Professional Documents
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Perspective
Dripto Mukhopadhyay
Indicus Analytics
Introduction
Undeniable evidences throughout the globe indicate that global climate
has changed compared to the pre-industrial era and is expected to
continue the trend through 21st century and beyond. The Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)1 documented that global
mean temperature has increased approximately 0.76・ ・C between
1850-1899 and 2001-2005 and it has concluded that most of the
observed changes in global average temperatures since the mid-20th
century is 'very likely' the result of human activities that are increasing
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
The IPCC has projected that the pace of climate change is to accelerate with
continued greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at or above the current rates. IPCC
best estimate suggested that globally averaged surface temperatures will rise by
1.8・ ・C to 4.0・ ・C by the end of the 21st century. Even with a stabilized
atmospheric concentration of GHGs at the current level, the earth would continue
to warm as a result of past GHG emissions as well as the thermal inertia of the
oceans.
As a flip side of the above story, tourism sector itself is a major contributor
climate change through GHG emissions, especially, from the transport and
accommodation of tourists. Tourism sector must play a proactive role to reduce
its GHG emissions significantly in harmony with the 'Vienna Climate Change Talks
2007' which recognized that global emissions of GHG need to peak in the next
10-15 years and then be reduced to very low levels, well below half of levels in
2000 by mid-century. The major challenge ahead of tourism sector is to meet the
international sustainable development agenda along with managing increased
energy use and GHG emissions from massive growth in activities projected for the
sector.
The concern of the tourism community regarding the challenge of climate change
has visibly increased over the last five years. The World Tourism Organization
(UNWTO) and other partner organizations convened the First International
Conference on Climate Change and Tourism in Djerba, Tunisia in 2003. The
Djerba Declaration recognized the complex inter-linkages between the tourism
sector and climate change and established a framework for on adaptation and
mitigation. A number of individual tourism industry associations and businesses
have also shown great concerns by voluntarily adopting GHG emission reduction
targets, engaging in public education campaigns on climate change and
supporting government climate change legislation.
Direct impacts
The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that
changes in a number of weather extremes are probable as a result of projected
climate change. This includes higher maximum temperature and more hot days,
greater storm intensity and peak winds, more intense precipitation and longer
and more severe droughts in many areas. These changes will have direct bearing
on tourism industry through increased infrastructure damage, additional
emergency preparedness requirements, higher operating expenses and business
interruptions.
Indirect impacts
Tourists have great adaptive capacity with relative freedom to avoid destinations
impacted by climate change or shifting the timing of travel to avoid unfavourable
climate conditions. Suppliers of tourism services and tourism operators at specific
destinations have less adaptive capacity. Large tour operators, who do not own
the infrastructure, are in a better position to adapt to changes at destinations
because they can respond to clients demands and provide information to
influence clients' travel choices. Destination communities and tourism operators
with large investment in immobile capital assets (e.g., hotel, resort complex,
marina or casino) have the least adaptive capacity. However, the dynamic nature
of the tourism industry and its ability to cope with a range of recent major
shocks, such as SARS, terrorism attacks in a number of nations, or the Asian
tsunami, suggests a relatively high adaptive capacity within the tourism
industry.
The tourism sector is not defined by the goods and services it produces, but by
the nature of the consumers of a wide range of distinctive goods and services.
This suggests that tourism is defined on the basis of consumption rather than
production. Given that tourism is consumer-defined, it is important to define a
tourist. World Tourism Organisation defines tourism as consisting of 'the activities
of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for
not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes.'
This means that business travellers and 'visiting friends and relatives' travellers
are also considered to be tourists as well as holidaymakers.
In context of accounting for energy use and the resultant carbon dioxide
emissions, it is essential to distinguish between the direct from indirect impacts of
tourism activities. Direct impacts are those that result directly from tourist
activities, while indirect impacts are associated with intermediate inputs from
second or third (or further) round processes. Becken and Patterson measured
carbon emission from tourism activities in New Zealand. The methodology they
opted was primarily focussed on direct impacts. Their methodology focussed only
on carbon dioxide emissions as the main greenhouse gas resulting from the
combustion of fossil fuels and did not consider the emission of other greenhouse
gases. This omission is acceptable for fuel combustion from land-born activities
(e.g. transport or accommodation) where carbon dioxide constitutes the major
greenhouse gas. It had been estimated that carbon dioxide accounts only for
about one-third of the total emissions. Thus, a factor of 2.7 had been suggested
to include effects from other emissions such as nitrous oxides etc.
Table 1: Energy Intensities and Carbon Dioxide Emission Factors
Motel 32 1378
Campground 25 1364
International tourists 2001 Coach tourist VFR Auto tourist Backpacker Camper Soft comfort
Transport in km
Train 35 17 10 40 20 215
Ferry 10 11 32 63 64 35
Cruise ship 12 1 4 1 0 0
Accommodation in nights
Total energy per tourist (MJ) 3538 3649 3440 3657 6306 5035
Tourists Trips 2000 Energy use 2000 (PJ) CO2 emissions (kilotonnes)
Source:Becken (2002)
Task ahead
References
United Nations World Tourism Organization (2003). Climate Change and Tourism:
Proceedings of theFirst International Conference on Climate Change and Tourism,
Djerba, Tunisia, 9-11 April 2003. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
Peeters, P. (2007). Tourism and Climate Change Mitigation - Methods,
Greenhouse Gas Reductbns and Policies. NHTV Academics Studies No. 6. NHTV.
Breda, The Netherlands: Breda University.
The 'Vienna Climate Change Talks 2007' represent the latest international
negotiations on GHG emission reductions under the auspices of the United
Nations