Professional Documents
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2. Pipe capacities for sewers are based on an value of 0.013. This may vary somewhat with depth of flow and with pipe materials as
follows:
Vitrified clay, concrete, unlined ductile iron = 0.013
Cast iron, uncoated = 0.015
Steel = 0.012
PVC-DWV = 0.009
Corrugated = 0.024
3. Pipe capacities are based on the pipe flowing full.
4. Velocity of flow shall not be less than 2 fps (0.61 m/s).
(Table 4-4 continued) Slope Discharge Capacity Velocity
Pipe Pipe Size, in./ft % gpm cfs fps
Material in. (mm) (cm/m) (L/s) (L/s) (m/s)
93 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
diameter storm sewers. These systems also help
to alleviate flooding in overtaxed public storm
sewers or drainage canals during heavy rainfalls.
The impact on the sewage treatment plant for a
combined storm/sanitary sewer is considerably
lessened by the use of controlled-flow roof-drain-
age systems.
Controlled-flow systems should not be used
if the roof is used for functions precluding water
storage, such as a sundeck or a parking level, or
if not allowed by the authority having jurisdic-
tion. Holding the water on the roof increases the
structural costs and may require a different roof-
covering material.
The flow-control devices must be acceptable
to the administrative authority. Valves, orifices,
or mechanical devices are not permitted to re-
strict or control flow. The roof drains are pro-
vided with weirs, which are either parabolic,
adjustable rectangular, or triangular, and which
act like small dams to control flow into the drains.
For standard, controlled-flow roof-drain con-
struction, see Figure 4-9.
Certain roof-design details must be incorpo-
rated into the finished roof. The water depth on
the roof must not exceed 3 in. (80 mm) on dead-
flat roofs and an average maximum depth of 3
in. (80 mm) for pitched roofs (6 in. [150 mm]
Table 4-5 Sizes of Scuppers for Secondary Drainage
Length, L, of Weir, in. (cm)
Head, H,
4 (10.2) 6 (15.2) 8 (20.3) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 18 (45.7) 24 (61.0) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 48 (121.9)
in. (cm) Capacity, gpm (L/s)
1 10.7 (0.7) 17.4 (1.1) 23.4 (1.5) 29.3 (1.8) 35.4 (2.2) 53.4 (3.4) 71.5 (4.5) 89.5 (5.6) 107.5 (6.8) 143.7 (9.1)
2 30.5 (1.9) 47.5 (3.0) 64.4 (4.1) 81.4 (5.1) 98.5 (6.2) 149.4 (9.4) 200.3 (12.6) 251.1 (15.8) 302.0 (19.1) 404.0 (25.5)
3 52.9 (3.3) 84.1 (5.3) 115.2 (7.3) 146.3 (9.2) 177.8 (11.2) 271.4 (17.1) 364.9 (23.0) 458.5 (28.9) 552.0 (34.8) 739.0 (46.6)
4 76.7 (4.8) 124.6 (7.9) 172.6 (10.9) 220.5 (13.9) 269.0 (17.0) 413.3 (26.1) 557.5 (35.2) 701.8 (44.3) 846.0 (53.4) 1135.0 (71.6)
6 123.3 (7.8) 211.4 (13.3) 299.5 (18.9) 387.5 (24.4) 476.5 (30.1) 741.1 (46.8) 1005.8 (63.5) 1270.4 (80.1) 1535.0 (96.8) 2067.5 (130.4)
Source: Reprinted by permission of the Ingersol-Rand Co.1981. 16th ed.
Note: Calculations are based on the Francis Formula:
Q = 3.33 (L 0.2H) H
1.5
where
Q = Flow rate, ft
3
/s (m
3
/s)
L = Length of scupper opening, ft (m) (Should be 4 to 8 times H.)
H = Head on scupper, ft (m) (Measured 6 ft [1.83 m] back from opening.)
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 94
maximum from the high point to the low point of
the roof) during the storm. The depth of water
must be representative of the depth over all the
roof and must assume the primary drains are
blocked. The drain-down time is the time, mea-
sured in hours, for the roof to completely drain
after the storm has reached its maximum
intensity and duration and has ceased. The
drain-down time must be in accordance with the
local code but should not exceed 24 hours (12
17 hours maximum recommended).
The flow-control device should be installed
so that the rate of discharge of the water should
not exceed the rate allowed. The roof design for
controlled-flow roof drainage should be based on
a minimum of 30 lb/ft
2
(psf) (1.44 kPa) loading
to provide a safety factor above the 15.6 psf (0.75
kPa) represented by the 3-in. (76.2-mm) design
depth of water. The roof should be level and 45
cants should be installed at any wall or parapet.
The flashing should extend at least 6 in. (152.4
mm) above the roof level. Doors opening onto
the roof must be provided with a curb at least 4
in. (101 mm) high. Flow-control devices should
be protected by strainers and in no case should
the roof surface in the vicinity of the drain be
recessed to create a reservoir.
Roof-drain manufacturers have done much
research on engineering criteria and parameters
regarding the head of water on the roof for the
weir design in controlled-flow roof drains, and
they have established suggested design proce-
dures with flow capacities and charts.
Secondary roof drainage is required in case
the primary drains are blocked, as is discussed
earlier in this chapter. Secondary drainage sys-
tems can reduce the savings potential of con-
trolled-flow roof drainage systems. If scuppers
are utilized, they should be placed in. (12.7
mm) above the maximum designated head, 3
in. (88.9 mm) above the roof level. One scupper,
or secondary drain, should be provided for each
roof drain.
Figure 4-9 Example of a
Controlled-Flow Drain
Source: Reprinted, by permission, from the Jay R. Smith
catalog.
95 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
PART TWO:
SITE DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN
General Design Considerations
Part One of this chapter discussed general crite-
ria that must be considered in the design of both
roof and site drainage systems, including mate-
rials, rainfall rates, and pipe sizing. These gen-
eral design considerations apply to Part Two also.
The tables and figures used to illustrate the chap-
ter are consecutive from Part One to Part Two.
Site Drainage
When large areas with fewer drainage points
such as commercial or industrial sites, parking
lots, highways, airports or whole citiesrequire
storm drainage, the methods and tables found
in most codes are not applicable. The solutions
obtained using those methods would result in
systems that are oversized for the flows involved
and are far too large to be economically feasible.
The reason is that, in large systems, time is
required for flows to peak at the inlets and accu-
mulate in the piping system. Because of this time
factor, the peak flow in the piping does not nec-
essarily coincide with the peak rainfall. The de-
sign of large storm-drainage systems usually is
the responsibility of the civil engineer; however,
the applicable theories and principles are often
used by the plumbing engineer.
The rate of runoff from an area is influenced
by many factors, such as:
1. Intensity and duration of the rainfall.
2. Type, imperviousness, and moisture content
of the soil.
3. Slope of the surfaces.
4. Type and amount of vegetation.
5. Surface retention.
6. Temperature of the air, water, and soil.
The Rational Method of System Design
The Rational Method is the most universally
applied and recommended way of calculating
runoff because it takes all these factors into ac-
count. This method assumes that, if rain were
to fall on a totally impervious surface at a con-
stant rate long enough, water would eventually
run off of the surface at the same rate as it was
applied to the surface, and it assumes that the
runoff coefficient would remain constant.
The Rational Method of storm-drainage
design states that the peak discharge is approxi-
mately equal to the product of the area drained,
the runoff coefficient, and the maximum rainfall
intensity, or:
Equation 4-4
Q = CIA
where
Q = Rainfall runoff, ft
3
/s (m
3
/s)
C = Surface runoff, coefficient (depen-
dent on the surface of the area
drained)
I = Rainfall intensity, in./h (mm/h)
A = Drainage area, acres (m
2
)
Note: 1 acre = 43,560 ft
2
(4047 m
2
)
The runoff coefficient is that portion of rain
that falls on an area and flows off as free water
and is not lost to infiltration into the soil, ponding
in surface depressions, or evaporation (expressed
as a decimal). Construction increases have in-
creased the number of impervious surfaces,
which also increases the quantity of runoff. Table
4-6 lists some values for the runoff coefficient as
reported in the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers Manual on the Design and Construction of
Sanitary and Storm Sewers.
The rate of runoff is hard to accurately evalu-
ate and is impacted by the precipitation rate,
Table 4-6 Some Values of the
Rational Coefficient C
Surface Type C Value
Bituminous streets 0.700.95
Concrete streets 0.800.95
Driveways, walks 0.750.85
Roofs 0.751.00
Lawns, sandy soil
Flat, 2% 0.050.10
Average, 27% 0.100.15
Steep, 7% 0.150.20
Lawns, heavy soil
Flat, 2% 0.130.17
Average, 27% 0.180.22
Steep, 7% 0.250.35
Unimproved areas 0.100.30
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 96
surface composition and slope, duration of the
precipitation, and the degree of saturation of the
soil. The infiltration rate is much greater for loose
sandy soils than for hard clay type soils. Once
saturated, the soil will not absorb any more wa-
ter, which causes greater runoff. The longer the
duration of the precipitation and the steeper the
slope of the ground, the lower are the rate of
infiltration and the amount of water held in de-
pressions.
