The Basics of Air Ionization for High-Technology Manufacturing Applications

Arnold Steinman Several techniques for changing the ambient airs burden of ions are effective for controlling static charge on insulating materials. Controlling static charge is essential for maximizing yield, quality, and profit in hightechnology industry !uch control enhances semiconductor production and has "ecome a necessity in the manufacture of hard dis# dri$es and flat-panel displays %&'(s) &ailure to control static charge leads to product losses from static-attracted particle contamination and from electrostatic discharge %*!() Control programs to assist in mitigating static-charge pro"lems are a$aila"le from se$eral sources, among them the *!( Association and !emiconductor *quipment and Materials International +,, The primary method employed for dealing -ith "oth conducti$e and static-dissipati$e o".ects/including people/is direct connection to ground to dissipate the static charge But products and -or# areas "oth may contain materials that are insulators 0hen these insulators are part of the product itself, they cannot "e eliminated &or example, hightechnology manufacturing ma#es use of oxide-coated silicon -afers, epoxy-pac#aged semiconductor de$ices, insulation on component leads, glass epoxy printed circuit "oards, and glass panels for &'(s In addition, materials such as Teflon, quartz, and many plastics necessary for resisting high temperatures or chemicals or pro$iding cleanroom compati"ility are insulators 1rounding has no effect on the le$els of static charge on insulators The only practical method for neutralizing static charge on most insulators is air ionization 2,3 The use of air ionizers is recommended in most pu"lished static-control programs, "ut those documents contain little explanation of the physics of the air ionization process or of the effects of using ionizers in the manufacturing en$ironment Because marshalling air ions for static-control purposes is important in many industries, this article attempts to fill in the missing information for users of air ionization technology Air Ions Defined The -ord ion, deri$ed from a 1ree# $er" suggesting motion, has the sense of 4a tra$eler 5 The term -as first used to descri"e the effects o"ser$ed -hen electrical currents -ere passed through $arious solutions6 molecules in the solutions -ould dissociate and migrate/that is, tra$el/to electrodes of opposite polarity A theory ad$anced "y the !-edish researcher ! A Arrhenius that the migrating ions -ere electrically charged atoms -as su"stantiated "y the later disco$ery of the electron and its nature

Ions are defined as atoms or molecules that ha$e lost or gained electrons %*lectrons are the only easily a$aila"le charge carriers ) 0hen an atom or molecule has an equal num"er of electrons and protons it is electrically "alanced, or neutral If an electron is lost, the atom or molecule "ecomes positi$ely charged and is a positi$e ion 1aining an electron ma#es it a negati$e ion 0hat is called an air ion, or a charged air molecule, is really no such thing Air is a mixture of gases, including nitrogen, oxygen, car"on dioxide, -ater $apor, and other trace gases, any one or more of -hich may "e ionized !ometimes a diatomic gas molecule, such as nitrogen or oxygen, -ill gain or lose the electron !ometimes it -ill "e a more complex gas such as car"on dioxide In any case, -hen molecules of one or more of the gases in air gain or lose electrons, the result is con$entionally called air ions Air ions differ from ions in solution in that energy is needed for their formation In normal, unfiltered air, air ions are molecular clusters consisting of a"out +7 neutral gas molecules around a charged oxygen, -ater, or nitrogen molecule These are called small air ions !mall air ions are relati$ely mo"ile and soon encounter ions of the opposite polarity or a grounded surface, at -hich point they lose their charge and "ecome neutral molecules again !mall air ions ha$e a life span of a fe- seconds to a fe- minutes in clean air 8nder the right conditions, these ions attach to particles or other large molecular clusters in the air, resulting in large air ions The relati$e proportion of small and large air ions present generally depends on the cleanliness of the air 9arge quantities of particulate matter or aerosols in the air lead to a depletion of small air ions Ho-e$er, any discussion of neutralizing static charge on insulators in a static-control program, as here, -ill deal primarily -ith the production and effects of small air ions Air Conductivity and Charge Neutralization If an ion is exposed to an electric field, it -ill mo$e at a speed dependent on the magnitude of the field and in a direction dependent on "oth the direction of the field and the polarity of the ion %either of -hich may "e positi$e or negati$e) The motion of ions in an electric field constitutes an electric current -hose density depends on the num"er of ions in the air and the rate at -hich they mo$e a-ay from or to-ard the source of the electric field The relationship "et-een the current density and the electric field is #no-n as the conducti$ity of the air This conducti$ity may $ary -ith the polarity If an o".ect is charged, an electric field is esta"lished around it The field strength -ill $ary from point to point "ut is al-ays proportional to the charge If the o".ect is surrounded "y air ions of "oth polarities, a current carried "y the ions of polarity opposite to its charge -ill flo- to-ard the o".ect This neutralization current is proportional "oth to the charge on the o".ect and to the rele$ant conducti$ity of the surrounding air !tated simply, a charged o".ect attracts ions of the opposite polarity

