LECTURE 19 Quantization, Expectation, Energy Quantization of System

Instructor: Shih-Chieh Hsu

Midterm3
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Mar 6
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Text Book
33-1 to 33-8:Interference and Diffraction 34-1 to 34-10: Quantum Physics

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Lab: TBA Tutorial: TBA Location: TBA

Lecture 19
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Reading chapter 34-8 to 34-10

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Wave-particle duality A particle in a box

Standing wave functions

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Expectation Values Energy Quantization in Other Systems

Clicker question 19-1

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Energy quantization of Atom

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Hydrogen emission spectrum

Mercury emission spectrum

Paschen Balmer Series Series (IR) (Visible)

Lyman Series (UV)

Thomsons plum-pudding model

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J. J. Thomson proposed the plum-pudding model, the first atomic model.

!! Atoms consist of a cloud 10-10 m in diameter.

of positive charge roughly

First nuclear physics experiment

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Around 1911 Ernest Rutherford, with his students, Geiger and Marsden, showed that the positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in a very small region (~1!fm), now called the nucleus.

Rutherford scattering
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Rutherford scattering
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For ! particles to scatter at ~180 the Coulomb force must be extremely strong.

Bohrs classical model of H

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Niels Bohr proposed a model of the hydrogen atom that successfully predicted the observed spectra.
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electron of the hydrogen atom moves in a circular orbit around the positive nucleus according to Coulombs law and classical mechanics like the planets orbiting around Sun.

Flaw in the classical model

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Classical EM theory says that an electron in a circular orbit is accelerating, so it would radiate an EM wave and loses its energy. !! This atom would quickly collapse as the electron spirals into the nucleus and radiates away the energy.
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Bohrs semi-classical model (1913)

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Energy Quantization In Aton En energy level |!En| = hf=hc/!

Quantum Mechanics (1923)

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In quantum mechanics, a particle is described by a wave function ! that obeys a wave equation called the Schrdinger equation.
!2 2 " $ " " " ! " # r , t + U r # r , t = i! # r , t 2m $t

( )

() ( )

( )

You absolutely do not need to memorize the formula.

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The solution of the equation by itself has no physical meaning. However, the probability to find a particle in a certain spacetime is:

Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation

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Solution of the Schrdinger equation.

!2 2 " $ " " " ! " # r , t + U r # r , t = i! # r , t 2m $t

( )

() ( )

( )

Wave function
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The Schrdinger equation describes a single particle. !! The probability density P(x), the probability per unit volume (or length in 1-D), of finding the particle as a function of position is given by
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P x =!2 x
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()

()

The probability is probability times unit volume, i.e. P(x) !x

Normalization condition
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If we have a particle, the probability of finding the particle somewhere must be 1. Therefore the wave function must satisfy the normalization condition.
"

!"
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# ( )

"

P x dx =

!"

2 $ # x dx = 1

()

For ! to satisfy the normalization condition, it must approach zero as |x| approaches infinity.

A particle in a box
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Consider a particle of mass m confined to a onedimensional box of length L.

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Mechanics: The particle with any values of energy and momentum bounces back and forth between the walls of the box. !! Quantum Mechanics: The particle is described by a wave function !, and !2 describes the probability of finding the particle in some region.

A particle in a box: conditions for !

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The particle is somewhere in the box.

L 2 ! " x dx = 1 0

()

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The particle is not outside the box.

! x = 0 for x " 0 and x # L

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() ()

! is continuous everywhere.

! 0 = 0 and ! L = 0
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This is the same boundary condition as the condition for standing waves on a string fixed at x!=!0 and x!=!L.

A particle in a box: allowed wavelengths

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The boundary condition restricts the allowed wavelengths for a particle in a box. !! The box length L equals an integral number of half wavelengths.
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!n L = n ; n = 1,2,3,! 2
Standing wave condition

A particle in a box: allowed energies

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p mv 2 = E= 2 2m
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h2 = 2m! 2

L=n

!n ; n = 1,2,3,! 2

The standing wave condition yields the allowed energies.