Most engineering designers make use of in-
formation reported in tabular or graphic form,
inserting local conditions per their experience and
practice. Most sites have various surface com-
positions. The runoff coefficient can be weighted
and calculated as follows:
Equation 4-5
C
w
=
(A
1
C
1
) + (A
2
C
2
) + (A
3
C
3
) +...(A
n
C
n
)
A
1
+ A
2
+ A
3
+...A
n
where
C
w
= Surface runoff
A
1
= Drainage area, by surface type, ft
2
(m
2
)
C
1
= Runoff coefficient, by surface type
Figure 4-10 Overland Flow Time
97 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
The weighted runoff coefficient must be re-
calculated for each drainage point because the
variables may change.
The time of concentration is the sum of the
overland flow time plus the time of flow in the
pipe above the section of the pipe being designed.
The overland flow time is usually taken from a
nomograph adapted from sources such as the
Engineering Manual of the War Department. See
Figure 4-10 for an example.
Water travels faster across impervious sur-
faces, such as roofs or parking areas, than across
absorbent surfaces such as grassy or wooded
areas. Flow time in piping is usually determined
by using the Manning Formula to find the veloc-
ity in the piping. If the velocity and the distance
of flow are known, the time can be calculated.
The time of concentration is needed to determine
the rainfall intensity affecting the flow at that
point in the system, a minimum of 10 min.
In the application of the Rational Method, a
rainfall intensity, I, must be used, which repre-
sents the average intensity of a storm of given
frequency for the time of concentration, t
c
. The
frequency chosen is largely a matter of econom-
ics.
Factors related to the choice of a design fre-
quency have already been discussed. Frequen-
cies of 1 to 10 years are commonly used where
residential areas are to be protected. For higher-
value districts, 10 to 20 years or higher return
periods often are selected. Local conditions and
practice normally dictate the selection of these
design criteria.
After t
c
and the rainfall frequency have been
ascertained, the rainfall intensity, I, may be ob-
tained from Table 4-1. For values different than
those listed in Table 4-1, the rainfall intensity is
usually obtained by making use of a set of rain-
fall intensity-duration-frequency curves for the
area of design, such as those shown in Figure
4-11.
The tributary area can be accurately mea-
sured from a site plan showing contours and
noting that water can only flow from higher el-
evations to the drain inlet under consideration.
The total tributary area may extend beyond prop-
erty lines.
Example 4-2
Calculate the storm-water runoff into one inlet
from a tributary area having a grassy area of 0.5
acres, a pavement area of 0.5 acres, and a roof
area of 0.2 acres, for a total area of 1.20 acres.
The water must flow across 100 ft (30.5 m) of
grassy area and across 100 ft (30.5 m) of pave-
ment from the most remote point of the tribu-
tary area. The slope of the grass surface is 2%.
The slope of the pavement is 1%. The design
storm frequency is 20 years. The roof drains flow
Figure 4-11 Typical Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 98
onto the grassy area at the most remote point of
the tributary area.
Solution
The weighted coefficient of runoff for the entire
area will be calculated using Equation 4-5. The
time of concentration will then be determined.
The runoff rate will then be calculated using the
Rational Method Formula (Equation 4-4). Assume
coefficients of runoff for the various portions of
the tributary area to be as follows: grassy area =
0.15, pavement = 0.90, and the roof = 1.00.
Therefore, the weighted runoff coefficient is:
C
w
=
(0.50 0.15) + (0.50 0.90) + (0.20 1.00)
0.50 + 0.50 + 0.20
C
w
=
0.725
= 0.60
1.20
Time of concentration
DistanceInlet to Time for
Most Remote Point, Overland Flow
ft (m) (min)
Grass 100 (30.5) 15
Pavement 100 (30.5) 3
Roof 5
Total 23
Rainfall intensity Using Figure 4-11 and enter-
ing the bottom of the graph at a time concentra-
tion of 23 min, and following the vertical axis of
the graph to where the vertical line intersects
the 20-year frequency curve then horizontally to
the left, a rainfall intensity of approximately 5.1
in./h (129.5 mm/h) is obtained.
Runoff The runoff from this tributary area is
calculated using the Rational Method Formula
(Equation 4-4):
Q =
0.60 5.1 43,560
= 3.1 ft
3
/s
3600 12
Y
Q =
0.60 129.5 4047
= 0.9 m
3
/s
Z 3600 1000
Exterior Piping and Inlets
The designer should obtain drawings of the public
storm sewer available at the project site that
depict materials, locations, sizes, and depths. The
local authority should be contacted to ascertain
that the public storm system has the capacity
for the projected flow. If the available capacity is
not sufficient to handle the additional flow, ei-
ther a controlled-flow roof drainage system or a
retention basin, or both, may be required. The
designer must coordinate the piping layout with
other underground utilities.
The pipe should have a minimum exterior
size of 10 in. (254 mm) unless otherwise noted
by the local code authority and should maintain
a minimum velocity of 23 ft/s (fps) (0.61-0.91
m/s); maximum velocity should be 30 fps (9.1
m/s) to limit erosion of the pipe interior. Use
Table 4-4 for sizing the exterior piping, this siz-
ing is based on the Manning Formula. The flow
rates from other inlets should be accumulated
through the piping system. Use Form 4-3 (Sheets
1-3) in the Appendix at the end of this chapter
for record keeping. The overland flow time to the
first inlet must be added to the pipe flow time.
The pipe flow time is determined by dividing the
length of pipe between two points by the velocity
of flow in the pipe. The size is controlled by ei-
ther the existing storm sewer size or by the al-
lowable slope.
There are three basic inlets to the storm-
drainage system:
1. Drainage inlets. Structures that admit storm
water into the storm-drainage system, located
in areas generally free of sediment or debris.
Bottom is level with outlet pipe invert.
2. Catch basins. Similar to inlets except for
space below the inlet and outlet pipes for re-
tention of sediment. Located in paved areas;
require good maintenance.
3. Manholes. Provide ease of access to pipe con-
nections; use a drop manhole if there is a
difference of 2 ft (0.61 m) or more between
the inlet and the outlet.
Catch basins should be provided at the inlet
to drains, with strainer openings equal to at least
twice the area of the drains. Use site contour
lines to locate site low points; these areas must
be provided with drains to prevent ponding. Park-
ing area and street gutter drains should be open-
throat, curb type drains and should be provided
with hoods. Grate type inlets can become fouled,
decreasing the capacity of the drain. Street in-
lets should be located upstream of flow at the
intersection of streets and so that the maximum
water depth at the curb is approximately Q the
height of the curb and the width of water in the
99 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
gutter does not exceed the width of the adja-
cent driving lane.
Street gutters should use a roughness coef-
ficient of 0.015. If trenches are utilized, the
trenches must be wide enough for a drain of the
proper size to connect to the trenches. Location
of drain inlets should be done so as to avoid pe-
destrian crossing zones and to prevent water from
crossing a street or sidewalk to reach the drain.
Inlets should be in grassy areas to prevent wa-
ter from flowing from the grassy area onto paved
areas and especially to prevent water from freez-
ing on the paved areas in colder climates. Fur-
ther, they should be adjacent to buildings to
ensure positive drainage away from the build-
ings. Inlet flow capacities should be limited to
approximately 5 ft
3
/s (0.14 m
3
/s). The maximum
distance between inlets should be 300 ft (91.4 m).
Culvert pipes are storm sewers that are usu-
ally open on both ends. They are commonly
placed in a creek bed or ditch and used to trans-
port storm water from one side of a road or em-
bankment to the other side. Culvert inlets and
outlets should be provided with head walls com-
posed of straight walls for culverts less than 24
in. (0.61 m) in diameter and with wing walls for
culverts greater than 24 in. (0.61 m) in diam-
eter. Head walls tend to improve the hydraulic
characteristics of the culvert and should be pro-
vided with vertical sloped bar strainers to reduce
clogging.
The culvert should be sized to pass the de-
sign flow rate without building up an excessive
water depth on the upstream end of the culvert,
a minimum of 15 in. (381 mm). The culvert de-
sign should provide reasonable freeboard to pre-
vent the water from running over the road or
embankment, yet it cannot allow the water to
build up high enough to cause damage upstream
of the culvert.
Manholes should be provided for cleanout
purposes on exterior piping at changes in direc-
tion, changes in pipe size, and changes in slope;
at multiple pipe connections; and at intervals as
required by the local code, but they should not
be more than 250500 ft (76.2-152.4 m) apart.
Manholes should have a minimum opening of
24 in. (0.61 m) in diameter, have a 48-in. (1.22-
m) minimum base diameter, have a 13-in. (25.4
76.2-mm) drop in invert across the base, be
provided with cast-iron steps at 9 in. (228.6 mm)
on center, have a cast-iron frame and cover for
proper traffic load, and have an impact slab if
the storm water cascades 10 ft (3.1 m) or more.
