained in this rotation plane by a calibration spring- it rolls over 7ust enough to cause the pointer to deflect until it aligns with one of the doghouse shaped marks on the dial, when the aircraft is making a standard rate turn. The ball or pendulum is a =balance indicator= and is called an inclinometer.It is used to display if a turn is in balance and it does this by measuring the relative strength of the force of gravity and the force of inertia caused by a turn. The ball is placed inside a curved glass tube that is partially filled with a liquid, much like the fluid used in a compass. Lhen the aircraft is flying straight and level, there is no inertia acting on the ball, and it remains in the center of the tube between two wires.

Variations

A Taylorcraft turn and bank Indicator

In slow speed aircraft such as gliders and helicopters, a yaw string can be fitted on the outside of the cockpit canopy. This senses the sideslip 'beta( angle directly and the pilot can make corrections to =keep the string in the middle=. It often consists of a piece of wool B or F inches ': or 92 centimetres( long. The yaw string serves the same purpose as the ball in the turn and slip indicator except that it is more sensitive and removes the need to look at the instrument panel. The ma7or limitation of the turn and slip indicator is that it senses rotation only about the vertical axis of the aircraft. It tells nothing of the rotation around the longitudinal axis, which in normal flight occurs before the aircraft begins to turn. A turn coordinator overcomes this problem by having its gimbal frame angled upward about B2S from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

#ario"e&er
#he term Variometer also refers to a type of %ariable electrical ind ctor A )ario"e&er 'also known as a ra&e$o*$cli"b indica&or, a )er&ical speed indica&or +#SI,,H9I or a )er&ical )eloci&y indica&or +##I,( is an instrument in an aircraft used to inform the pilot of the instantaneous 'rather than averaged( rate of descent or climb. It can be calibrated in knots, feet per minute '929.BBB ft.min Q 9 kn( or metres per second, depending on country and type of aircraft. In powered flight the pilot makes frequent use of the #SI to ascertain that level flight is being maintained, especially during turning manoeuvres. In gliding, the instrument is used almost continuously during normal flight, often with an audible output, to inform the pilot of rising or sinking air. The instrument is of little interest during launching and landing, with the exception of aerotow, where the pilot will usually want to avoid releasing in sink.

Description

;chematic drawing of the internals of a classic aircraft variometer ,ariometers measure the rate of change of altitude by detecting the change in air pressure 'static pressure( as altitude changes. A simple variometer can be constructed by adding a large reservoir 'a thermos bottle( to augment the storage capacity of a common aircraft rate of climb instrument. In its simplest electronic form, the instrument consists of an air bottle connected to the external atmosphere through a sensitive air flow meter. As the aircraft changes altitude, the atmospheric pressure outside the aircraft changes and air flows into or out of the air bottle to equalise the pressure inside the bottle and outside the aircraft. The rate and direction of flowing air is measured by the cooling of one of two self heating thermistors and the difference between the thermistor resistances will cause a voltage difference- this is amplified and displayed to the pilot. The faster the aircraft is ascending 'or descending(, the faster the air flows. Air flowing out of the bottle indicates that the altitude of the aircraft is increasing. Air flowing into the bottle indicates that the aircraft is descending. %ewer variometer designs directly measure the static pressure of the atmosphere using a pressure sensor and detect changes in altitude directly from the change in air pressure instead of by measuring air flow. These designs tend to be smaller as they do not need the air bottle. They are more reliable as there is no bottle to be affected by changes in temperature and less opportunity for leaks to occur in the connecting tubes. The designs described above, which measure the rate of change of altitude by automatically detecting the change in static pressure as the aircraft changes altitude are referred to as =uncompensated= variometers. The term =vertical speed indicator=H9I or =,;I= is most often used for the instrument when it is installed in a powered aircraft. The term =variometer= is most often used when the instrument is installed in a glider or sailplane. An =Inertia lead= ,;I or I&,;I compensates for relative ="= forces experienced in a turn 'powered aircraft( and provides appropriate mechanical compensation to remove otherwise erroneous indications of climb or descent.

#anel mounted variometer for gliders

Purpose
?uman beings, unlike birds and other flying animals, are not able directly to sense climb and sink rates. Before the invention of the variometer, sailplane pilots found it very hard to soar. Although they could readily detect abrupt chan"es in vertical speed '=in the seat of the pants=(, their senses did not allow them to distinguish lift from sink, or strong lift from weak lift. The act al climb.sink rate could not even be guessed at, unless there was some clear fixed visual reference nearby. Being near a fixed reference means being near to a hillside, or to the ground. @xcept when hill soaring 'exploiting the lift close to the up wind side of a hill(, these are generally very unprofitable positions for glider pilots to be in. The most useful forms of lift 'thermal and wave lift( are found at higher altitudes and it is very hard for a pilot to detect or exploit them without the use of a variometer. After the variometer was invented in 9D6D by Alexander &ippisch and Eobert AronfeldH6I, the sport of gliding moved into a new realm.

The vertical speed indicator from a Eobinson E66

Total Ener y Compensation

As the sport developed, however, it was found that these very simple =uncompensated= instruments had their limitations. The information that glider pilots really need to soar is the vertical speed of the glider in isolation of stick thermals, i.e., in isolation of changes in altitude due exclusively to changes in speed.