An ion exposed to an electric field E -ill mo$e -ith an a$erage drift $elocity $ proportional to E, that is, v : kE, -here k is the mo"ility of the ion !mall air ions ha$e mo"ilities in the range of + 7;, 7 cm,<=>s %centimeter, per $oltsecond) This means that a small air ion mo$es at a $elocity of a"out + cm<sec -hen it is exposed to an electric field strength of + =<cm It can "e sho-n experimentally that the mo"ility of negati$e ions is approximately +?@ higher than the mo"ility of positi$e ions If the air has a concentration n of positi$e ions -ith the mo"ility k and charge e, an electric field E -ill cause an electric current to flo- in the direction of E -ith the density j j : enkE : E %,) %+)

The constant A, -hich is equi$alent to enk, is called the positi$e conducti$ity of the air or, more precisely, the polar conducti$ity due to the positi$e ions Begati$e ions -ill mo$e in the opposite direction of the field Ho-e$er, *quation , can still "e used to calculate current density from negati$e ions -hen e is ta#en as the numerical $alue of the ion charge If a "ody is gi$en a charge q of either positi$e or negati$e polarity, an electric field is esta"lished around the "ody If the "ody is surrounded "y air containing air ions of "oth polarities, opposite-polarity air ions -ill flo- to-ard it and ions of the same polarity a-ay from it 0hile the field -ill $ary from point to point in space, it is al-ays proportional to q The mo$ement of charge is an electric current The current to-ard the "ody, carried "y ions of polarity opposite to that of q and #no-n as the neutralization current, is proportional to the charge and to the rele$ant opposite conducti$ity of the surrounding air If the air conducti$ity does not change, then the relati$e rate of charge neutralization is constant, and the charge -ill decay exponentially -ith a time constant C that depends on the air conducti$ity In other -ords, gi$en an initial charge q7, the charge remaining at a later time is gi$en "y q : q7;t<C, %2)

-here the time constant C is equal to the permitti$ity of the air D7 di$ided "y the air conducti$ity, A t : D7<A6 %3)

thus, referring to *quation 2, q : q7t(enk/0), %?)

ma#ing the rate of charge neutralization proportional to the ion concentration 'ractically, it is difficult to maintain constant air conducti$ity Many factors cause $ariations in the rate of charge decay These factors include air"orne-particle concentrations, depletion of ions in the $icinity of a charged o".ect, the inhomogeneity of ionized air, and nonuniform electric fields due to irregularities in the charged o".ect or near"y o".ects Ma#ing corrections for all de$iations from the simple case in order to calculate the time constant is an impractical approach It is generally more reasona"le to measure the neutralizing properties of an ionizer experimentally Natural Air Ions Ions are present naturally in the air, -ith positi$e ions usually exceeding negati$e ions "y a ratio of + ,E+ Typically, clean outdoor air contains ,777;2777 ions per cu"ic centimeter Inside a "uilding -ith natural $entilation, the num"er drops "elo- ?77<cm2, and in most "uildings -ith ducted air-conditioning systems, air ion le$els a"o$e +77<cm2 are rare These natural air ions are formed primarily "y the decay of trace radioacti$e elements in the air, ground, or "uilding materials Fther sources include the tri"oelectric charging caused "y -aterfalls or ocean -a$es %mostly small negati$e ions), lightning storms %temporary increases), and, in the upper atmosphere, the passage of cosmic rays and solar radiation In clean air, ions last no longer than a fe- minutes, the rate of depletion depending on $arious factors The higher the ion density, the more li#ely an ion of one polarity -ill find one of the opposite polarity 0hen this happens, charges are exchanged in a process #no-n as recom"ination, and the result is t-o neutral molecules Gecom"ination also occurs -hen ions contact grounded surfaces Thus, ions used for static neutralization must "e produced in a -ay that minimizes interaction "et-een ions of opposite polarity and must "e isolated from large grounded o".ects Also, large air ions, -hen they form, mo$e much more slo-ly than small air ions The $alue of k "ecomes smaller %see *quation ,) 9arge air ions ha$e much less effect on air conducti$ity and are not of interest for purposes of charge neutralization !mall air ions can "e remo$ed from air "y the electrostatic fields that emanate from statically charged surfaces An electrostatic field interacts -ith the charged air molecules, attracting air ions of polarity opposite to the charge that created the field %see &igure +) Ions are dra-n to the opposite-polarity surface charge until that charge is neutralized and the electrostatic field it created ceases to exist This important phenomenon is the "asis for using air ions for static control

