ECONOMIC

Vot.. XXVII SEPTEMBER,

GEOLOGY
x932
No. 6

THE

VEINS

OF CASAPALCA,

PERU.

H. E. McKINSTRY

AND J. A. NOBLE.

INTRODUCTION

IN connection with the presentinterestin zonal arrangement of mineralization, the CasapalcaDistrict affords unusual opportunities for studyingan instructiveexample. Here a singlevein systemhas been openedup through a remarkablevertical and horizontal range. The structureof the country-rockand veins has beenworked out and the sequence of mineralizationstudied. Development .work was followed by one or the other of the writersduringa periodof ten years,so that therehasbeenample opportunityto checktheoriesagainstactual results. .4cknowledgments.--The writers are greatly indebtedto Professors L. C. Gratonand D. H. McLaughlin for their enthusiastic interest,and for suggesting many of the ideas.herepresented; to Messrs.J. D. Campbelland 'C. S. T. Farish, Superintendent and Assistant Superintendent at Casapalca,for facilities during the
course of the .work; and to the officers of the Cerro de Pasco

CopperCorporationfor permission to publishthis paper. Location.---Casapalca is situatedhigh in the central Peruvian Andes, just below the ContinentalDivide. The camp site and railway stationlie in the bottomof the canyon-like valley of the Rimac River, a streamwhich at this point flows southward, but lower in its course swingsto the westand, passing throughLima, entersthe Pacificat the port of Callao. East of the to,wn of Casapalca, Carlos Francisco,one of the peaks of the Western Cordillera, rises to an altitude of I7,OOO
5oi

,502

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND

J'. A. NOBLE.

feet, and it is in this mountain that the Carlos Francisco Mine has beenopened. The name of one other mine needsto be borne in mind--the Aguas Calientes,so-calledbecauseflows of hot water have beenencountered in the workings. It is a mile and a quarter southof CarlosFranciscoon a continuation of the same

generalvein system. From a point lower down in the valley a tunnelthree mileslong cutsthe vein system, which can be followedupwardthroughconnected workingsfor a .vertical distance of 3,500 feet to the outcrop just belowthe summitof the peak.
GENERAL GEOLOGY.x

A thick series of redbeds is overlainby deepflows of extrusive porphyry, the wholecompressed by Incaic foldingalongnorth-

7'--

Fro. x. Map of CentralPart of Casapalca District. C.M., CarmenMember; T.V., Tablachaca Voltanits; V.A., Veintiuno Andesite.
x For a description of the geolo of CtrM Peru and referenceto earlier works, see: Meughlin, D. H.: BI. ol. S. Amen, vol 35, PP. 59x432, x924;
Informaclones y Mmori de la Soe. de Ing. del Peru, vol. XXVII, Feb., Steam,n, G.: Geologic won Peru, Carl Winters, Universitts Buehhandlung, Heidelberg, x925, 448 Pp.

z The post-Cretaceous orogenie movement which accomplished the first phase the development of the Andes is reined Andean folding by Steinmn (op. The secondphase (early Tertian) he terms "Ineaie folding."

THE VEINS OF CASAPALCA,PERU.

503

west-striking axes, intruded bymagma of intermediate comp.osi-

tion, cut byoreveins, and finally exposed byerosion. (Fig. x.)

The geologic columnis shownin Table I.
TABLE I.

GIOLOGIC COLUIN.

SedOnentarlyand Extrusive Rocks.

tv. cET--Hot SpringsDeposits, Glacial Deposits.

Qua?EtA--Glacial Deposits. ?.?XAaV ( ?)--

(Unconforrnity.)
Rio Blanco Forrnatwr.a Rio Blanco Voltanits.

Tapachuarmi Tuff.

Bella VistaBeds (thinlimestone andshale interbedded withvoltanits).

Yauliyacu Tuff.

Carlos FranciscoPorphyry.
Tablachaca Voleanies.

( Unconformity.)
Rimac Formation.

Carmen Member (conglomerate, sandstone, shale, andlimestone).

Amygdaloidalflows (local).

Casapalca Redbeds (shale, sandstone, andsome limestone).

( Unconformit.)
ctx?,covs--Machay Limestone.
Intrusive Rocks.

-?x,--Taruca Porphyry. Victoria Porphyry and Veintiuno Andesitc (sills probably relatedto Taruca Porphyry).

marized briefly as follows:

The history of sedimentation andvulcanism maybe sum-

A longperiodof probably terrestrial sedimentation .wasfol-

lowed bya prolonged period of volcanic extrusion. Preceding

Steinmann's "Rimac Formation" includes theredbeds andoverlying voltanits
o Western Peru. McLaughlin hassuggested separating the voltanits under the
name"Rio Blanco Formation" because of an unconformity. Steinmann considers

theRimac Formation, including thevoltahies, Upper Cretaceous or Early Tertiary. (Review of G. Steinmann's "Geologie yonPeru"by D. H. McLaughlin, Ecoa.
'Gr. oI..,vol.24, p. 667,929.) The present writers are responsible for the names
of the local subdivisions of the two formations.

