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B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell

Lesson 8: Dynamic Op Amp


Limitations
EE 433 Electronic Circuit

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Op Amp Limitations
In general, under moderate frequencies, and dc gains, there is a
remarkable agreement between actual behaviors of op amps and
ideal op amp model.
Increasing gain or frequency, op amps are accompanied by a
progression degradation.
Study op amps limitation, predict their effect on circuit
performance, and to find cures
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Key Terms
open-loop response
closed-loop response
input impedance
output impedance
transient response

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Open-loop Response
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
741 Op Amp Circuit Diagram
Input stage

Second stage

Output
stage

Q
8
C
C
Q
6
Q
5
Q
4
Q
3
Q
2
Q
1
I
A
v
N
v
P
v
O
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Simplified Op Amp Block Diagram
Transcondcutance
gain of the first stage

Voltage gain of
the second stage

Voltage follower of
the ouput stage

Net equivalent resistance
and capacitance between
the first and second stages

C
C
g
m1
v
N
v
P
v
O
i
o1
R
eq
C
eq
-a
2
1

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Simplified Op Amp Block Diagram
Low frequency: C
c
is open circuit,
For the 741 op amp, g
m1
= 189 A/V; R
eq
= 1.95 MO, and a
2
=
544 V/V, those yields DC open-loop gain = 200,000 V/V.
C
C
g
m1
v
N
v
P
v
O
i
o1
R
eq
C
eq
-a
2
1

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Simplified op amp block diagram
For the 741 op amp, dominant-pole frequency = 5 Hz.
While increasing frequency, the equivalent impedance would decrease,
gain starts to roll off at the frequency, f
b
, when,
This frequency, called dominant-pole frequency, f
b
,
Huge

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Simplified op amp block diagram
To achieve this high capacitance, large device cross section area is
required,
In order to avoid high cross section area, an additional capacitor Cc is
added in parallel to amplifier to provide an acceptable capacitance to
start with, and its equivalent value can be realize using Millers Theorem.
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Millers theorem
Known voltage gain A
v
This is identical to
1
2
1
1
1
v
v
z
z
A
z
z
A
=

z
Network N
v
1
v
2
i
1
i
2
i
z
z
1
Network N
v
1
v
2
i
1
i
2
z
2
C
eq
can be realized using Millers
effect:

= 16.3
2
= 544
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Expression for the Open-loop Gain
f
b
is chosen low enough that other op amp
internal frequency poles and zeros are
insignificant.
Hence, 741 is approximated with
dominant pole:
a
0
Dc open-loop gain
f
b
open-loop bandwidth
Magnitude:
Phase: Za(jf) = -tan
-1
(f/f
b
)
f
b
f
t
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Expression for the Open-loop Gain
f
t
is unity-gain frequency or transition
frequency
Magnitude:
Phase: Za(jf) = -tan
-1
(f/f
b
)
For the 741 op amp, unity-gain
frequency = 1 MHz.
a
0
>> 1

f
b
f
t
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Expression for the Open-loop Gain
GBP Gain bandwidth product = f
t
. Every point on -20db?decade line meets GBP = f
t
.
At high frequency:
with a = 1,
For the 741 op amp, unity-gain frequency = 1 MHz.
g
m1
= I
A
/4V
T
, C
c
= 30 pF; therefore, pick I
A
= 19.6 A.
Note:
a 1/f

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Open-loop gain:
With feedback circuits, the feedback factor:
Loop gain:
Closed-loop gain:
With a very large loop gain, then
Feedback network control

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
More accurately,
Error function

Desired response

Loop gain T(jf) solely determines the error function which gives the
departure from the ideal or desired response.
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Graphically Visualization of Loop Gain
From loop gain, T,
Bode plot of T is difference between the
individual plots of a and (1/|).

Crossover frequency is very important point in
assessing closed-loop stability:
f << f
x
; a closed loop behaves nearly ideally;
f >> f
x
; a significant departure from ideal
f
x
: crossover frequency

f
t
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Non-inverting op amp:
R
1
R
2
v
N
v
I
v
O
and
Closed-loop gain

= 1 +

1
1
1 +
1 +

= =

1 +

1
1 + 2

= (

1
+
2

)
() =

= 1 +

1
1
1 +
1 +

= 1 +

1
1
1 +
1 +

/(1 +

)

= /(1 +

)
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Non-inverting op amp:
and
Closed-loop gain

Recall GBP = f
t


Bode plot of T is difference between the
individual plots of a and (1/|).
R
1
R
2
v
N
v
I
v
O
a
0
|a|

|A|

f
t
= a
0
f
b
f
b
f
B
f
t
log f

1 +

1
1 +2

= =

1
1 +2


= 1+ R2/R1
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Non-inverting op amp:
From
1. At low frequency, T >> 1, error is small
and A A
ideal
2. At f
B
, A = A
ideal
/(1+j)
3. At high frequency, T << 1, A a
Closed-loop gain is offset by
error function from ideal case

a
o
|a|

|T|

|A|

f
b
f
B
f
t
log f

(1)
(2)
(3)
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Example: use 741 op amps to design an audio amp with a
gain of 60 dB. Note: audio amp has f
B
> 20 kHz. What is
the individual gain of the opamp used.
First approach: use a single 741 op amp, f
t
= 1MHz:
Solution
Insufficient BW for audio applications; next
idea: cascade (common in series) two lower gain
but wider bandwidth amplifiers.
60 dB
|A|
f
B
f
t
log f

= /

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Example: use 741 op amps to design an audio amp with a
gain of 60 dB. Note: audio amp has f
B
> 20 kHz.
Second approach: using two op amps in cascade each with a gain
Solution
Fulfill the requirement

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Solution
So: the -3 dB frequency of the series
cascade is less than the -3 dB frequency of
the individual amplifiers.