The layout of the piping system should at-
tempt to keep excavation to a minimum by fol-
lowing the slope of the ground above the pipe
and by limiting manhole depths to a maximum
of 15 ft (4.6 m), if possible, by locating the man-
holes closer together. The layout should also at-
tempt to avoid tree locations because of root
problems, and piping below paving should be
kept to a minimum. The layout should avoid rail-
road tracks. The exfiltration of water from bad
joints and cracks in the pipe can erode the
subgrade of roads or railways. When piping must
cross a road or railway, joints with very little or
no leakage should be selected and the strength
of the pipe must be proper for the trench loads it
will endure.
Subsurface Drainage
The importance of subsurface water-conveying
systems cannot be overemphasized. Each sys-
tem is designed to solve a specific problem. Some
systems are installed to prevent the earth from
losing bearing resistance by water erosion of the
soil, others to prevent uplifting of the building
slabs by hydrostatic pressure. Another reason
for installing subsurface drainage systems is to
prevent the slab or walls below grade from be-
coming wet by capillary action if the ground wa-
ter is too close to the slab. In each case, the
objective of this type of system is to prevent sub-
surface water from rising above a predetermined
elevation.
Source of subsurface water The source of all
subsurface water is rain, hail, snow, or sleet.
Some precipitation finds its way to streams, riv-
ers, lakes, and oceans by surface runoff. Much
Figure 4-12 Sources of Subsurface Water
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 100
of it seeps into the ground, percolates through
the pores of the soil, and, eventually, spills into
large surface bodies of water through under-
ground passages or by becoming surface-borne
again. See Figure 4-12.
There are two basic types of subsurface
water:
1. Perched water is a local accumulation that
has seeped into the ground from previous
rains and is trapped in small pockets by im-
pervious substances, such as clay or rock.
The water accumulates because these sub-
stances form a basin. Because perched wa-
ter does not flow in the absence of rainfall,
the upper surface of the water (called the
water table) is approximately level and the
absence of a constant inflow makes control
of the water straightforward. Pumping will
completely remove this water and local rain-
fall is necessary to replenish it.
2. Flowing water occurs when subsurface wa-
ter passes from deposit to deposit by perco-
lation (constant flowing water table). This
body of water can be a small brook or a large
river. The flow is constant in one direction.
The top of the water table is never level be-
cause of the resistance of the soil to the flow
of water. The quantity of water flowing is re-
lated to the rate of water overflowing the de-
posits, which, in turn, is related to the
amount of percolation entering the deposits.
During regional droughts, there may be no
flow at all.
Site investigation Economics and feasibility
are the bases of all analytical studies. The loca-
tion of a structure is accepted only after a sur-
vey has proven that it is both technically feasible
and economically practical. The contours of the
land have an important bearing on the amount
of excavation and backfilling required. Under-
ground conditions, such as rock and water, can
also be deciding factors.
Land contours and conditions above ground
can easily be determined by direct observation;
underground conditions are more difficult to as-
certain and require special equipment and expe-
rience. The most common method of determining
subsurface conditions is to bore a hole into the
ground and record the texture and strata eleva-
tion of the various types of soil found. Borings
can also reveal water-table elevations, the
strength of the soils, and rock conditions. See
Figure 4-13.
While rock can be useful in providing a good
bearing for the structure, its presence may be
the one factor that prevents the use of the site
due to excessive excavation costs. The soil may
be of a texture that will not sustain the weight of
the structure and piles may have to be driven.
Also, ground water contributes to foundation
problems. The level of the ground water may
cause poor soil bearing values, and often a high
ground-water table will necessitate costly pres-
sure foundation slabs.
Determining capacities of ground water Prior
to designing drainage systems, it is necessary to
determine the quantity of subsurface water that
must be removed to lower the water table to a
safe elevation. These tests are normally per-
formed by a soils engineer or done at the request
of the civil or structural engineer. As is common
with the majority of hydraulic formulae and the
methods devised to ascertain characteristics of
fluids, determination of subsurface water quan-
tities involves an educated guess. With all the
necessary factors for various conditions that
must be used in the formulae, it is improbable
that an accurate answer will be attained. How-
ever, an answer that can be used with the as-
surance that it is the best available can be
obtained by considering the information from the
great number of tests conducted in the labora-
tory and in the field.
Two factors are used to determine quantities
of subsurface water:
1. Coefficient of permeability, or K factor, de-
Figure 4-13 Borings Revealing the Nature
of the Ground, Water Table Elevations,
and Rock Conditions
101 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
fined as gallons (liters) of water per day
through 1 square foot (0.09 m
2
) of soil, with
an increasing head of 1 foot (0.3 m) every
linear foot (0.3 m). See Figure 4-14.
2. Coefficient of transmissibility, or Q factor,
defined as gallons (liters) of water per day
through the entire area, with the actual in-
creasing head every linear foot (0.3 m).
Excavation prior to testing is considered the
most accurate method for determining subsur-
face water flows, as the excavation largely elimi-
nates the resistance of the soil to flow. This method
can easily be the most expensive: when contrac-
tors are chosen before the design of the subsur-
face drainage system, the advantage of competitive
bidding is lost. With Q directly determined, K can
be estimated by using the following relationship,
which will enable the design of the pipe and trench
system (see also Figure 4-14).
Equation 4-6
K =
velocity
7.5 gal/ft
3
slope
Y
K =
velocity
1002.4 L/m
3
Z
slope
where
Velocity = Q/area, ft
2
/day (m
2
/day)
Slope = Head per length, ft/ft (m/m)
The term slope refers to the hydraulic gra-
dient in the soil. It is difficult to determine; for
most purposes, however, the slope is 1.
Information derived from borings include tex-
ture and strata of soils, water, rock and samples
of specimens encountered. Direction of the flow
can be determined by the elevation of the water
table in the various borings.
Knowing the various strata and the texture
of the soil, an average K factor can be determined.
A cross-section sketch of the strata information
obtained from the borings can be drawn and the
area of each layer determined. Laboratory tests
or published charts will indicate the K factor for
each texture of soil, and the average K factor of
the cross section can be obtained.
If the table is flowing, it is important to choose
the proper cross section in relation to the direc-
tion of flow. If the water is a deposit (not flow-
ing), an average K for two cross sections, at right
angles to each other, must be determined and
the larger one used.
The following industry standards for K fac-
tors are used:
K Factors of Various Soil Textures,
gal/day/ ft
2
/ ft of head/l ft (L/day/m
2
/m of head/l m)
Clean gravel 100,0001,000,000
(43 852 977438 529 774)
Mixture, sand and gravel 10010,000
(43 8534 385 298)
Mixture, sand, silt, 0.0110
clay, fine sand (4.384385)
Clay 0.00010.001
(0.0440.438)
It can readily be observed from the above
table that the chance of error with this method
is great. To eliminate as much error as possible,
samples of the soils, taken during borings, should
be taken to a laboratory to obtain the proper K
factor. The possibility of error will then be lim-
ited to calculating an average K for the proper
cross section of the site area. It must be realized
that the K factor measures the capacity of the
soil to conduct water not the actual amount flow-
ing. The quantity of water infiltrating the soil
may be less than K but is never more. Thus, the
K factor is a safe criterion for use with the bor-
ing method.
After the average K is determined, Q must
be established.
Equation 4-7
Q = K area slope
Figure 4-14 Cross Section Illustrating
the Concept of the K Factor
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 102
Q should not be modified to reflect local
weather conditions because K reflects the peak
flow possible.
Drainage pipe Drainage pipe is rated accord-
ing to its allowable infiltration rate, in gal/min/
in. of diameter/ft of length (L/s/mm of diam-
eter/m of length). The total infiltration rate of
the piping system must exceed Q.
The selection of a piping system becomes a
matter of economics, with due consideration
given to subsoil conditions, cost of materials, and
labor. The following piping systems are available
for use as subsurface drainage systems:
Open joint pipe This pipe uses a 4-in. (100
mm) minimum separation between the pipe sec-
tions. Care in the bedding of the pipe is required
to prevent soil seepage into the piping. This pipe
should be used when a large quantity of drain-
age is desired and the soil consists of relatively
large particles. The infiltration rate of this mate-
rial can be as high as 25,000 gal/day/ft
2
of pipe
surface/ft of head/l ft (10 962 500 L/day/m
2
/
m/l m), depending upon the opening of the joints.
The amount of soil that can enter the open joint
and, ultimately, render the system useless by
clogging the pipe is great. To prevent washout,
several layers of filter material, carefully gradu-
ated in size, must be installed between the base
soil and the pipe. See Figure 4-15.
Perforated pipe This is the most commonly
used method; it provides good drainage capability
and allows less soil seepage. This pipe should be
used where a large quantity of drainage is required
and the soil is not too coarse. The allowable infil-
tration rate of this material ranges from 15,000 to
20,000 gal/day/ft
2
of pipe surface/ft of head/l ft
(6 577 500 to 8 770 000 L/day/m
2
/m/l m), de-
pending upon the size of the perforations. Wash-
out of base soil is also common with this method,
and carefully chosen graduations of filter materi-
als must be used. The pipe can be obtained with
various size perforations and the filter material
must be selected to satisfy the diameters of the
perforations. See Figure 4-16.