504

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND

J. .4. NOBLE.

the volcanicactivity, erosionwas rejuvenatedand produced a seriesof pebbleand boulderconglomerates (Carmen Member). The vulcanism opened with eruptionsof ash and thick lava flows that were mingled or interbedded with coarsesediments (Tablachaca Volcanics). Finally andesiticflows becamepredominant but were interrupted at one stage by limestonesedimentation accompanied by eruptionsof volcanicash. Since the principal ore depositsoccur in the redbedsand the

lower portionof the volcanics, we will describe only the Rimac

Formation, the Tablachaca Volcanics, and the Carlos Francisco

Porphyry.
Sedimentaryand Extrusive Rocks.

CasapalcaRedbeds.--The lowest formation exposedin the immediatedistrictconsists of red sandstone and shale;3,0o0 feet are known to be exposed. Toward the top, coarse limestone bedsbecome more and more abundant and thereappears a horizon varying in thickness from x5 or lessto 90o feet (Carmen Member) in which lensesand beds of limestoneand conglomerate predominate. A few small lenses of amygdaloidnear the bottom of the Carmen Member mark the beginningof vulcanism.
Tablachaca Volcanics.--Transitional in character between the

conglomerate of the .CarmenMember (on which it lies unconformably) and the overlying thick series of volcanicsis a sequenceof flows and pyroclastics which includesa great variety of material; porphyry, andesitetuff, breccia,agglomerate,conglomerate,sandstone, quartzite, and limestone,the volcanicrocks predominating. Someof the agglomerate bedsare most striking, as the "pebbles" range tip to a foot or more in diameter. The
thicknessof this formation, which is about 200 feet in the north,

increases rapidly southwardto a measured 2,30o feet. CarlosFra.ncisco Porphyry.rePassing upward in the extrusive series, the flows of red porphyry common in the Tablachaca Volcanics become lessabundant, conglomerates disappear, and the predominant types are massiveporphyry and porphyry breccia, which consists of angular fragmentsof porphyry,usuallygreenish, in a matrix of reddishporphyry. The massiveporphyry

THE

VEINS

OF CASAPALCA,

PERU.

505

beds aregrayto greenish, locally bearing hornblende phenocrysts.

Microscopic examination shows automorphic phenocrysts, x mm. to 4 mm. long, of feldsparrangingin composition from albite

through oligoclase to andesine.The feldspar is highlysericitized

even where remote from veins. The ferro-magnesians are usu-

ally altered beyond recognition and are now represented only by

blotches of chlorite,calcite, and residual magnetite. The groundmassis mainly very fine-grained but contains somefeldsp/trs up to o.x mm. in lengthin trachytictexture,with opaque interstitial material (limonite?). Some of the porphyry may be intrusive. The thicknessof the formation'where measuredis about x,3oo feet.
Intrusive Rocks.

_All the intrusive rocks of the district are similar chemically,

but differ in texture and amount of alteration. All are inter-

mediate in composition and characterized by high soda content. As would be expected, the coarser-grained and more acid types occurin stocks and laccoliths, and the finer and more basictypes
are in dikes and sills.

Taruca Porphyry.--Particularly in the northern and eastern part of this.district there are stocks,sills, and dikes of grayisl green medium-grained porphyry,consisting of blocky white to greenish feldspars and elongated hornblendelaths in a gray

groundmass.Quartz is rare.
Thin sectionsshow a trachytic groundmass(60 per cent. of the volume) which consistsof somewhat sericitized feldspar microlites (oligoclase-albite) .with small grains and shreds of hornblendesparingly distributed. There is some magnetite in small rounded to euhedral grains. Of the phenocrysts, feldspar is about twice as abundant as hornblende. Quartz is minor in amount, usually under 5 per cent. The feldspar is oligoclase-albite ,withcoarse albitetwinning and a slight tendencyto zonal structure. The phenocrysts are somewhat elongated and are partially sericitized. The hornblendeis greenish yellow, showingfairly strongpleochroism ir

506

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND

J. A, NOBLE.

olive green tones. The crystalsare decidedlyelongatedand someare euhedral. Small apatite crystalsare includedin the
hornblende.

The rock, therefore, consists essentially of albite-oligoclase and hornblende, i.e. acid plagioclase and amphibolewith minor quartz. This might be calledan albite-diorite or a soda-syenite, depending on the rock classification used. Veintiuno .4ndesite.--A number of sills of dark fine-grained
intrusive are found in the redbeds. Stocks of similar material

(mappedas Victoria Porphyry) are intrudedinto the Casapalca formation in the northwestern portion of the area.
Structure.

The rocksof the district.wereinvolvedin the last great o.rogenic movement (Incaic) whichaffected the Andesand which expressed itself in folding along northwest axes (Fig. 2). Typical of this regional structureare overturnedfolds which pass along their strike into thrust faults. Locally a broad anticlinearches

overthe RimacValley and passes eastward into a syncline under Carlos Franciscopeak. Betweenthe anticlineand the syncline the dipsare steeply eastward and in places overturned.

