Embryology

Textbooks
The Developing Human by Kieth L.more Human Embryology by William Larsen Clinical Embryology by Richard Snell Medical Embryology Langmans 10th edition

by T.W Sadler

Terminology
Embryology is the study of development from

fertilized egg through the eighth week in utero

Developmental Anatomy is the study of

development from fertilized egg to adult form

Development is a process begins with an oocyte

(ovum) is fertilized by a spermatozoa (sperm).and ends at death.

Teratology is the study abnormal development

(congenital malformations)

 Pre-embryonic period : first 3 weeks after

fertilization
Embryonic period ; begins 4 weeks after

fertilization to the 8th week.

Fetal period: from the 9th week until birth

Prenatal period
in which the important changes occur before birth :

Oocyte : female germ cell (ovum)

Zygote : the resultant cell of fertilization and the beginning of the

human being.
Cleavage : Mitotic divisions of the zygote.
Morula : solid ball of cells (16 or more blastomers)

Morula turns into Blastocyst in the uterus.

Embryo : composed of embryoblasts that forms the Bilaminar disc

and extends to the 8th week.

Fetus : from the 9th week to birth (fetal period)

Postnatal period
Changes occur after birth : Infancy : from after birth till the first year Newborn (neonatal) is in the first 2 weeks The body grows rapidly during infancy Length increase by about 50% Weight is tripled

 Childhood :

The period from 15 months to 12-13 years

Teeth are replaced by permanent ones Active ossification of the bones Puberty: In girls between 12-15 In boys between 13-16 Secondary sexual characteristics develop

 Adolescence:

The period of 3-4 years after puberty

After sexual maturity until the attainment of

physical, mental, and emotional maturity.

Adulthood ; Early adulthood 18-25 years in which ossifications

and growth is virtually completed After that developmental changes occur very slowly leading to Senility (old age).

Human Development

 Development begins with

fertilization
the process by which the

male gamete, the sperm, and the female gamete, the oocyte, unite to give rise to a zygote.
Gametes are derived from

primordial germ cells

are formed in the epiblast

during the second week and move to the wall of the yolk sac

 During the fourth week these

cells begin to migrate from the yolk sac toward the developing gonads and arrive at the fifth week
Mitotic divisions increase their

number during their migration and also when they arrive in the gonad.
In preparation for fertilization,

germ cells undergo gametogenesis

which includes meiosis, to

reduce the number of chromosomes and

Overview of the Reproductive System

Reproductive system
In men

The reproductive system in men has

components in the abdomen, pelvis, and perineum

The major components are a testis,

epididymis, ductus deferens, and ejaculatory duct on each side

and the urethra and penis in the midline In addition, three types of accessory

glands are associated with the system: a single prostate; a pair of seminal vesicles; and a pair of bulbourethral glands.
The design of the reproductive system

in men is basically a series of ducts and

Testes
The testes originally develop

high on the posterior abdominal wall and then descend, normally before birth, through the inguinal canal
The spermatic cord is the

tube-shaped connection between the pouch in the scrotum and the abdominal wall.
Each testis is composed of

seminiferous tubules (400-600) and interstitial tissue surrounded by a thick connective tissue capsule (the tunica albuginea).

Epididymis
The epididymis is a

single, long coiled duct that courses along the posterolateral side of the testis
During passage through

the epididymis, spermatozoa acquire the ability to move and fertilize an egg
The epididymis also

stores spermatozoa until ejaculation. The end of the epididymis is continuous with the

 The ductus deferens is a

long muscular duct that transports spermatozoa from the tail of the epididymis in the scrotum to the ejaculatory duct in the pelvic cavity
Each seminal vesicle is

an accessory gland of the male reproductive system

Secretions from the

seminal vesicle contribute significantly to the volume of the ejaculate (semen).

 The prostate is an unpaired

accessory structure of the male reproductive system that surrounds the urethra in the pelvic cavity
Secretions from the prostate,

together with secretions from the seminal vesicles, contribute to the formation of semen during ejaculation.
The bulbourethral glands one

on each side, are small, peashaped mucous glands

the bulbourethral glands

contribute to lubrication of the urethra and the pre-ejaculatory emission from the penis.

Urethra
The urethra begins at the base

of the bladder and ends with an external opening in the perineum

In men, the urethra is long,

about 20 cm, and bends twice along its course

The urethra in men is divided

into preprostatic, prostatic, membranous, and spongy parts.

Preprostatic part is about 1 cm

 The prostatic part of the

urethra is 3-4 cm long and is surrounded by the prostate

On each side of the prostatic

urethra is the opening of the ejaculatory duct of the male reproductive system.
Therefore, the connection

between the urinary and reproductive tracts in men occurs in the prostatic part of the urethra.

 The membranous part of the

urethra is narrow and passes through the deep perineal pouch

During its transit through this

pouch, the urethra, in both men and women, is surrounded by skeletal muscle of the external urethral sphincter
The spongy urethra is

surrounded by erectile tissue (the corpus spongiosum) of the penis

The two bulbourethral glands in

the deep perineal pouch are part of the male reproductive system

Reproductive system
In women The reproductive tract in women is

contained mainly in the pelvic cavity and perineum, although, during pregnancy, the uterus expands into the abdomen
Major components of the system

consist of: an ovary on each side; and a uterus, vagina, and clitoris in the midline
In addition, a pair of accessory

Ovaries
Like the testes in men, the ovaries develop

high on the posterior abdominal wall and then descend before birth
Unlike the testes, the ovaries do not migrate

through the inguinal canal into the perineum, but stop short and assume a position on the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity
The ovaries are the sites of egg production

(oogenesis).
Mature eggs are ovulated into the peritoneal

cavity and normally directed into the adjacent openings of the uterine tubes by cilia on the ends of the uterine tubes.
Each of the two almond-shaped ovaries is

about 3 cm long and is suspended by a mesentery (the mesovarium) from the posterior aspect of the broad ligament.