Porous pipe This pipe is the easiest of the three
to clog. It is used when it is imperative that wash-
out be prevented and the length of trenching is
not a major consideration. The infiltration rate
is 9000 to 10,000 gal/day/ft
2
of pipe surface/ft
of head/l ft (3 946 500 to 4 385 000 L/day/m
2
/
m/l m). A filter material is not necessary to pre-
vent washout. The value of this piping material
is its ability to prevent washout; however, its K
factor may necessitate almost twice the length
of trenching or pipe diameter used with others.
Trenching The purpose of trenching is to per-
mit ground water to be transmitted to the drain-
age piping with the least amount of resistance
possible and to accommodate the filter material.
The location of all drainage systems must be
coordinated with the foundation/structural en-
gineer and other underground utilities. It is im-
portant in the system design to give consideration
to trench loading on the pipe, which requires
proper bedding, backfill, and tamping. Refer to
the Concrete Pipe Handbook by the American
Figure 4-15 Open Joint Pipe Surrounded
by Filter Material Figure 4-16 Perforated Pipe in Trench
103 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
Concrete Institute and Data Book, Volume 1,
Chapter 2.
To enable the greatest amount of water to
flow into the piping, a filter material is placed
between the pipe and the wall of the trench. If
no filter material were installed between the pipe
and the base soil material, the amount of water
entering the pipe would be only as great as the
amount of water coming through the soil adja-
cent to the pipe, which depends on the K factor
of the soil. The amount of water filtering through
1 linear foot (0.3 m) of trench should be less than
the amount of water 1 linear foot (0.3 m) of pipe
can receive.
The foundation drainage piping should be
placed at the same elevation as the lowest floor
and should be a minimum of 3 ft (0.9 m) from
the foundation wall. The foundation drainage
system should be placed on all sides of the build-
ing, or at least on all sides from which ground
water is expected.
A basic rule of spacing between trenches for
below-slab drainage is that this distance should
be no greater than twice the vertical distance of
the adjacent trenches but should not exceed 10
15 ft (3.04.5 m) on center. The more porous the
soil, the farther apart and the deeper the trenches
should be.
The vertical distance is measured from the
bottom of the pipe to the top of the filter mate-
rial, normally a few inches (mm) to 18 in. (0.45
m) below the slab. This rule is designed to pre-
vent the water table from rising above the eleva-
tion required for safety between the trenches.
During trenching, care must be observed not
to undermine the building footings. A no-man
zone exists from the lower edge of a footing in a
45 angle (angle of repose) down and away from
the footing (see Figure 4-17). To prevent under-
mining the footing, piping should not be placed
within this zoneunless the foundation/struc-
tural engineers approval to do so is obtained.
Filter materials The piping must be sur-
rounded with gravel or another loose, non- absor-
bent material and should be backfilled with a
similar material to at least 1 ft (0.3 m) below the
pipe. Porous materials should be used above the
pipe to direct ground water to the drain and should
be extended up as close as possible to grade.
Filter materials can be obtained in mixtures
ranging from coarse gravel to fine sand and in
any composition. With each mixture, a grain size
curve can be developed to determine the general
size of the mixture, at various percentages, by
weight. The filter material must be tamped to
reduce washout of the base material.
Figure 4-17 Pipe and Footing Locations
Table 4-7 Size Ranges for Filter Material
Filter Material
Size Range, 15% Size, 85% Size,
K factor
a
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pea gravel 0.040.40 (1.10.2) 0.09 (2.3) 0.25 (6.4) 29,000 (12.7)
Coarse sand 0.050.30 (1.37.6) 0.07 (1.8) 0.20 (5.1) 18,000 (7.9)
Fine sand and medium gravel 0.030.35 (0.88.9) 0.055 (1.4) 0.25 (6.4) 17,000 (7.5)
Coarse sand and medium gravel 0.0250.35 (0.68.9) 0.03 (0.8) 0.24 (6.1) 14,000 (6.1)
Concrete sand 0.030.30 (0.87.6) 0.05 (1.3) 0.20 (5.1) 10,000 (4.4)
a
In gal/day/ft
2
of pipe surface/ft of head/l ft (L/day/m
2
/m/m x 10
6
).
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 104
For open-joint and perforated pipe, the filter
material must be carefully selected to graduate
from twice the size of the pipe openings to the
fine size of the base material at the site.
The thickness of each layer of filter material
around the pipe and in the trench should be at
least 4 in. (101.6 mm). It is sometimes used as
the criterion of trench width, if the K factor of
the soil does not require the width to be broader.
See Figure 4-18.
Table 4-7 includes some common filtering
materials and their size ranges.
Selecting pipe diameter Pipe diameter affects
the functioning of the subsurface drain in two
ways. First, there must be sufficient surface to
permit the required infiltration, and second, the
pipe must be large enough to convey the infiltrated
water but not smaller than 4 in. (101.6 mm).
For example, assume a soil to have a K fac-
tor of 1000 gal/day/ft
2
of pipe surface/ft of head/
l ft (438 500 L/day/m
2
/m/l m) and a trench with
8 ft
2
of surface (sides and bottom)/l ft (0.74 m
2
/
0.3 l m) of trench . Assuming a hydraulic slope
of 1, the infiltration rate will be 8000 gal/day/ft
(99345 L/day/m) of trench .
Using a trial-and-error method of solution,
assume a 4-in. (101.6-mm) pipe. The pipe sur-
face is approximately 1 ft
2
/l ft (0.3 m
2
/l m) for a
4-in. (101.6-mm) porous pipe. Assume an infil-
tration capability of 10,000 gal/day/ft
2
/l ft of
pipe (4 385 000 L/day/m
2
/l m), then the pipe
infiltration rate will be 10,000 gal/day/l ft (4 385
000 L/day/l m) of pipe. This is greater than the
required infiltration rate of 8000 gal/day/l ft (99
345 L/day/m).
Now it must be determined whether this 4-
in. (101.6-mm) pipe is able to convey the water.
In order to solve the problem, certain simplify-
Figure 4-18 Pipe in Trench with Dimensions of Filter Layers
105 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
ing assumptions must be made. In most cases,
the drainage piping will be installed flat. How-
ever, water will flow in a flat pipe if the end of
that pipe is open to atmospheric pressure. A con-
servative assumption is that the water acts as if
the pipe had a slope of 0.01 ft/ft (0.01 m/m) or
1%. This enables the use of standard charts for
the discharge of circular pipes based on the
Manning formula. Such a pipe chart would show
that at a 0.01 ft/ft (0.01) slope, a 4-in. (101.6-
mm) pipe will accommodate 150,000 gal/day
(567 750 L/day). With an infiltration rate of 8000
gal/day/l ft (99 345 L/day/m), the 4-in. (101.6-
mm) pipe will be flowing full in 150,000/8000 or
20 ft (6.1 m). If the trench were 100 ft (30.5 m),
requiring a capacity of 800,000 gal/day (3 028
000 L/day), then the chart would indicate that
an 8-in. (203-mm) pipe would be required.
Disposal of ground water Ground water very
often becomes surface borne and a source of
supply to streams, brooks, and rivers. If the natu-
ral flow of ground water is disrupted, a water-
way, important to some individuals, may be
deprived of its supply. After the contours of the
land and the adjacent property are studied, the
ground water may be directed to daylight, a
stream, a ditch, or another natural waterway; or
put back into the ground with diffusion wells,
which may defeat the purpose of the drainage
system.
For many installations, it is neither feasible
nor desirable to return the water into the ground.
The effect of additional ground water on an ad-
jacent structure may be deleterious.
Discharge of subsurface water into munici-
pal storm sewers requires permission from the
authorities having jurisdiction. Storm sewers are
often available and, if the capacity allows it, dis-
charge into them is usually approved. It is a good
practice to install a sediment pit to prevent wash-
out material from entering municipal sewers and
to provide an acceptable backwater valve in the
discharge to the public storm sewer. If the sub-
soil drainage system is lower than the public
storm sewer, pumping may be required.
If the drainage must be pumped, the sub-
surface drainage pipe should terminate with a
bend down into a sump (minimum 18 in. [0.45
m] diameter and 24 in. [0.6 m] deep) with the
end submerged 3 in. (76.2 mm) or less. Venting
of the sump is not required. The sump cover
should be of proper traffic loading, flush with
the floor, and loose fitting, or, if used as an area
drain, it can be open grating. The sump con-
struction should be tile, plastic, fiberglass, steel,
cast iron, concrete, or another approved mate-
rial. The pump should be a duplex unit and, if
considered critical, may require emergency power
or a diesel backup pump. The capacity and head
for the pump must meet the anticipated require-
ments. Subsurface water often contains sand and
silt sediment. Pumps must be designed to ac-
cept some sediment, or damage to the pump com-
ponents will occur.