..'" '" "'"x ...'"'.."'"."'" ""'.. "?'. ', '"\

1" ..' ,v ..k, ". '".'. ..'
Fro. 2. Section across CasapalcaDistrict looking northeast. bvl, Bella Vista Limestone; tv, TablachacaVolcanics; cc, Carmen Member;

cfp, CarlosFrancisco porphyry;tp, Taruca porphyry.

ORE DEPOSITS. Vein Str,wture.

The mainveinsystem extends northandsouth(or 'more' accurately N. 40 E.). Branching from themain (Carlos Francisco-Aguas Calientes) system from pointsbetween the two

THE

VEINS

OF CASAPALCA,

PERU.

5o7

mines,two other veins make off to the eastward--the Bella Union

and the Carmen(Fig. I). Toward the hanging-wall, or westward of the mainzoneandmoreor lessparallel to it, is another lessimportant vein (Rayo). All the veinshavegeneral northwest dips.

'Although a fewcross-faults have received minor mineralization, the major faults are unmineralized. The veins cut at an

acute angle acrossthe northwest-trending regionalstructure. passing from the redbeds into the overlying extrusive porphyry. Althoughthey are productive in both formations, thereis some difference in theirphysical nature in the differing types of wallrock.

In fracturing, the porphyry hasevidently behaved as a brittle rockand the veinsin it are intricateand brandhing, but the red shale hasyielded to plastic deformation, andthrough-going fractureshave formedonly 'where the stress has beenparticularly strong. In fact, the only important vein that extends far into this formation is along a fault fissure of some 3o0 feetdisplacement. One outlyingvein (the Carmen), which within a short distance passes through three different formations,illustrates particularly .wellthe physical effects of wall-rock;in the Carmen Member,whose hard conglomerate bedsappearto have been particularly easilybroken, it is widest;on passing into shale the veins pinch to narrowslips; on entering the porphyry theysplit into intricately branching stringers, rich but narrow. Depthalsoappears to influence thetypeof fracturing; theveins
are more regular on the lower levelsand more complicated near
the surface.

In the porphyryof the CarlosFrancisco Mine, the veins lie in en echelon or overlapping relation to eachother (Figs. 3 and 4), locally termed "shingle structure." Where the hangingwall "shingle" diesout downward, it is usually connected with the footwall veinby a vertical vein,whichmaybe wideandrich. In some casesthe "shingles" are "reversed "; that is, the footwallvein is the one that dies out, and in this casethere is usuallyno strong connecting vein. This type of structureis

508

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND J. A. NOBLE.

shownnot only in the broad relationsof the large veins, which may be severalhundredfeet apart, but alsoin the minor branches of the individual veins. It is seenin plan as well as in section; wherethe offsetis to the left, there is usuallya northward-strik-

ing connecting vein between the t,worortheast veins;wherethe

offsetis to the right, there may be no importantconnection.
!

/!
/
/ /

$00 FT ( /'

I00 FEET

Fro. 3. Vertical cross-section of Main Vein System, lookingnorth; to show overlappingof veins and vertical connecting branches. Fro. 4. "Shingle Structure" reversed from that shownin Fig. 3, connectingvein lacking. Southernpart of Carlos FranciscoMine.

Near the junctions of thesesplitsthe veinsare particularly wide. Vertical portions of the veinsare commonly strong,but portions flatterthan 50 are mostlytoo narrowto mine. Therehasbeenlittle post-vein movement.The only fault of
any consequence is onein the CarlosFranciscoMine which offsets
the vein a maximum of about oo feet.

THE

VEINS

OF CASAPALCA,

PERU.

509

Typesof Vein Filling.

The vein-matter consists mainly of quartz-carbonate gangue with pyrite, sphalerite, galena,and tetrahedrite,but the proportions and textures of these minerals are far from uniform and

a numberof intergrading typesof mineralization occur. _Avein may changealong the strike from one type to another, or two or threetypesmay occurin streaks sideby sidein the samevein. . Pyrite, with or without quartz gangue. The pyrite is usuallymassivebut may containrugs and where crystallized generallyoccursin pyritohedrons. The walls of this type of vein are for the most part not well defined,as vein-matterreplaces .wall-rock in grains and veinlets alongthe margins. The pyrite may be accompanied by a white quartz gangue,which often showscomb structurein elongated vugs. A little chalcopyrite may be present. 2. Coarse-grained pyrite-sphalerite-galena with little gangue or with clear quartz. Where vugs occur, they are likely to be elongated and showcombstructure of quartz. This type of vein is likely to be "tight," however. 3. Fine to medium-grained sphalerite-tetrahedrite-galena vein, with or withoutpyrite. This type may be entirely without gangue,in which caseit is commonlyconfinedbetweengougewalls and is narrow. Quartz, however,is usually presentas small crystals in vugs. Crystals of sphalerite are common, galena,lesscommon, and tetrahedrite, rare. Somevugsmay be
lined with bournonitecrystals. 4. Sphalerite-tetrahedrite-galena (pyrite) in carbonate gangue. The carbonateis white cleavablecalcite, manganiferouscalcite and rhodochrosite. Quartz may be presentin minor amounts. 5. Fine-grainedgalena-sphalerite (pyrite). This type of vein is "tight," i.e. free from vugs,and replaces wall-rockin stringers.