2 h 2 En = n 2 = n E1 2 8mL

The lowest allowed energy, E1, is called ground state energy. !! Note that E1 is not zero, and depends on the size of the box.
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Electron bound to an atom

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If an electron is constrained to be within an atom, the electron is confined in one of the allowed energy states. The electron can make a transition to and from one energy state, Ei, to another, Ef, by the emission of a photon (if Ei > Ef). The frequency and wavelength of the emitted photon are:

Ei ! Ef f = h

c hc "= = f Ei ! Ef

Standing-wave functions
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The wave functions for a particle in a box have the same form as the amplitude of a vibrating string fixed at both ends. The normalization condition yields the amplitude.

2 ! n ( x) = sin kn x; n = 1,2,3,! L 2" 2" n" where kn = = = #n 2 L n L

Note that these are standing waves, so the shapes do not change over time.

Quantum number
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The number n is called a quantum number. !! It characterizes !n for a particular state and for the energy of that state, En. !! For a particle in a 1-D box, a quantum number arises from the boundary condition on ! : "! (0)!=!0 and ! (L)!=!0. !! For a particle in a 3-D box, three quantum numbers arise, one associated with a boundary condition in each dimension.
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Standing wave functions: probability densities

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The probability per unit length of finding the particle as a function of position is !n2(x). The particle is most likely to be found near the maxima. The particle cannot be found where !2!=!0. For very large values of n, the maxima and minima are so closely spaced that !2 cannot be distinguished from its average value. The particle is equally likely to be found anywhere in the box, the same as in the classical result.

Large quantum number

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The fractional energy difference of adjacent states becomes very small as the quantum number increases. !! For a very large n, energy quantization is not important. !! Bohrs correspondence principle states:
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In the limit of very large quantum numbers, the classical calculation and the quantum calculation must yield the same results.

Clicker question 19-2

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Expectation Value
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Example
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A particle in a one-dimensional box of length L is in the ground state. Find the probability of finding the particle (a) in the region that has a length !x = 0.01L and is centered at x = L and (b) in the region 0 < x < L.

Example 1
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An electron is in the initial state ni = 3 of an 1-D box of length 100!pm. If it is to make a quantum jump to the state nf!=!6 by absorbing a photon, what must be the energy and wavelength of the photon?

2 h 2 En = n 2 = n E1 2 8mL

E6 ! E3

2 (hc) h 2 2 = 27 = (6 ! 3 ) 8(mc 2 ) L2 8mL2 (1240eV nm) 2 = 27 8(5.11 ! 105 eV )(0.1nm) 2 = 1015.12eV

hc hc E= !!= ! E
1240ev nm = = 1.22nm 1015.12eV

Harmonic oscillator potential well

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Consider a particle with mass, m, on a spring with force constant, k. Potential energy function for a harmonic oscillator is parabolic.
1 2 2 2 U x =1 kx = m ! x 0 2 2

()

where ! 0 = k m is the natural frequency of the oscillator.

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Parabolic well

Classically, the object oscillates between A, and its total energy, E, can have any nonnegative value, including zero. 1 2 2 Eclassic = m! 0 A 2

Harmonic oscillator: allowed energies

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Normalizable !n(x) occur only for discrete values of the energy En given by
En = n +

1 2

hf0

Equally spaced levels: hf0

n = 0, 1, 2,!
Note that the ground state energy is not 0.

Example 3
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An electron in a harmonic oscillator is initially in the n = 4 state. It drops to n!=!2 state and emits a photon with wavelength 500!nm. What is the ground state energy of this harmonic oscillator?
En = n + 1 hf 0 2

E4 ! E2 = 2hf 0

1240ev nm = 4.96eV 500nm

hc!=!1240!eV"nm!=!1.988!"!10-25!J"m

E0 = 0 + 1 hf 0 = 4.96eV / 4 = 1.24eV 2

Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation

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Solution of the Schrdinger equation.

!2 2 " $ " " " ! " # r , t + U r # r , t = i! # r , t 2m $t

( )

() ( )

( )

One Dimensional Infinite Potential Well

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Solution of the Schrdinger equation.

Hydrogen Atom
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an electron is bound to a proton by the electrostatic force of attraction