The pump head must be sufficient to lift the
water from the low-water pump-off level in the
pit (normally 6 in. [127 mm] above the sump
bottom) to the necessary elevation to tie into the
gravity storm main, plus make up for the fric-
tion losses in the pump discharge piping, includ-
ing fittings and valves. A full-flow check valve is
required in the pump discharge piping and an
isolation valve should be provided for servicing
the check valve. If the lift is 3540 ft (10.712.2
m), the check valve should be the spring-loaded
type. The discharge piping should be the same
size as the pump connection, or larger to reduce
the friction losses, and should be of galvanized
steel with cast-iron, screwed fittings. An indi-
vidual branch electrical circuit should be pro-
vided for the pump, with proper waterproof
provisions. See Figure 4-19.
Some subsoil drainage water can have offen-
sive odors or can carry pollutants. Under these
conditions, discharge to the sanitary sewer may
be preferable, or required, and the sump may be
required to be upright. However, directing the
discharge to the sanitary sewer may overload the
public sewer. The designed system should be
reviewed by the jurisdictional authority.
Storm-Water Detention
Within the drainage basins of streams with a
history of flooding, along outfalls with limited
capacities, and in areas where the discharge
could cause overloading of the public storm
sewer, the local authority may require an on-
site storm water detention system with an es-
tablished slow release rate as part of the drainage
plan for a proposed development.
A change in the use of a site, from a wooded
or grassy area to a paved commercial or indus-
trial area, causes a severe impact to natural
waterways including a decrease in infiltration and
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 106
overland travel time and an increase in peak dis-
charges and rainwater runoff. The increase in
runoff also causes problems with soil erosion and
sedimentation. Natural waterways are replaced
or supplemented by paved gutters, storm sew-
ers, channels with predetermined widths and
depths, or other elements of artificial drainage.
This urbanization causes higher peak flow
rates, which necessitate that either the munici-
pality install a drainage system with a higher
capacity or the developer install a detention sys-
tem. Because of the significant costs involved
and ever-increasing development, improvement
of the drainage systems may be impractical.
Therefore, on-site detention systems are required
in many instances.
The theory of a detention system is that peak
runoff rates for a site are determined for both
undisturbed and developed conditions, and the
rate of release from the site is limited to the run-
off rate for the undisturbed conditions. The ex-
cess runoff created by the development must be
detained with a storage system acceptable to the
local authority, the owner, and the designer.
The intent of a detention system is to mini-
mize the discharge rate and consequent flooding
by controlling the release rate. Rainwater can be
held passively by shallow ponding in grassy strips
of land, in parking areas if appropriate, and on
the roofs of buildings (see the discussion in Part
One of Controlled-Flow Drainage System). Wa-
ter can also be held in the piping system by the
installation of weirs or orifices at inlet points such
as manholes, etc.
Three variables in the design require calcu-
lation:
Figure 4-19 Sump-Pump Discharge to the Storm-Drainage System
107 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
1. Outflow from the basin (varies as a function
of time).
2. Inflow to the basin (varies as a function of
time).
3. Storage (the difference between items 1 and
2 above).
There are basically two design approaches
to the design of detention basins. The Rational
Method should be utilized for sites that are less
than 1 acre (4046.724 m
2
) (some designers use
it for 10 acres [40,467.24 m
2
] or less), using a
10-year frequency design rainfall rate. For larger
areas, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Tech-
nical Release Number 55 (TR-55) Method should
be used for calculating runoff rates and storage
capacity requirements.
The detention basin is installed at or below
ground level, with the depth limited by either
the invert of the public storm sewer that is being
tied to or by the depth of the stream or ditch. A
pond may be used in an area of the site that is
less obtrusive. Detention basins may require
paved overflow spillways and small-diameter de-
watering drains. Trash guards should be pro-
vided on the outlet pipe(s) from the basin. Fences
are often required around ponds and basins for
security and the protection of the public.
One problem with calculating the required
storage is that the gravity outflow rate is depen-
dent upon the amount and the depth of the water
in the pond. The outflow changes instantaneously
as the head varies, and the peak outflow only
occurs when the basin is at peak volume. A con-
stant outflow, such as that provided by a pump,
is much easier to calculate: the storage is sim-
ply the inflow to the basin minus the pumped
outflow.
STANDARD EQUATIONS
Equation 4-8
Gravity inflow, V
n
=
10,500T
T + 25
where
V
n
= Inlet flow per acre imperviousness,
ft
3
/s/acre (m
3
/s/acre)
T = Storage time, from time storage
begins until the peak storage is
attained, min
Equation 4-9
Gravity outflow, V
o
= 40 Q
o
T
where
V
o
= Outlet flow per acre imperviousness
(based on the water level rising at a
constant rate), ft
3
/s/acre (m
3
/s/
acre)
Q
o
= Maximum outflow per acre impervi-
ousness, ft
3
/s/acre (m
3
/s/acre)
T = Storage time, from time storage
begins until the peak storage is
attained, min
Equation 4-10
Q
o
=
Allowable outflow
acreage runoff coefficient
Note: For runoff coefficient, see Table 4-6.
Equation 4-11
T = 25 +
6562.5
Q
o
Once the outflow rate has been determined,
the volume of storage required can be calculated,
as follows:
Equation 4-12
V
s
= V
n
V
o
therefore
V
s
=
10,500T
40 Q
o
T
T + 25
where
V
s
= Maximum water volume stored per
acre imperviousness, ft
3
/s/acre
(m
3
/s/acre)
Equation 4-13
V
t
= V
s
A C
where
V
t
= Maximum total water volume
stored, ft
3
(m
3
)
A = Area, acres
C = Runoff coefficient (see Table 4-6)
If the outlet is to be an orifice operating un-
der a head, select a depth of retention and a cor-
responding outflow pipe that will yield an outflow
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 108
in ft
3
/s (m
3
/s) equal to the maximum allowable
operating condition under the head as deter-
mined by the depth of retention.
Equation 4-14
Orifice area, A =
Q
0.62 2GH
where
A = Area of outlet orifice or pipe, ft
2
(m
3
)
Q = Allowable outflow rate, ft
3
/s (m
3
/s)
G = Acceleration due to gravity = 32.2
ft/s
2
(9.8 m/s
2
)
H = Head, distance of water level to
centerline of the outflow pipe, ft (m).
If the outlet flow is constant, select a depth
of retention and a pump that will yield an out-
flow in ft
3
/s (m
3
/s) equal to the maximum al-
lowable. The constant outflow rate implies that
the total outflow is the outflow rate multiplied
by the duration of the storm.
Equation 4-15
Pumped outflow, V
o
= 60 Q
o
T
Once the pumped (constant) outflow rate has
been determined, the volume of storage required
can be calculated, as follows:
Equation 4-16
V
s
= V
n
V
o
therefore
V
s
=
10,500T
60 Q
o
T
T + 25
Equation 4-17
T = 25 +
4375
Q
o
All systems should be permitted and should
be submitted to the local authority for approval.
109 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
APPENDIX
Form 4-1 Storm-Drainage Calculations for Roof Drains and Vertical Leaders
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 110
Form 4-2 Storm-Drainage System Sizing Sheet
111 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drainage Worksheet 1
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 112
Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drainage Worksheet 2
113 Chapter 4 Storm-Drainage Systems
Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drainage Worksheet 3
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 114
REFERENCES
1. American Concrete Institute. Concrete pipe hand-
book. Washington, DC.
2. American Society of Civil Engineers. n.d. Manual
on the design and construction of sanitary and
storm sewers.
3. Ballanco, Julius, and Eugene R. Shumann. 1987.
The illustrated national plumbing code design
manual. Ballanco and ShumannIllustrated
Plumbing Codes, Inc.
4. Building Officials and Code Administration
(BOCA). 1981. BOCA basic plumbing code.
5. Cast-Iron Soil Pipe Institute. 1976. Cast-iron soil
pipe and fittings engineering manual. Vol. 1.
Washington, DC.
6. Church, James C. 1979. Practical plumbing de-
sign guide. New York: McGraw-Hill.
7. Frankel, Michael. 1981. Storm water retention
methods. Plumbing Engineer March/April and
May/June.
8. Frederick, Ralph H., Vance A. Meyers, and
Eugene P. Auciello. NOAA, National weather ser-
vice 5-60 minute precipitation frequency for the
eastern and central United States. NWS tech.
memo. HYDRO-35. NTIS Publication PB-272 112.
Silver Spring, MD: National Technical Informa-
tion Service.
9. Hicks, Tyler G., ed. 1986. Plumbing design and
installation reference guide. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
10. Manas, Vincent T. 1968. National plumbing code,
illustrated. St. Petersburg, FL: Manas Publica-
tions.
11. Sansone, John R. 1978. Storm drainage design
and detention using the rational method. Plumb-
ing Engineer July/ August.
12. SBCCI. 1988. Standard plumbing code. Birming-
ham, AL.