6. A type entirelydistinctfrom the others,and probablyof

a later stage. It consists of botryoidalcalciteand gray cherty quartz showingtiny crystal vugs. Stibnite and realgar commonly occur.

Occurrence of Types.--Exceptfor type6, noneof these varie-

5xo

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND

3'. A. NOBLE.

ties of vein-mattercut one another. They may exist side by

side in the same vein with no distinct line of demarcation between

them. No one type has a consistent preferencefor. the hanging wall or footwall. Someof the typesare characteristic of certain portionsof the district, as will later be pointedout under Zonal Arrangement. Micro-texture and Mineral Sequence.--Broad!y speaking, the order of deposition of mineralswas as follows: Gangueminerals (quartz and carbonates), pyrite, sphalerite, galena,tetrahedrite. bournonite. There is, in places, a late generation of quartz,and quitecommonly a late tufting of .calcite uponthe sulphides. Calcite, manganiferous calcite,and rhodochrosite are mostly earlierthan quartz,.which commonly replaces them in stringsof euhedral grains. Quartz cuts the wall-rock in stringers and veinsthat may exhibit comb-structure and containcrystal-lined vugs. Thin sections show.clusters of moderately coarsequartz grains replacing the wall-rock. Sulphides in the vugsmay be perched on the quartz crystals but commonly replacethe wall-rock behindthe quartz. Pyrite in cubical crystals develops by replacement within grainsof quartz and carbonate. Sphalerite corrodes the prismsof the quartzand

replaces grainsinterstitially. It rounds the .cubic pyrite crystals. The dark variety of sphalerite invariablycontains the familiar chalcopyrite blebs, buttheresin-colored varietyis free from them. Someof the galena,at least, is later than the sphalerite, although the boundaries are usually rounded and non-committal as to order. In many instances, galenareplaces sphalerite in
"sea-and-islandtexture," and rare veinlets cut the blende. In one casesphalerite corrodes and replaces the lower part of a quartzcrystal, and galena, whichpartiallyreplaces the sphalerite, is molded aroundtheterminalpyramidof the quartz,suggesting that galena was deposited in a vug, attacking the sphalerite but not the quartz. Galena may traverse pyritecrystals. It hasalso beenobserved surrounding pyritegrainsand sending out veinlets into inclosing carbonate. Tetrahedrite clearlyreplaces sphalerite. It fills irregularfrac-

THE

VEINS

OF CASAPALCA,

PERU.

511

tures which separateislands of blende from the main mass of

themineral; it tends to seek outtheboundaries between sphalerite

and pyrite and to form irregular veinletsin such places. It replaces carbonate gangue directlyand, in the AguasCalientes ore,is altered to chalcopyrite alongthe margins.

The replacement textures of sphalerite by galena andby tetrahedrite differ, the tetrahedritetending to confineitself more

closely to fractures andboundaries whereas thegalena exhibits a

more stronglyreplacing action,forming roundedcontacts, and
"sea-and-island texture."

There is a lategeneration of carbonate gangue which commonly carries tetrahedrite.In polished section, veinlets of gangue are seen to .cutthe oldersulphides, but rhombohedral grainspresent raggedboundaries to the surrotmding tetrahedrite, suggesting that some tetrahedrite came alongwith and slightly later than
this carbonate.

The tetrahedrite for themostpart canbe etched by KCN and this, coupled .with its high silver content,indicates that it is mainlythe varietyfreibergite. Bournonite is commonly associated with the tetrahedrite, and its'characteristic position is in a bandof irregularwidth lying between galena andthe gray copper. Its colorresembles that of the tetrahedrite but it can be distinguished readilyunderthe polarizing microscope by its beautifultwinningbands. The common positionof bournonite between galenaand tetrahedrite

together with its chemical composition, (Pb Cu.2)a Sb2S6,suggeststhat both mineralsmay have contributed material to its
formation.

Beautifulrug liningsshowwell the relationships of someof the minerals, the sequence in general checking that inferredfrom microscopic criteria. Some of the open cavitiesin the Carlos
Francisco Mine are a foot or more .wide and measure ten feet or

more lengthwise. They are lined with quartz, calcite, sphalerite

and bournonite, all well crystallized. 4 Althoughin somecases the crystals of galena andbournonite are intergrown as though
4 For further deseriptlon of mineralogy seeMcKinstry,H. E.: Amer. Min., vol.
12, No. -, I927 .