Figure 1. Neutralizing a surface through bipolar air ionization.

Ho-e$er, natural sources of air ionization produce insufficient quantities of ions of "oth polarities to control static charge effecti$ely Much higher ion concentrations are needed for area static neutralization, typically +77,777 to + million ions per cu"ic centimeter of air Air Ionization Creating air ions artificially requires adding electrons to or remo$ing them from the gas molecules in the air T-o "asic methods are used to achie$e thisE alpha ionization and corona ionization Alpha Ionization. Alpha ionizers utilize a nuclear source, polonium ,+7, -hich is an alpha particle emitter The alpha particle, a helium nucleus, collides -ith air molecules, #noc#ing out electrons o$er a tra$el distance of a"out 2 cm 1as molecules that lose electrons "ecome positi$e ions The dislodged electrons do not exist freely for $ery long "efore they are captured "y neutral gas molecules, forming negati$e ions %see &igure ,)

Figure . In alpha ionization! polonium 1" collides #ith air molecules and $noc$s out electrons.

Alpha ionizers al-ays produce "alanced quantities of positi$e and negati$e ions *ach electron #noc#ed out lea$es "ehind a positi$e ion and, -hen captured, creates a negati$e ion This is ad$antageous in certain applications in$ol$ing extremely *!(-sensiti$e components *qual num"ers of positi$e and negati$e ions means that the ionizer is al-ays "alanced to 7 = and neutralizes e$erything in the -or# area to zero Alpha ionization is used commercially for applications in$ol$ing explosi$e or flamma"le en$ironments, or in applications requiring precise "alance of ionization The process is expensi$e "ecause alpha ionizers lose half their strength e$ery +32 days %the half-life of a radioacti$e source) 8sually they must "e replaced annually Although alpha ionizers ha$e more than a ,?-year record of safety, they are su".ect to go$ernment regulation Anything radioacti$e ma#es people ner$ous &or these reasons, alpha ionization use is not as -idespread as that of corona ionization Corona Ionization. Corona ionizers use strong electric fields created "y applying high $oltage to a sharp ionizing point to mo$e the electrons (ue to the decay of trace radioacti$e elements in soil and air, a fe- free electrons are al-ays present in the atmosphere Creation of a high positi$e electric field accelerates these electrons to-ard the ionizing point They collide -ith air molecules and #noc# out more electrons on the -ay, lea$ing "ehind many molecules that ha$e lost electrons and "ecome positi$e ions in a high positi$e electric field This field repels them from the ionizing point, presuma"ly to-ard the area -here they are needed for charge neutralization !imilarly, a negati$e electric field sends free electrons a-ay from the ionizer point into collisions -ith gas molecules that generate more free electrons that are captured "y neutral gas molecules near the ionizing point The negati$e ions created are repelled "y the negati$e electric field ? Corona ionization generally does not pro$ide the intrinsic "alance of ion polarities that alpha ionization does Methods do exist, ho-e$er, to ensure that closely matched quantities of positi$e and negati$e ions are deli$ered to the -or# area despite differences