13. Soil Conservation Service, Engineering Division.
1986. Urban hydrology for small watersheds.
Technical release no. 55, June. NTIS publication
PB87-101580. Silver Spring, MD: National Tech-
nical Information Service.
14. Steele, Alfred. 1982. Engineered plumbing design.
Chicago: Delta Communications. (Now available
through ASPE.)
15. Steele, Alfred. High-rise plumbing. Plumbing En-
gineer. Chicago: Delta Communications.
16. US War Department. Engineering manual of the
War Department. Misc. publication no. 204.
17. US Department of the Army. Plumbing design
manual no. 3.01.
18. Yrjanainen, Glen, and Alan W. Warren. 1973. A
simple method for retention basin design. Water
and Sewage Works December.
115 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
Cold-Water
Systems
5
INTRODUCTION
Proper design of a buildings water-distribution
system is necessary so that the various fixtures
function properly, that excessive pressure and
pressure fluctuations are prevented, and that
supply failure under normal conditions is
avoided. The amount of cold water used in a
building is a function of structure type, usage,
occupancy, and time of day. It is necessary to
provide the most economical pipe sizes to meet
the peak demand without wasteful excess in pip-
ing or cost. There are at least five reasons why
proper sizing of the piping in a water-distribu-
tion system is essential:
1. Health. This factor is of great importance. In-
adequate sizing can cause negative pressures
in a piping system and lead to contamina-
tion of the water supply by backflow or back-
siphonage.
2. Pressure. If adequate residual pressure can-
not be maintained at equipment and fixtures
because of inadequate pipe sizing, improper
operation will result. Excessive pressures will
cause erosion and noise problems in the pip-
ing and accelerate deterioration of the seals
in faucets.
3. Flow. If flow rates cannot be maintained at
adequate levels because of inadequate pipe
sizing, equipment performance will deteriorate.
4. Water service. Improper sizing can acceler-
ate erosion, corrosion, and scale buildup.
5. Noise. High velocities cause noise and in-
crease the danger of surge pressure shock.
(The accepted maximum velocity is 8 fps
[2.4 m/s].)
DOMESTIC COLD-WATER METERS
Many major municipalities furnish and/or in-
stall a particular type of water meter. In such
locations, the meter characteristics (type, size,
flow, pressure drops, remote readouts, costs, etc.)
can be obtained through the local water depart-
ment. Depending on the type of project being
contemplated, a utility may request a particular
meter (e.g., compound meter vs. turbine meter.)
Whether a utility companys meter or a meter
from another source is used, the above-men-
tioned characteristics must be taken into con-
sideration. The location of the meter is of prime
importance. The meter shall not be subjected to
freezing or submerged conditions. To discour-
age tapping of the piping ahead of the meter, it
may be required that the meter be located di-
rectly inside the building wall. Some jurisdictions
want the meter immediately adjacent to the tap
to prevent illegal connections between the meter
and the tap. Where job conditions mandate such
a location, a meter in an outside pit or manhole
should be watertight against both surface and
ground-water conditions. A reduced-pressure
backflow preventer is recommended at the build-
ing meter and is required by some codes and
municipalities.
Water meters for plumbing use are usually
classified as the positive-displacement type,
which indicate direct flow and record water pas-
sage in gal (L) or ft
3
(m
3
).
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 116
Meter Types
1. Disc meter. These meters are normally s, w,
1, 1, and 2 in. (16, 19.1, 25, 40, and 50
mm) in size; are manufactured to meet the
requirements of AWWA Standard C700; have
a 150 psi (1034 kPa) maximum working pres-
sure; and measure flow in one direction. This
type of meter is common to residential and
small commercial installations and is adapt-
able for remote readout systems.
2. Compound meter. These meters are normally
2, 3, 4, and 6 in. (50, 80, 100, and 150 mm)
in size; are manufactured to meet the require-
ments of AWWA Standard C700; have a 150
psi (1034 kPa) maximum working pressure;
and measure flow in one direction. This type
of meter is used when most of the flow is low
but high flows are anticipated. It is capable
of recording low flows and has the capacity
for high flow rates.
3. Turbine meter. The sizes of this meter are 2,
3, 4, 6, and 10 in. (50, 80, 100, 150, and 250
mm). This type of meter has the characteris-
tics of a compound meter but is more suit-
able for encountering a variety of flows. (A
strainer should be installed upstream of the
meter.)
4. Propeller meter. The sizes of this meter are
272 in. (511829 mm). Propeller meters are
used where low flows never occur.
5. Fire-line meters or detector-check meters. This
type of meter may be required by local codes
in a water service that feeds a fire-protection
sprinkler system or fire-hydrant system. In
such a case, the installation must meet the
requirements of the local fire official and the
appropriate insurance company. The design
should include a minimum of 8 pipe diam-
eters of straight pipe upstream of the meter
before any change in direction or connections.
Various types of meter can be equipped with
optional accessories. Remote-readout systems,
strip-chart recorders, etc. are available for spe-
cific applications.
Sizing the Water Meter
The following design criteria may be used as a
guide for selecting the proper meter:
1. Building occupancy type.
2. Minimum and maximum demand.
3. Water pressure available.
4. Size of building service.
5. Piping, valve, meter, and elevation losses.
6. Meter costs and tap fees.
7. Maintenance costs and fees.
Tables 5-1 to 5-3 from AWWA Standard M22
are reprinted as additional guidelines for water
meters.
SIZING THE WATER LINE
In practically all cases, water can be regarded as
an incompressible fluid and, for calculations at
approximately atmospheric temperature, it is
customary to assume that water has a uniform
density of 62.4 lb/ft
3
(1 kg/L), which holds nearly
constant through a temperature range of 3260F
(015.6C).
For calculations involving water-heating sys-
tems such as boiler-feed pump discharge heads,
it is necessary to take into account the changes
in density, vapor pressure, and viscosity with
temperature. Application of the common empiri-
cal equations for water flow is limited to water at
usual atmospheric temperatures in the 32l00F
(037.8C) range. At higher temperatures, the
changes in density and viscosity have a consid-
erable bearing on flow relations; where accurate
results are desired, use of the common empiri-
cal formulae is not recommended.
Hazen-Williams Formula
Among the many empirical formulae for friction
losses that have been proposed, the Hazen-Wil-
liams equation is the most widely used. In a con-
venient form, it reads as follows:
Equation 5-1
f = 0.2082
Y
100
Z
1.85
Y
q
1.85
Z
C d
4.8655
where
f = Friction head, ft of liquid/100 ft
of pipe (m/100 m)
C = Surface roughness constant
q = Fluid flow, gpm (L/s)
d = Inside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
117 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
Table 5-1 Displacement-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications
Flow-Pressure Loss Averages
Recommended for Brands
Recommended Design Continuous Flow of
Size, Maximum Capacity Criteria80% 50% of Meters
in. AWWA Flow Criteria of Maximum Capacity Maximum Capacity Avgs.
(mm) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa)
s w
(16 19.1) 20 (1.26) 10.4 (71.76) 16 (1.00) 6.1 (42.19) 10 (0.63) 1.0 (6.9) 6
w (19.1) 30 (1.89) 10.6 (73.13) 24 (1.51) 6.9 (47.61) 15 (0.95) 1.05 (7.24) 6
1 (25.4) 50 (3.15) 9.3 (64.14) 40 (2.52) 6.3 (43.47) 25 (1.58) 1.0 (6.9) 6
1 (38.1) 100 (6.30) 11.3 (77.10) 80 (5.05) 8.6 (59.34) 50 (3.15) 0.9 (6.21) 6
2 (50.8) 160 (10.08) 10.4 (71.76) 128 (8.08) 6.5 (44.85) 80 (5.04) 0.5 (3.45) 6
3 (76.2) 300 (18.93) 13.1 (90.39) 240 (15.14) 8.3 (57.27) 150 (9.46) 1.1 (7.59) 3
Source:AWWA Standard M22.
Table 5-2 Compound-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications
Flow-Pressure Loss Averages
Recommended for Brands
Recommended Design Continuous Flow of
Size Maximum Capacity Criteria80% 50% of Meters
in. AWWA Flow Criteria of Maximum Capacity Maximum Capacity Avgs.
(mm) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa)
2 (30) 160 (10.08) 9.2 (63.48) 128 (8.07) 6.1 (42.09) 80 (5.04) 2.6 (17.94) 3
3 (80) 320 (20.19) 13.4 (92.46) 250 (15.77) 8.9 (61.36) 160 (10.08) 4.2 (28.98) 5
4 (100) 500 (31.54) 9.6 (66.24) 400 (25.23) 6.3 (43.47) 250 (15.77) 3.5 (24.15) 5
6 (150) 1000 (63.09) 9.4 (64.86) 800 (50.46) 5.8 (40.02) 500 (31.54) 2.5 (17.25) 4
8 (203) 1600 (100.94) 12.0 (82.8) 1280 (80.75) 7.8 (53.82) 800 (50.46) 4.0 (27.60) 3
Source:AWWA Standard M22.