512

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND J. A. NOBLE.

they had startedout from different centersand interfered with eachother, there are also crystalsof both tetrahedriteand bournonite that rest upon the galena. In somevugs the early sulphides, galenaand sphalerite, are pittedand etched but the tetrahedriteand bournonite are fresh. Occasional pyritohedrons of a late generation of pyrite rest on the sphalerite. Vugs from the Aguas Calientesmine showing similar etching of galena and sphaleritecontain tetrahedritecrystalsentirely coatedby chalcopyrite. Bournonitein these specimens is unetched but bears a dustingof minutepyrite crystals. Tiny quartz crystals rest on
the coated tetrahedrite but not on the bournonite. In fact one

bournonitecrystal clearly grew around one of these quartz

crystals.

Thus it appears that, followingthe main periodof deposition of sphalerite, galena,and tetrahedrite there was a stageduring whichthe sphalerite and galenawereetched and chalcopyrite and quartz were deposited on the tetrahedrite. Following this, bournonite and still later pyrite were deposited. This sequence indicates that theetching andchalcopyrite deposition werehypogene, a conclusion which is supported by the observation of corroded sulphides on the i,9oo-foot level of the CarlosFrancisco Mine,
far below the natural water-table.

In portions of the lower levels,chalcopyrite is fairly common in veinletscuttingpyrite and alongmarginsof sphalerite veins. apparently,but not certainly, replacingthe blende. Elsewhere chalcopyrite is sparse. The blebsin sphalerite, crustson tetrahedrite, and microscopically visible films outlining tetrahedrite crystalsare quantitativelyinsignificant. On the upper levels (200 ft. and above) occasional chalcopyrite veinletscut sphalerite, tetrahedrite, and quartz and are accompanied by a little covellite. Such textures are not known on the deeper levels
and are probablysupergene.

A reconstructed sequence of mineralizationis as follows: Gangue Minerals: quartz, calcite, manganiferous calcite, and rhodochrosite;Pyrite; Sphalerite; Galena; Tetrahedrite (and chalcopyrite?); Quartz; (Chalcopyrite); Bournonite; (Pyrite); (Quartz); Calcite.

THE

VEINS

OF CAS'APALCA,

PERU.

513

The minerals includedin parentheses have been observedin a few places at the indicated positionin the succession but do not constitute importantstages of deposition. The order, especially in the repetitionof pyrite and quartz, probablyvaried somewhat from placeto placeand there.wasconsiderable overlapping in the time of depositionof the sulphides. The simpler and more generalizedsequence at the beginningof this section,however,

was quite consistently folloxed.

Except for a minor portion of the chalcopyrite on the upper levelsand a traceof covellite, no secondary sulphides have been
observed. There are, of course, oxidized minerals at the im-

mediateoutcropand along fracturesin the upper levels,but supergene processes haveplayedno part .worthyof discussion.
I/Fall-Rock Alteration

Wail-rocknearthe veinsshows alteration consisting essentially

of silicification and sericitization. Vhere alteration is intense

it is practically impossible to distinguish between redbeds, tuffs, and porphyries withoutmicroscopic study. Even the conglomerate of the Carmenmembercannotalwaysbe recognized. In CarlosFrancisco Porphyryand Taruca Porphyry.--The chemical and mineralogical similarityof these two rockscauses them to alter similarly. The hornblende is the first mineral attacked and evenremotefrom veins well preserved hornblende crystals are rare. Hornblende is replaced by chloriteand calcite. The feldspars are sericitized, thosein the groundmass succumbing first. The groundmass becomes an aggregate of calcite and sericite spotted with iron stains. (uartz is introduced and tends to congregate aroundthe old hornblende phenocrysts. The extremeproductof alterationis finely granularwhite rock with flaky fractureand cut by pyrite stringers. The feldsparphenocrysts cannot be distinguished macroscopically. Ep.idoteis absent. This rock consists of highlysericitized phenocrysts in a groundmass of fine-grainedquartz, sericite,and

514

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND

J. .4. NOBLE.

feldspar-remnants. Small angular patchesof calcite represent hornblende. Pyrite is present in irregular grains, sometimes elongated, suggesting that the mineral had startedits growth as veinletsbut had enlarged its areasby replacement. Sericiteflakes follow irregular stringers.
There are a few veinlets of .calcite and adularia with some

quartz. Quartz alsodevelops large irregular grains. Small rods

of a prismatic material (straight ex[inction, negative elongation.

low birefringence),possibly zoisite,are scattered here and there. In many places, particularlyin the southend of CarlosFrancisco,a pink phaseof alteredrock appears. This is fine-grained and porcelain-like, breakingwith a subconchoidal fracture. Microscopically it consists of a groundmass mainly of sericite, with scattered quartzgrains. Epidoteoccurs in irregularpatches and pyrite in shapeless grains, commonly carrying inclusionsof
quartz.

With increasingdistancefrom the vein, epidotebeginsto appear and feldsparphenocrysts beginto be visiblemacroscopically. This less altered type shows, in thin section, feldspars only

slightly sericitized andgroundmass fairly fresh. Ferromagnesiansare completely altered to chlorite and epidote. Magnetite

isabsent butpyrite grains arranged ifi stringers traverse thefield.

In general,the sequence on going away from the vein is: x. 2. 3. 4. White, granular,pyritized, to 3 feet. Pink, granular, with someepidote,o to 3o feet. Green.,epidotized with somepyrite, o to 3 feet. Purplish, little-alteredporphyry.