Lhen the pilot chooses to pull up to enter a thermal or to dive to exit a sink area, an uncompensated variometer will include the change in altitude due to the change in velocity in its read out, thus marring the airmassM climb or sink rate. Therefore an uncompensated variometer can only accurately indicate the climb rate when flying at constant speed. The action of diving or pulling up affects the speed of the sailplane. A sailplane can exchange height for speed or speed for height, i.e. potential energy for kinetic energy or kinetic energy for potential energy. In fact, in still air, the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy, i.e., the #otal Ener"y, remains constant 'neglecting energy loss due to drag(, hence the name #otal Ener"y compensation. /ost modern sailplanes are equipped with #otal Ener"y compensated variometers.

Total "ner!y #ompensation in Theory

Lhile the driving principle is" 9. #otential @nergy T Ainetic @nergy Q Total @nergy the compensation to cancel stick thermals is" 6. #otential @nergy Gained Q Ainetic @nergy Los& 'stic& thermal( i.e." B. UEpot Q V UE&in or F. UEpot T UE&in Q 2 ;ince 3. #otential @nergy is proportional to ?eight ' and C. Ainetic @nergy is proportional to ,elocity squared ' then from 'B(" G. where :. Uh is the compensation to apply to the uncompensated variometer reading. (, (

The ,ertical ;peed Indicator in this ,anWs E, F light aircraft is on the top row, on the right.

Total "ner!y #ompensation in practice

In most sailplanes, total energy compensation is achieved by connecting the variometer to the atmosphere via a =total energy probe=, that produces vacuum proportional to the square of the gliderMs air speed in effect, a negative pitot. Alternatively, the subtraction may be done electronically by the flight computer based on indicated airspeed 'pitot(. ,ery few powered aircraft have total energy variometers. The pilot of a powered aircraft is more interested in the true rate of change of altitude, as he often wants to hold a constant altitude or maintain a steady climb or descent. The total energy probe used to be shaped as a classical venturi 'two small funnels connected back to back by their narrow ends(, or nowadays simply as a slot or pair of holes on the back side of a quarter inch vertical tube. The geometry of the T@ probe is such that air flow generates suction 'reduced pressure(. To maximise the precision of this compensation effect, the T@ probe needs to be in undisturbed airflow ahead of the aircraft nose or tail fin 'the =Braunschweig tube=, the long cantilevered tube with a kink in the end that can be seen pro7ecting from the leading edge of the tail fin on most modern sailplanes.(

!etto Variometer
A second type of compensated variometer is the Ne&&o or air"ass variometer. In addition to T@ compensation, the %etto variometer ad7usts for the intrinsic sink rate of the glider at a given speed 'the polar curve( ad7usted for the wing loading due to water ballast. The %etto variometer will always read <ero in still air. This provides the pilot with the accurate measurement of air mass vertical movement critical for final glides. The Rela&i)e Ne&&o #ario"e&er indicates the vertical speed the glider would achieve I+ it flies at thermalling speed independent of current air speed and attitude. This reading is calculated as the %etto reading minus the gliderMs minimum sink. Lhen the glider circles to thermal, the pilot needs to know the gliderMs vertical speed instead of that of the air mass. The Rela&i)e Ne&&o #ario"e&er 'or sometimes the super Ne&&o( includes a g sensor to detect thermalling.

Lhen thermalling, the sensor will detect acceleration 'gravity plus centrifugal( above 9 g and tell the relative netto variometer to stop subtracting the sailplaneMs wing load ad7usted polar sink rate for the duration. ;ome earlier nettos used a manual switch instead of the g sensor.

Electronic variometers
In modern gliders, most electronic variometers generate a sound whose pitch and rhythm depends on the instrument reading. Typically the audio tone increases in frequency as the variometer shows a higher rate of climb and decreases in frequency towards a deep groan as the variometer shows a faster rate of descent. Lhen the variometer is showing a climb, the tone is often chopped, while during a descent the tone is not chopped and the rate of chopping may be increased as the climb rate increases. The vario is typically silent in still air or in lift which is weaker than the typical sink rate of the glider at minimum sink. This audio signal allows the pilot to concentrate on the external view instead of having to watch the instruments, thus improving safety and also giving the pilot more opportunity to search for promising looking clouds and other signs of lift. A variometer that produces this type of audible tone is known as an =audio variometer=. Advanced electronic variometers in gliders can present other information to the pilot from 5#; receivers. The display can thus show the bearing, distance and height required to reach an ob7ective. In cruise mode 'used in straight flight(, the vario can also give an audible indication of the correct speed to fly depending on whether the air is rising or sinking. The pilot merely has to input the estimated /ac$ready setting, which is the expected rate of climb in the next acceptable thermal. There is an increasing trend for advanced variometers in gliders which tend towards flight computers and present other information such as controlled airspace, lists of turnpoints and even collision warnings. ;ome will also store positional 5#; data during the flight for later analysis.

"adio controlled soarin

,ariometers are also used in radio controlled gliders. Typically it takes the form of a radio transmitter in the plane, and a receiver held by the pilot on the ground. )epending on the design, the receiver may give the pilot the current altitude of the plane 'an altimeter( and some sort of display that indicates if the plane is gaining or losing altitude 8often via a tone 7ust like in full scale gliders. *ther forms of telemetry may also be provided by the system, giving things such as airspeed and battery voltage. ,arios used in radio controlled planes may or may not feature total energy compensation 'the better.more expensive ones generally do.( ,ariometers are strictly optional for E.$ glider use8a skilled pilot can generally determine if their plane is going up or down via visual cues alone, and so the use of a variometer is often seen as a XcrutchM, as a replacement for skill, and many pilots prefer not to use them at all, as the tone can be distracting, and the 'usually small( amount of weight added to the plane does affect performance. The use of variometers is permitted in some E.$ soaring contests and prohibited in others.

#erhaps the most popular brands of E.$ variometers are the #icolario and the LsTech $; ,oice.