in ion mo"ilities and ion production rates for each polarity Also, some ionizers include monitoring and feed"ac# capa"ilities to pro$ide adequate long-term sta"ility of the ion "alance in the -or# area Ion "alance is important "ecause an im"alance in the ionizer can induce $oltages on isolated conductors, an outcome .ust the opposite of that for -hich the ionizerHs use is intended %he Ionization Standard. Ionizer "alance, or offset $oltage, is measured -ith a chargedplate monitor %C'M) using procedures defined in the *!( AssociationHs standard on air ionization 2 AB!I *!( !TM2 + is the only ionization standard recognized -orld-ide and has "een referenced in many international static-control standards As a standard test method, it defines only an instrument and test methodology for comparing either different systems or the same system o$er time6 it does not specify required performance "ecause of the $ariety of conditions under -hich air ionization is employed To sol$e the staticcharge pro"lem, discharge times should al-ays "e specified "y the end-user Selecting a &ethod. The *!( sensiti$ity of the product "eing protected generally determines the type of ionization that is "est to use The more sensiti$e the product, the more precise must "e the ionizerHs a"ility to maintain "alance and long-term sta"ility in ion production Ho-e$er, pro"lems such as particle attraction to charged surfaces and *!(-related equipment difficulties can "e sol$ed "y almost any commercially a$aila"le air ionizer !ol$ing these pro"lems does not require ionizer "alance to "etter than a fehundred $olts, as measured -ith the C'M !electing an ionizer may in$ol$e consideration of se$eral other issues as -ell These include a$aila"le airflo-, distance from the ionizer to the -or# area, and the cleanroom compati"ility of the ionizer %ypes of Corona Ionizers !e$eral methods of corona ionization are a$aila"le to create and deli$er "ipolar ionized air to the -or# area These methods differ mainly in -hether high-$oltage ac, dc, or pulsed dc current is used to create ions Ac Ionization. In alternating-current technology, high $oltage is applied to a num"er of closely spaced emitter points that cycle negati$e and positi$e at the line frequency of ?7 or I7 Hz Ionization efficiency is lo- "ecause the points remain a"o$e the ionization threshold $oltage for each polarity only a small percentage of the time Ac technology is -idely used in ionization "ars that control static charge on lo-- and medium-speed mo$ing material -e"s It is used also -ith ionizing "lo-ers and "lo-off gun de$ices In electronics manufacturing, ac ionizers are commonly employed to protect components during assem"ly Because of their dependence on the po-er line, -ith its often un"alanced and noisy characteristics, ac ionizers are rarely used in applications requiring precision "alance %-ithin J+? =) And "ecause of the high ion currents necessary to ma#e up for high le$els of ion recom"ination, particle le$els associated -ith ac ionizers usually ma#e them unsuita"le for cleanroom applications

Steady'State Dc Ionization. High $oltage of "oth polarities is continuously applied to pairs of positi$e and negati$e emitter points in standard direct-current technology6 thus, the efficiency of ion production is "etter than that of ac ionizers Because lo-er operating currents can "e used, steady-state dc ionizers are more applica"le to cleanroom use The a$aila"ility of separate positi$e and negati$e high-$oltage supplies ma#es it possi"le to employ $arious schemes for monitoring and feed"ac# control of ion "alance to "etter than J? = !teady-state dc ionizers can "e used in high-airflo- rooms and in high-speed -e" applications This technology is also applied in ionizing "lo-ers, ionizing "ars, and "lo-off gun de$ices In addition, it has -ide application for controlling static charge in room systems, on -or# surfaces and flo- hoods, and in equipment at the point of use (ulsed Dc Ionization. 'ositi$e and negati$e high-$oltage currents to the emitter points are alternately turned on and off in pulsed systems, creating clouds of positi$e and negati$e ions that mix together in the -or# area The result is a dramatic lo-ering of the recom"ination rate This allo-s ionizers to "e placed on the ceilings of rooms ? m high or higher 'ulsed dc ionizers are used in rooms -ith lo- airflo- and are the most common type of ionizer employed in cleanrooms and laminar-flo- hoods The ad$antage of this type of ionizer is its flexi"ility and $ersatility, as cycle timing can "e ad.usted to the specific airflo- conditions !ince the polarity of the ionizer output $aries -ith the cycle timing, a $oltage s-ing is produced that must "e limited in order to protect *!(-sensiti$e de$ices ? %he )ffect of Air Ions on (eople 0hene$er something is to "e added to the air people "reathe, the natural response is to as# -hat effects it may ha$e !ince the +Kth century, scientists ha$e "een pursuing this question -ith respect to -hat are no- called charged air molecules Gesearch on the effects of air ions on all sorts of "iological systems conducted through the ,7th century found that these included the #illing of microorganisms, the stimulation of plant gro-th, and the shift of chemical le$els in the "lood and "rains of animals Both adding ions to the normal en$ironment and remo$ing them affected "iological systems In$estigations into the effects of air ions on human "eings ha$e follo-ed from the anecdotal e$idence that naturally occurring air ions do affect human acti$ity Certain hot dry -inds, for example, cause a shift in the "alance of positi$e to negati$e air ions, to -hich increases in illness and the alteration of mood ha$e "een attri"uted (espite an a"sence of true dou"le-"lind clinical trials, se$eral conclusions regarding the effects of small air ions on people ha$e "een reached Fne is that not all people notice or react to changes in the le$el of air ions More important, for those -ho are affected, a decrease in the air ion le$el is more significant than an increase or a shift in the ratio of positi$e to negati$e ions &e- human technological acti$ities lead to an increase in air ions Most acti$ities cause depletion Industrial air pollution, stray electrical fields, and $entilation ducts are some