In the south end of the Carlos Francisco mine the altered zone is

in places as muchas x50 feet wide. In the north end, or farther

from the centerof the district,the greenand purpletypesmay

occur .within a few centimeters of the vein. To summarize: intense alteration .consists of sericitization with

pyritizationand silicification. Less intensealterationis propylitic (calcite, chlorite, epidote, andsome sericite andpyrite). In

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VEINS

OF CASAPALCA,

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515

the "green" stage, propylitic alteration continueswith some sericitization and a little pyritization but with very little silicification.

In Redbeds.--The most intenselyaltered phaseof this formation is associated with the silver-leaner portionsof the veins between the Aguas Calientes ore bodiesand the 'Carlos Francisco shaft. The original red .coloris bleached and the rock is silicified overa width of oo feet from the vein. Pyrite is developed both in stringers and in isolated cubes. The rock becomes an aggregate of quartz and calcite veins with interstitial epidoteand

zoisite. The originalrounded quartzgrainsof the sediment are oftenbuilt out by addition o hydrothermal quartz. Pyrite may replace quartzin cubes or mold itself aroundthe grains. Adjoining the richestparts of the vein (the ore bodiesin Aguas Calientes) the alteration is much less intense. In some

places therockis bleached for asmuch asthirtyfeetfromthe

vein; in others, the vein walls and even inclusions.withih the

vein are not strongly silicified. There are places within five feet
of the vein where the shale is still red and unbleached. One

strikingvarietyof the milder sort of alteration produces a green

mottling due to epidote. In CarmenMember.--In their most intense phaseof alteration

the conglomerate bedsare so stronglysilicified that the pebbles

cannotbe distinguished. The limestone bedsalter to fine-grained
marble.

Zonal Arrangement The Principal Deposits.--The centeraboutwhich the different typesof mineralizationand wall-rock alterationare arrangedin a rudely symmetrical way is at depthbetweenthe Aguas Calientes and Carlos FranciscoMines; above this the alteration is
broadest and most intense. North.ward and southward from this

centerthere is a gradual but definite changein mineralization accompanied by increasing feebleness of alteration:
35

516

H. E. MCKINSTRY
Near "Center" of Zoning

AND ]../1. NOBLE.

North and South of "Center"

Ore: Pyrite, abundant sphaler-

ite, much or little galena, little or no tetrahedrite. Chalcopyrite

common.

a. Ore: Pyrite (subordinate), sphalerite, galena, often much tetrahedrite. C h a 1c 0 p y r i t e

sparse.

Gangue: Quartz greasy or glassy, white to yellowish. No rhodochrosite. In places some

calcite.

c. Proportion of sulphide to gangue relatively high.

d. Texture relativdy coarse (on the order of 2 cm.).

e. Silver content rather low but

lead and zinc locally high.

b. Gangue: Quartz in small clear crystals, usually with prism faces free; carbonatesusually present (calcite and rhodochrosite, mamillary or cleavable). c. Gangue in excess of ore minerals (except in certain rich stringers). d. Texture relatively fine (on the order of 2 mm.). e. Silver contenthigh (though the veins are in places too narrow to mine).

Thus, referring to the typesof mineralization previously listed. the highly pyritic phases( and 2) accompany the intensewallrock alteration on the south end of Carlos Francisco. Types 3

and 4, high in tetrahedrite,accompany milder alteration; type 3 beingcharacteristic of portions of CarlosFrancisco where the dip is steep, and type 4 beingcharacteristic of the ore bodiesof Aguas Calientes. In the latter mine the tetrahedritecarriesa higher averagein silver than the corresponding type in Carlos
Francisco.

The .Casapalca veinsshowlateralzoningin a more conspicuous fashion than vertical zoning. Continuousworkings for more than two miles on the same vein system and substantiallythe samelevel showa transition from pyritic deposits near the .center to rich tetrahedrite in eachdirection. In one directionthey con-

tinue on to barren carbonate ganguewith a little stibniteand

barite; in the other directionthe carbonateganguezone has not beenreached on the lowestlevels,but on a level 900 feet higher more extendedworkingshave encountered it and stibnitebegins to come in. Although the vein systemis openedup through a verticalrangeof overhalf a mile, the carbonate gangue zonedoes

THE

VEINS

OF C,'tS,'tP,'tLC,'t, PERU.

517

not appearabovethe supposed center of deposition, and though there is an increase upward in the silver contentof the tetrahedrite with decrease in pyrite along with a tendency to finer texture of the ore, the changeis lessmarked than in a corresponding distance horizontally. Horizontal rs. Lateral Zonint7.--Here obviouslythe temperature gradientexpressed in the zoningwas due essentially to the heat of the mineralizing solutions2 Were the zoningdue to the normal increaseof temperature with depth, one would expect the zonesto be essentially horizontal. The facts,however,point to an arrangementof zonesaround the largestand most abundant channelways for the ascent of ore solutionsand indicate that, insofar as the zoningis dueto temperature gradient,the heat ,was supplied by the solutions themselves. If it were possible to add to the sectionshown in Fig. 5 the portionsof the vein-system

PITE

RMF_DIRT

/ (JOrt. end Gelcite !