.
a
0
60 dB

30 dB

|A|

f
B
f
B1
f
t
log f

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Why Not Use Inverting Amplifiers?
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Inverting Op Amp:
Where:
Therefore,
R
1
R
2 v
N
v
I
v
O
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Inverting Op Amp:
For non-inverting amplifier

For inverting amplifier; shift down

a
0
|A
0
|

f
B
f
t
log f

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Closed-loop Response
Unity-gain non-inverting amplifier:
Unity-gain inverting amplifier:
Significant BW loss for inverting amplifier
R

R

GBP= f
t
v
I
v
O
v
I
v
O
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Input and Output Impedance
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Op Amp Input/Output Impedance with Feedback
+
_
r
o
and r
d
are open-loop output/input
impedances
We normally make the assumption that r
o

0; r
d
.
But in reality, r
o
and r
d
are not ideal.
With voltage-sampling/voltage-series feedback, closed-loop R
i
and R
o
are both
improved!
R
i
increases; R
o
decreases

Results: R
i
= (1+a|)r
d
; R
o
= r
o
/(1+a|)
r
d
r
o
a(v
P
-v
N
)
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Input impedance
Use non-inverting op amp as an example:
If v
N
= 0; then Z
i
= r
d
+
_
Case of no feedback

Case of feedback

R
1
R
2
v
N
v
I
v
O
Z
i
i
i
v
P
i
i
r
d
r
o
a(v
P
- v
N
)

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Input Impedance
Use non-inverting op amp as an example:
Also: v
o
= a(v
P
- v
N
)
Substituting into previous result, this yields v
N
= a(v
P
- v
N
).
Rearranging and collecting,
Substituting into i
i
equation,
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Input impedance
Use non-inverting op amp as an example:
So that
If the op amp has a single pole at f
b
, then
where f
t
= a
0
f
b
DC portion

Frequency dependence

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Input Impedance
Use non-inverting op amp as an example:
Pole: f
b
; zero: f
b
(1+a
0
|)

Frequency increasing, input
impedance decreasing like a
capacitor capacitive between f
b

and f
b
(1+a
0
|).
|Z
i
|
f
b

r
d

(1+ a
o
)r
d

log f [f
b
(1+ a
o
)]
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Input Impedance
At high frequency, capacitor as a short circuit,
R
P
//R
s
= r
d
; but R
P
>> r
d
, so
Z
i
R
P
R
S
C

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
+
_
Output Impedance
Use non-inverting op amp as an example:
If R
2
= ; then Z
O
= r
O
Case of no feedback

R
1
R
2
v
N
v
O
Z
O
i
O
i
x
v
N
v
P
r
d
r
o
v
o
i
x
a(v
P -
v
N
)


Case of
feedback

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Output Impedance
Use non-inverting op amp as an example:
Applying KCL at v
O
,
and
R
1
R
2
v
N
v
O
Z
O
i
O
i
x
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Output Impedance
Use non-inverting op amp as an example:
If the op amp has a single pole at f
b
, then
where
Zero: f
b
; pole:
f
b
(1+a
0
|)
DC portion

Frequency dependence

B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Output Impedance
Use non-inverting op amp as an example:
Frequency increasing, output
impedance increasing like an
inductor inductive between f
b

and f
b
(1+a
0
|)
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Output Impedance
At DC, inductor is like a short circuit,
As frequency is increasing, impedance is also increasing as a open circuit,
R
P
R
S
L

Z
O
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Typical Values of Input/Output Impedances
Example: An non-inverting op amp with

(a) Find the elements values in the equivalent circuit of Z
i
; (b)
the elements values in the equivalent circuit of Z
o
R
1
R
2
v
N
v
O
v
I
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Typical Values of Input/Output Impedances
Example: An non-inverting op amp with

(a) Find the elements values in the equivalent circuit of Z
i
;
Solution:
So
Therefore:
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Typical Values of Input/Output Impedances
Example: An non-inverting op amp with

(b) the elements values in the equivalent circuit of Z
o
Solution:
So
Therefore:
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Speed Limitations of Op Amps
Transient Response:
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Speed Limitations of Op Amps
Time response of a single pole op amp:
How does a response of gain behave to a transient?
Transform the circuit to s domain:
Unit step input:
Where:
Output voltage:
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Speed Limitations of Op Amps
Time response of a single pole op amp:
How does a response of gain behave to a transient?
Transform it back to time domain,
Transient response

v
t
a
0
=

=
0.35


741 opamp t=159ns and t
R
=350ns
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Speed Limitations of Op Amps
Bandwidth Limiting affects small signals and large signals quality
Drop in gain

Effects are independent of
amplitude
Effects do not distort sinewave
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Speed Limitations of Op Amps
Slew rate (SR) Limiting :
Slew rate is a dv/dt limitation of the op amp output
Usually, SR
rising
~ SR
faliing


Effects are dependent of amplitude
Effects distort input signals
Square wave input

Ideal output

Real output

= (1
/
)

= SR
=
1
2

=
1
2


Voltage follower is used here:
f
t
=f
B
*A=f
B
*1=f
B
B EE 433/University of Washington, Bothell
Speed Limitations of Op Amps
Full Power Bandwidth (FPB):
Full power bandwidth is the maximum frequency at which the op amp will yield an
undistorted ac output with the largest possible amplitude.
A 741 with v
sat
= 13 V, SR = 0.5 V/s, has FBP = 6.1 kHz.
When applying this op amp, we must make sure SR or f
B
smaller than
FBP.

1
2

= SR

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