factors that effecti$ely strip air ions from the en$ironment !uch ion depletion can cause sleepiness, attention deficit, discomfort, and headaches, effects that artificially increasing air ion le$els has "een reported to re$erse Ion generators ha$e "een used to mitigate these pro"lems Ho-e$er, there is no general agreement that employing these de$ices to restore or increase en$ironmental le$els of air ions has "eneficial health effects !tudies ha$e sho-n, on the other hand, that for certain tas#s, -or#er performance impro$es in an ionized en$ironment, particularly relati$e to an ion-depleted -or# area 'eople -hose performance or moods are affected "y ion le$els seem to prefer a negati$ely ionized en$ironment Fne thing is common to all studies of the effects of air ions on peopleE no researcher has reported any ad$erse effects from e$en high concentrations of "alanced or monopolar negati$e ionization Conclusion Air ions ha$e other uses "esides the neutralization of static charge Among these are paint spraying, "ag filling, and surface coating Also, electrostatic precipitation, -hich in$ol$es using a monopolar ionizer to generate many charged large air ions of one polarity that are dra-n "y electrostatic forces to oppositely charged collection plates or grounded surfaces, remo$es particles from industrial, office, and home air (esigned for industrial process pollution control, this air-cleaning technology, and all air ionization techniques, may ha$e the additional effect of reducing respiratory pro"lems in -or#ers and instilling in them a greater sense of -ell-"eing Anecdotal e$idence suggests as much Air ionization is already important for deli$ering static control in high-technology manufacturing, "ut researchers around the -orld are continuing to in$estigate neapplications for air ionization in "oth industrial processes and "iological systems Inno$ati$e uses for nanotechnology, "iotechnology, and other life science applications are "eing de$eloped *eferences + AB!I<*!( !,7 ,7;+LLL, 4(e$elopment of an *lectrostatic (ischarge 'rogram for the 'rotection of *lectrical and *lectronic 'arts, Assem"lies and *quipment5 %Gome, BME *!( Association, +LLL) , !*MI *NK-++7?, 41uide to Assess and Control *lectrostatic (ischarge %*!() and *lectrostatic Attraction %*!A) in !emiconductor *quipment5 %!an OoseE !emiconductor *quipment and Materials International, ,77,) 2 AB!I<*!( !TM2 +;,77?, 4Ionization5 %Gome, BME *!( Association, ,77?) 3 AO !teinman, 4're$enting *lectrostatic 'ro"lems in !emiconductor Manufacturing,5 Compliance Engineering ,+, no + %,773)E KL;L2 ? A !teinman, 4Air IonizationE Issues and Ans-ers5 %tutorial presented at the ,Nth Annual *F!<*!( !ymposium, Anaheim, CA, !eptem"er ++;+I, ,77?)

Arnold teinman is chie! technolog" o!!icer !or #$ % &on "stems (Alameda% CA)' (e can )e reached at *+0,-+.,0/+* or via e,mail at asteinman0ion'com