Table 5-3 Turbine-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications
Flow-Pressure Loss Averages
Recommended for Brands
Recommended Design Continuous Flow of
Size Maximum Capacity Criteria80% 50% of Meters
in. AWWA Flow Criteria of Maximum Capacity Maximum Capacity Avgs.
(mm) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa)
2 (50) 160 (10.08) 4.5 (31.05) 128 (7.57) 2.8 (19.32) 80 (5.04) 1.0 (6.9) 5
3 (80) 350 (22.37) 4.6 (31.74) 280 (17.66) 3.0 (20.69) 175 (11.04) 1.2 (8.3) 4
4 (100) 600 (37.85) 3.5 (24.15) 480 (30.28) 2.1 (14.5) 300 (18.93) 0.8 (5.5) 4
6 (150) 1250 (78.86) 3.5 (24.15) 1000 (69.09) 2.0 (13.8) 625 (39.43) 0.7 (4.9) 4
Source:AWWA Standard M22.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 118
F
i
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u
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e
5
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119 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
F
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ASPE Data Book Volume 2 120
Figure 5-2 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s)
121 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
This formula is most accurate for the flow of
water in pipes larger than 2 in. (5 cm) and at
velocities less than 10 fps (3 m/s).
Equation 5-1 yields accurate results only
when the kinematic viscosity of the liquid is about
1.1 centistokes, which is the case of water at
60F (15.6C). However, the kinematic viscosity
of water varies with temperature, from 1.8
centistokes at 32F (0C) to 0.29 centistokes at
212F (100C); therefore, the tables are subject
to this error, which may increase the friction loss
by as much as 20% at 32F (0C) and decrease it
by as much as 20% at 212F (100C). Values of
C, for various types of pipe, are shown in Table
5-4, together with the corresponding multipliers
that should apply to the values of the head loss, f.
Figure 5-1 shows the friction loss of head
chart, C = 140, derived from the Hazen-Williams
formula (Equation 5-1). Figure 5-2 illustrates the
conversion of fixture units to gallons per minute
(liters per second).
Factors Affecting Sizing
The three factors affecting the sizing of a water
line are the demand flow rate (gpm) (L/s), the
velocity (fps) (m/s), and the pressure available
for friction loss.
Demand The first factor, flow rate, is the water
demand of the system, in gpm (L/s). There is a
vast difference in the water demand flow rates of
flush valves in different types of occupancy. For
example, ten water closets with flush valves in
an apartment building may have a demand flow
rate of 60 gpm (3.8 L/s), while ten water closets
with flush valves in a public school may have a
demand flow rate of 90 gpm (5.7 L/s). The judg-
ment and experience of the designer plays an
important part in accommodating such differ-
ences in the design of water systems.
Another problem encountered in establish-
ing flow rates is the practice of counting fixtures
that are not normally in use. For example, a ser-
vice sink in an office building is normally used
only by the janitors at night; therefore, it should
not be counted as a fixture in the total demand.
Hose bibbs are other fixtures that should not be
figured at 100% of their number. For example,
the systems of large buildings may have many
hose bibbs installed but only a few will be oper-
ated simultaneously. Individual branch lines
should be sized to handle all the fixtures on the
branch; however, the presence of these infre-
quently used fixtures should not be reflected in
the total demand.
After the designer has determined which fix-
tures to include in the water demand calcula-
tion, the maximum demand can be obtained.
Fixture unit (fu) values for each fixture can be
assigned by using Table 5-5 and a total fu value
can be obtained by adding the fu values of all
water-using fixtures with a normal domestic di-
versity. The total fu value can be converted into
a gpm (L/s) flow rate by using Table 5-6 or Fig-
ures 5-2 or 5-3, each of which includes a diver-
sity factor.
The demand flow rates of all constant-use
fixtures must be added to this flow rate. A con-
stant-use fixture uses water continuously and
does not have normal diversity. Air-conditioning
cooling towers, booster pumps, commercial laun-
dry or dishwashing equipment, lawn sprinklers,
and industrial processes are examples of con-
stant-use fixtures. Any such equipment must be
figured separately and added to the gpm (L/s)
flow rate obtained from the conversion of all fix-
ture units. This combined figure is the peak de-
mand flow rate for the project. (Note: Fixtures
that are timed to operate during off hours
should not be added.)
The fixture-unit listings in Table 5-5 are for
the total water consumption of the fixture. For
the purposes of sizing either the hot or cold-wa-
ter line, the fixture-unit loading for a fixture that
uses both hot and cold water would be 75% of
the total value. The 75% figure applies only to
fixtures served by hot and cold water. It does
not apply to single-service fixtures, such as wa-
ter closets, urinals, and dishwashers.
Velocity The second factor affecting the sizing
of a water line is velocity. A maximum velocity of
15 fps (4.6 m/s), which is suggested by some
model plumbing codes, is much too high for many
installations. A velocity above 6 or 7 fps (1.8 or
2.1 m/s) normally creates noise. Also, depend-
ing on the piping material used and the tem-
perature, hardness, and pH of the water,
velocities above 4 fps (1.2 m/s) can cause ero-
sion of the piping material.
Another justification for lower velocities in a
system is water hammer. Water hammer is the
pounding force created by the sudden starting
or stopping of water flow, which can be caused
by quick-opening or closing valves. The impact
of water hammer is directly proportional to the
change in velocity and is equal to approximately
60 times the velocity change. For instance, if
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 122
water traveling at 15 fps (4.6 m/s) is stopped
suddenly, the increase in pressure within the
pipe line will be approximately 900 psi (6205.3
kPa). This increased pressure can do consider-
able damage to piping systems and connected
equipment.
Pressure The third factor affecting the sizing of a
water line is the pressure available for friction
loss. The first step in ascertaining pressure avail-
able for friction loss is determining (from the lo-
cal water department) the maximum and
minimum water pressures and flow rate to be
encountered at the project site. The maximum
and minimum pressures may be nearly the same
or they may vary greatly; care must be taken to
handle the high pressure as well as the low pres-
sure. If the maximum pressure is above 80 psi,
and a pressure-regulating device is installed, the
pressure regulator will introduce an additional loss
in the piping system when the water system is at
minimum pressure. The water pressure should
be determined from a fire-hydrant flow test, which
is taken as close to the site as possible and in-
cludes static and residual pressures at a flow rate.
Many model plumbing codes state that, if a
pressure-regulating device is installed, the avail-
able pressure must be considered as 80% of the
reduced pressure setting. Spring-operated, pres-
sure-regulating devices have a fall-off pressure
that is below the system pressure setting. Many
engineers design a system incorporating the fall-
off pressure of the equipment they are using;
Table 5-4 Surface Roughness Coefficient (C) Values for Various Types of Pipe
Values of C
Range Average Value Value Commonly
(High = Best, smooth, well-laid for Good, Used for
Type of Pipe Low = Poor or corroded) Clean, New Pipe Design Purposes
Asbestos cement 160140 150 140
Fiber 150 140
Bitumastic-enamel-lined iron or steel
centrifugally applied 160130 148 140
Cement-lined iron or steel centrifugally applied 150 140
Copper, brass, lead, tin or glass pipe and tubing 150120 140 130
Wood stave 145110 120 110
Welded and seamless steel 15080 140 100
Continuous-interior, riveted steel
(no projecting rivets or joints) 139 100
Wrought iron 15080 130 100
Cast iron 15080 130 100
Tar-coated cast iron 14580 130 100
Girth-riveted steel (projecting rivets
in girth seams only) 130 100
Concrete 15285 120 100
Full-riveted steel (projecting rivets in
girth and horizontal seams) 115 100
Vitrified clay 115 100
Spiral-riveted steel (flow with lap) 110 100
Spiral-riveted steel (flow against lap) 110 90
Corrugated steel 60 60
Value of C 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60
Multiplier to Correct Tables 0.47 0.54 0.62 0.71 0.84 1.0 1.22 1.50 1.93 2.57
123 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
however, the 80% factor is a rule of thumb that
should not apply to an engineered system.
If the available water pressure at a project
site is high enough to require the use of a
pressure-regulating device, the pressure-regulat-
ing valve is considered the starting point of the
system for the purposes of calculation.
The next step in obtaining the pressure avail-
able for friction loss is to determine the residual
pressure required at the governing fixture or
appliance (not necessarily the farthest fixture).
Residual pressure is the pressure required at
the fixture for it to operate properly with water
flowing. Normally, but not always, 8 psi (55.2
kPa) is required for a flush-tank system and 15
psi (103.4 kPa) is required for a flush-valve sys-
tem. Some flush-valve fixtures require 20 or 25
psi (137.9 or 172.4 kPa); some water closets re-
quire 40 psi (275.8 kPa); commercial dishwash-
ers require 20 or 25 psi (137.9 or 172.4 kPa). It
is evident, then, that the residual pressure
should be figured as the actual pressure needed
at the governing fixture.