Sphllerlre, 6oilrio,TerrehearIre, Bour.nlre,

Pyrlte, Terre/ hearire, Sribnite, /

Realget, Spotty/

Heih Silver' '

/ ,"GF_ r"IT I1 L

/// ji

Sphnlnr*te. olenl, *( ne In \ to BerryeM41 GaleIre / Les6 Silver wth mere Calcite, appear
IntlrrnedQte Zone .d tll/nltl bigln

//

Preeenr /Lowest Level

FIG. 5. Longitudinal Section (looking east) along Main Vein System

showingzonal relations. The southern portionis along Aguas Calientes

vein, which is nearer the observerthan the plane of M-vein.

which erosionhas removed,a flatteningof the zonesnear the original surface would be expected. Since there is no hint of this in the now-visible portion of the vein-system, a contemplation of Fig. 5 suggeststhat the area labelled "intermediate zone" extendedat least I,OOOfeet, and probablymore, abovethe highest exposures and that this was coveredby an unknown thickness
of the "outer zone."

The heatdueto mereproximity of intrusions withoutthe aid of heattransfer

by solutions is probably small, since the thermal conductivity of rocks is low. See Ingersoll, I. R., and Zobdel, O. J.: Theory of Heat Conduction with Engineering and Geological Applications, x9 x3.

518

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND J. A. NOBLE.

OutlyingDeposits.--Away from the centralportion of the district whichhas just beendescribed, a numberof outlyingmines and prospects showmineralization of severalsomewhat differing and probablymilder types,accompanied by lessintensewall-rock
alteration.

From one to three kilometers to the east there are three small

deposits:
a. Intricately branching narrow, rich, vuggy veins of the cooler Carlos Francisco type, with much bournonite and some stibnite. Ruby

silver and argentitehave been reported (San Antonio Mine). b. Clearable carbonateveins with pyritohedrons, and tetrahedrite in clearcut little tetrahedrons perchedin the rugs (Americana mill). c. Gash veins of sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and a little tetrahedrite, with

barite and clearablecarbonate in mildly alteredporphyry (CaprichosaMine). Mineralization of the same type is found also on the opposite side (i.e. to the west) of Casapalca.

To the north of Casapalca occursstill another type of deposit. In line with an extensionof a vein of the main system (:Rayo), the Corina Mine is in a stockworkof interlacingnarrow stringers in little-altered porphyry. The gangue(quartz-calcite)

is subordinate. The quartz is replaced by tiny crystals of arsenopyrite, and the two are replaced by sphalerite. Within the sphalerite and apparently replacing it, as well as forming mattedaggregates aroundit, are slenderneedles of boulangerite. To the south,veins in the Bella Vista limestonecarry barite and manganese dioxide (probably an oxidation product after rhodochrosite) with the samesulphides as thoseof the Casapalca
veins. The appearanceof barite suggeststhat these small de-

positsare relatedto the .cooler phaseof mineralizationoccurring in the southernend 'of the Aguas Calientesmine. Origin. Source.--The ore of the main Casapalcaveins cannot be certainly referred to any exposedigneousintrusion. In fact the zonal arrangement points to a magmaticsourcedeepbelow the presentsurface.

THE

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OF CASAPALCA,

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519

There is a slight localizationof small veins and altered areas around someof the smaller stocksand sills. Around the larger
stocks the association of veins is less definite. In fact the

through-going veins cut through the stockswith no consistent ch.ange in mineralization. In the adjacentdistrictof Morococha, the ore is believedtO have come from an intrusive later and slightly moreacidthanthat corresponding to the Tamca porphyry but sufficiently similar chemically to suggest that the two are genetically related. This later intrusive is not exposed in the Casapalca districtbut mayoccurin depth.

Themineralization at Casapalca isof lower temperature than

that of Morococha (where the early phasesare of the contact-

metamorphic type) andwouldsuggest that i't formedwell above

the apex of an intrusive insteadof adjacent to it.
The main fractures that have been mineralized are later than

the regional folding and not directly related to it. They may have been formed in readjustmentsfollowing the folding and intrusion. In the fractures, ganflue and sulphideshave been deposited continuously and progressively in a fairly definitesequence. At a late stage portions of the veins were re-opened and a generation of carbonates and quartz deposited. Hot water is still encountered in portionsof the mine lying abovethe supposedcenterof zoningand, before the flow was tappedby mine workings, was issuing at the surface'and depositingcalcite, suggesting that open fractures still reach to the vicinity of a warm intrusiveand that the feebledying phases of mineralization may still be.goingon. Age of Ore Deposition.--Theveinscut the volcanics and are later than Tertiary (Incaic) folding. Material of the magmabe-

lieved to be responsible for theoresis petrologically quitesimilar

to that of the flows,and on regionalevidence, the emplacement of

the intrusives is inferred to havefollowed folding but to have

beenconnected with the sameorogenicmovements. There is also definite regional evidencethat mineralization of this type was earlier than the formation of the Puna erosion
surface at the dose of the Pliocene.