Uterus
The uterus is a thick-walled muscular

organ in the midline between the bladder and rectum

It consists of a body and a cervix, and

inferiorly it joins the vagina

Superiorly, uterine tubes project

laterally from the uterus and open into the peritoneal cavity immediately adjacent to the ovaries.
has a rounded superior end (fundus of

uterus).
Implantation of the blastocyst normally

occurs in the body of the uterus.

During pregnancy, the uterus

dramatically expands superiorly into the abdomen.

Endometrium
It is the inner layer of the uterus ; Composed of :

Compact layer
Thick spongy layer Basal layer ( has its own blood supply) The compact and spongy layers are the

functional ones and are shed during menses.

Menarche : it is the first time menses

occurs (age of puberty) Menopause : is a variable period in which the cyclic changes become irregular and disappear , the age of menopause is around (45-55 years )
Between the menarche and menopause

the genital system undergoes cyclic changes in structre and functional activity

Uterine tubes (Fallopian)

The uterine tubes extend

from each side of the superior end of the body of the uterus
Because the ovaries are

suspended from the posterior aspect of the broad ligaments, the uterine tubes pass superiorly over, and terminate laterally to, the ovaries.
Each uterine tube has an

expanded trumpet-shaped end (the infundibulum),

 The margin of the

infundibulum is rimmed with small finger-like projections termed fimbriae

Medial to the infundibulum,

the tube expands to form the ampulla and then narrows to form the isthmus, before joining with the body of the uterus.
The fimbriated infundibulum

facilitates the collection of ovulated eggs from the ovary.

urethra
In women, the urethra is

short, being about 4 cm long

The inferior aspect of the

urethra is bound to the anterior surface of the vagina

Two small paraurethral

mucous glands (Skene's glands) are associated with the lower end of the urethra

The Chromosomes
Traits of a new individual are

determined by specific genes on chromosomes inherited from the father and the mother.
Humans have approximately

35,000 genes on 46 chromosomes

Genes on the same

chromosome tend to be inherited together and so are known as linked genes

In somatic cells,

chromosomes appear as 23 homologous pairs to form

 There are 22 pairs of matching chromosomes, the autosomes,

and one pair of sex chromosomes.

If the sex pair is XX, the individual is genetically female if the pair is XY, the individual is genetically male

One chromosome of each pair is derived from the maternal

gamete, the oocyte and one from the paternal gamete, the sperm
Thus each gamete contains a haploid number of 23

chromosomes (1n)
the union of the gametes at fertilization restores the diploid

number of 46.

MITOSIS
Mitosis is the process whereby one cell divides, giving

rise to two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell
Each daughter cell receives the complete complement of

46 chromosomes
Before a cell enters mitosis, each chromosome replicates

its deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

During this replication phase the chromosomes are

extremely long
they are spread diffusely through the nucleus, and they

cannot be recognized with the light microscope

Prophase
With the onset of mitosis the

chromosomes begin to coil, contract, and condense

these events mark the beginning of

prophase.
Each chromosome now consists of

two parallel subunits, chromatids

that are joined at a narrow region

common to both called the centromere.

Throughout prophase the

chromosomes continue to condense, shorten, and thicken

only at prometaphase do the

Metaphase
During metaphase the

chromosomes line up in the equatorial plane, and their doubled structure is clearly visible
Each is attached by

microtubules extending from the centromere to the centriole, forming the mitotic spindle

Anaphase and Telophase

Soon the centromere of each

chromosome divides, marking the beginning of anaphase

followed by migration of chromatids

to opposite poles of the spindle

Finally, during telophase,

chromosomes uncoil and lengthen,

the nuclear envelope reforms, and

the cytoplasm divides

Each daughter cell receives half of

all doubled chromosome material and thus maintains the same number of chromosomes as the mother cell (2n).

Mitosis

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in

the germ cells to generate male and female gametes, sperm and egg cells
Meiosis requires two cell divisions, meiosis I and

meiosis II, to reduce the number of chromosomes to the haploid number of 23 (1n)

 As in mitosis, male and female germ

cells (spermatocytes and primary oocytes) at the beginning of meiosis I replicate their DNA
so that each of the 46 chromosomes is

duplicated into sister chromatids

In contrast to mitosis, however,

homologous chromosomes then align themselves in pairs, a process called synapsis

The pairing is exact and point for point

except for the XY combination

Crossover
Crossovers, critical events in meiosis I,

are the interchange of chromatid segments between paired homologous chromosomes

Segments of chromatids break and are

exchanged as homologous chromosomes separate.

As separation occurs, points of interchange

are temporarily united and form an X-like structure, a chiasma

The approximately 30 to 40 crossovers (one

or two per chromosome) with each meiotic I division are most frequent between genes that are far apart on a chromosome.

 Homologous

pairs then separate into two daughter cells

Shortly thereafter

meiosis II separates sister chromatids.

Each gamete

then contains 23

Meiosis

Meiosis
As a result of meiotic divisions, genetic variability is enhanced through crossover,

which redistributes genetic material

genetic variability is also enhanced through random

distribution of homologous chromosomes to the daughter cells

each germ cell contains a haploid number of

chromosomes
so that at fertilization the diploid number of 46 is

restored