Temperqture and Depth of Minera.lixation.mThe obviously

520

H. E. MCKINSTRY

.AND

J. A. NOBLE.

epithermalrealgar-stibnite-bearing mineralizationis clearly a

late phaseand not a safe criterion of the conditionsunder which the main ore deposits were formed. Nevertheless there is a

gradation at the outer edgesof the district from the standard types of ore into vein-fillingthat carriesbotryoidalcalcitewith stibnite and appearsto be transitional toward this late phase. The mineralization as a whole has many pointsof similarity to that of the San Juan veinsof Coloradoand the widespread presenceof rhodochrosite and tetrahedriteare suggestive 'of a fairly low-temperature origin. On the other hand, lack of fine banding and crustification, predominance of sericiticrather than propylitic alteration, and absenceof abundant adularia, as well as the transitionnear the centerinto coarsepyrite-blende veins link the oreswith thoseformed at intermediate depths. In somerespects,the mineralizationresembles that of the silver-zinczone of Butte, Montana. It is concludedthat the depositsstraddle the indefiniteboundarybetweenepithermaland mesothermal deposits. They would be includedin the classfor which Graton has proposed the name"leptothermal."6 Structural evidenceis pertinent insofar as one is justified in assuming that mineralizationimmediately followedfolding. On this assumption erosion,in order to have exposedthe present highestoutcropsmust have removednot only the major part of the CarlosFranciscovolcanics(,3oo feet thick) but a great
thickness,estimatedas at least o,ooo feet, of the younger flows of the Rio Blanco formation, all of which were involved in Incaic

folding. Actually someof this thickness was doubtless eroded before ore deposition took place. Thus, while it would not be inconsistent with .what is known of the rock-structureto assign an original depth well in excess of Io,ooo feet to the highest known portionsof the veins, the evidencefor so large a figure is not compelling. Zonal arrangement, however, suggeststhat the minimum depth was a thousand, or, more likely, several
thousand feet.

One figure,at least,is definite:thereare oresof the tetrahedrite

6 Graton, L. C.: "The Depth-Zones in Ore Deposits." Pres. Address, Soe. Eton. Geol., Tulsa Meeting, i93x.

THE

VEINS

OF CASAPALCA,

PERU.

52I

type (i.e. thoseof the lower workings) which were formed at a depthof not lessthan 3,5oo feet, for they now lie at that distance below the outcrop. 7 How much deeper than this they were at the time of formationcan be inferred only in a general way by addingto this the indefiniterangesuggested above.
SUMMARY.

The ore at Casapalcaoccursin veins that follow fractures in

severalkinds of wall-rock,and the differing physical nature of the rockis clearlyreflected in the vein structure. In plasticshale through-going fracturingtookplaceonlyunderexceptional stress; in the more brittle conglomerate many small fracturesdeveloped; and in the porphyry, stress produced an intricate system of branchingvein-fissures. In this branchingsystem,the broadest portionsof the veins are along definitedirections of dip and
strike and the broadest zones of mineralization are found at the

junctions of fractures where the rock would have been most stronglybrecciated. At deeper horizonsbelowthe zoneof easiest fracturing, the fissures are more regular and are lessinfluenced by physicalnature of wall-rock. The rock alteration is most intense about a certain center,

and herethe veinsare broadest. Corresponding with the intense rock-alterationis the type of mineralizatio.n in the veins which is believed to have formedunderthe conditions of highesttemperatureand pressure. Passingupward and in both directions outward from this center there is a decrease in intensityof
alteration and a correspondingchange in texture and mineral content of ores. Cutting the earlier mineralization there is at one placea verticalzone of mammillarycalcitewith realgar and
stibnite.

On a regionalscaleboulangerite, stibnite,and barite appear

in the outlying mines a kilometer or more from the center of the
district.

Almosteverygradatio.n may be traced,from the coarse pyritic

; The present Rimac Valley was cut during two topographic stages, both later than the Puna Peneplane which, in turn, is younger than the mineralization.

522

H. E. MCKINSTRY

AND

.1'. A. NOBLE.

ore throughthe mammillarycarbonate gangueto the calcareous tufa nowbeingdeposited by the nearbyhot springs, andhot water
is still encountered in deepcentral parts of the workings.

Corresponding to the zonal sequence of deposition, the ore minerals in any onelocality showa time-series from pyriteand sphalerite through galena andtetrahedrite to late calcite. The replacement texturesare in generalof the "sea-andisland" type showing smooth rounded boundaries, and the walls
of veinletsare irregular rather than parallel. Conditions of deposition are believed to haverangedfrom mild mesothermal to epithermalat depthsof severalthousandfeet. Mineralizationfollowedthe last of the great periodsof folding and intrusion,which formed the Andes (early Tertiary) but

preceded Pliocene erosion.

TIMMINS ONTARIO,
AND

LEAD, S. D.