The third step is to determine the static pres-
sure loss required to reach the governing fixture
or appliance. The static loss (or gain) is figured
at 0.433 psi/ft (9.8 kPa/m) of elevation differ-
ence, above or below the water main. The differ-
ence in elevation is usually a pressure loss to
the system, as fixtures are normally at a higher
elevation than the source. If the fixture is lower
than the source, there will be an increase in pres-
sure and the static pressure is added to the ini-
tial pressure.
Another pressure loss is created by the wa-
ter meter. This loss of pressure, for a disc type
meter, can be determined from Figure 5-4 or from
the manufacturers flow charts. The flow is de-
termined from charts indicating the total flow
rate, in gpm (L/s), the size and type of the meter,
and the pressure drop for the corresponding flow.
The loss is given in pounds per square inch (psi)
and kilopascals (kPa). The selection of meter size
is very important in the final sizing of the piping
system and is one variable the designer can con-
trol. Many other factors, such as the height of
the building, city water pressure, and require-
ments for backflow protection or water treatment,
are dictated by codes or by the particular situa-
tion. The designer must review the system very
closely prior to the selection of a meter size. Usu-
ally, the larger the meter, the higher the initial
installation price and monthly charge. On the
Table 5-5 Demand Weight of Fixtures,
in Fixture Units
a
Weight Minimum
(fixture units)
c
Connections,
in. (mm)
Fixture Type
b
Cold Hot
Private Public Water Water
Bathtub
d
2 4 2 (13) 2 (13)
Bedpan washer 10 1 (25)
Bidet 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13)
Combination sink
and tray 3 2 (13) 2 (13)
Dental unit or cuspidor 1 a (10)
Dental lavatory 1 2 2 (13) 2 (13)
Drinking fountain 1 2 a (10)
Kitchen sink 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13)
Lavatory 1 2 a (10) a (10)
Laundry tray (1 or 2
compartments) 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13)
Shower, each head
d
2 4 2 (13) 2 (13)
Sink, service 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13)
Urinal, pedestal 10 1 (25)
Urinal (wall lip) 5 2 (13)
Urinal stall 5 w (20)
Urinal with flush tank 3
Wash sink, circular or
multiple (each set of
faucets) 2 2 (13) 2 (13)
Water closet:
Flush valve 6 10 1 (25)
Tank 3 5 a (10)
a
For supply outlets likely to impose continuous demands, esti-
mate the continuous supply separately and add to the total demand
for fixtures.
b
For fixtures not listed, weights may be assumed by comparing
the fixture to a listed one then using water in similar quantities and
at similar rates.
c
The given weights are for the total demand of fixtures with both
hot and cold-water supplies. The weights for maximum separate
demands may be taken as 75% of the listed demand for the sup-
ply.
d
A shower over a bathtub does not add a fixture unit to the group.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 124
Flow,
Fixture Units
gpm Flush Flush
(L/s) Tank Valve
1 (0.06) 0
2 (0.13) 1
3 (0.19) 3
4 (0.25) 4
5 (0.32) 6
6 (0.38) 7
7 (0.44) 8
8 (0.50) 10
9 (0.57) 12
10 (0.63) 13
11 (0.69) 15
12 (0.76) 16
13 (0.82) 18
14 (0.88) 20
15 (0.95) 21
16 (1.01) 23
17 (1.07) 24
18 (1.13) 26
19 (1.20) 28
20 (1.26) 30
21 (1.32) 32
22 (1.39) 34 5
23 (1.45) 36 6
24 (1.51) 39 7
25 (1.58) 42 8
26 (1.64) 44 9
27 (1.70) 46 10
28 (1.76) 49 11
29 (1.83) 51 12
30 (1.89) 54 13
31 (1.95) 56 14
32 (2.02) 58 15
33 (2.08) 60 16
34 (2.14) 63 18
35 (2.21) 66 20
36 (2.27) 69 21
37 (2.33) 74 23
38 (2.39) 78 25
39 (2.46) 83 26
40 (2.52) 86 28
41 (2.58) 90 30
42 (2.65) 95 31
43 (2.71) 99 33
44 (2.77) 103 35
Table 5-6 ConversionsGallons per Minute (Liters per Second) to Fixture Units
45 (2.84) 107 37
46 (2.90) 111 39
47 (2.96) 115 42
48 (3.02) 119 44
49 (3.09) 123 46
50 (3.15) 127 48
51 (3.21) 130 50
52 (3.28) 135 52
53 (3.34) 141 54
54 (3.40) 146 57
55 (3.47) 151 60
56 (3.53) 155 63
57 (3.59) 160 66
58 (3.65) 165 69
59 (3.72) 170 73
60 (3.78) 175 76
62 (3.91) 185 82
64 (4.03) 195 88
66 (4.16) 205 95
68 (4.28) 215 102
70 (4.41) 225 108
72 (4.54) 236 116
74 (4.66) 245 124
76 (4.79) 254 132
78 (4.91) 264 140
80 (5.04) 275 148
82 (5.17) 284 158
84 (5.29) 294 168
86 (5.42) 305 176
88 (5.54) 315 186
90 (5.67) 326 195
92 (5.80) 337 205
94 (5.92) 348 214
96 (6.05) 359 223
98 (6.17) 370 234
100 (6.30) 380 245
105 (6.62) 406 270
110 (6.93) 431 295
115 (7.25) 455 329
120 (7.56) 479 365
125 (7.88) 506 396
130 (8.19) 533 430
135 (8.51) 559 460
140 (8.82) 585 490
145 (9.14) 611 521
150 (9.45) 638 559
155 (9.77) 665 596
160 (10.08) 692 631
165 (10.40) 719 666
170 (10.71) 748 700
175 (11.03) 778 739
180 (11.34) 809 775
185 (11.66) 840 811
190 (11.97) 874 850
200 (12.60) 945 931
210 (13.23) 1018 1009
220 (13.86) 1091 1091
230 (14.49) 1173 1173
240 (15.12) 1254 1254
250 (15.75) 1335 1335
260 (16.38) 1418 1418
270 (17.01) 1500 1500
280 (17.64) 1583 1583
290 (18.27) 1668 1668
300 (18.90) 1755 1755
310 (19.53) 1845 1845
320 (20.16) 1926 1926
330 (20.79) 2018 2018
340 (21.42) 2110 2110
350 (22.05) 2204 2204
360 (22.68) 2298 2298
370 (23.31) 2388 2388
380 (23.94) 2480 2480
390 (24.57) 2575 2575
400 (25.20) 2670 2670
410 (25.83) 2765 2765
420 (26.46) 2862 2862
430 (27.09) 2960 2960
440 (27.72) 3060 3060
450 (28.35) 3150 3150
500 (31.50) 3620 3620
550 (34.65) 4070 4070
600 (37.80) 4480 4480
700 (44.10) 5380 5380
800 (50.40) 6280 6280
900 (56.70) 7280 7280
1000 (63) 8300 8300
Flow,
Fixture Units
gpm Flush Flush
(L/s) Tank Valve
Flow,
Fixture Units
gpm Flush Flush
(L/s) Tank Valve
125 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
other hand, a larger meter may mean a smaller-
sized piping system, which might prove to be
more economical in the long run. These two fac-
tors are evaluated by the designer and economic
considerations guide the selection. Furthermore,
if a system does not have ample pressure, a
means of preserving the available pressure is to
use a larger meter, thereby decreasing pressure
loss. This fact may well enable the designer to
eliminate the use of a water-pressure booster
system, thereby substantially reducing the
plumbing system costs.
The last step is to determine the other pres-
sure losses encountered between the meter and
the governing fixture. These could be caused by
a water softener, a backflow preventer, a filter,
or any other device that creates a pressure loss
in the system.
The governing fixture or appliance is the
device that has the highest total when the re-
sidual pressure, static pressure, and all other
pressure losses are added. Take, for example,
the system shown in Figure 5-5. To find the gov-
erning fixture or appliance, determine which
device requires the most pressure. Knowing that
the meter loss is the same for all parts of the
system, it can be temporarily ignored. Going from
the meter to the flush-valve water closet, there
are 15 psi (103.4 kPa) residual and no static loss
for a total of 15 psi (103.4 kPa). As a total going
through the backflow preventer, there are 16 psi
(110.3 kPa) residual and 8.66 psi (59.7 kPa) static
for a total loss of 24.66 psi (170 kPa). Going to
the dishwasher, there is a total of 40 psi (275.8
kPa)25 psi (172.4 kPa) residual plus 5 psi (34.5
kPa) loss through the water heater plus 10 psi
(69 kPa) loss through the softener. Therefore, the
dishwasher is the governing fixture, for it has
the highest total when the residual, static, and
other losses are added.
Summarizing the steps, all the system needs
or losses are subtracted from the minimum wa-
ter pressure. The remainder is the pressure avail-
able for friction, defined as the total energy (or
force) available to push the water through the
pipes to the governing fixture or appliance. How
this force is used is up to the designer, who may
decide to use it evenly over the entire system, as
an average pressure loss, or unevenly over the
system. In designing the system, as long as the
designer does not exceed the pressure available
for friction, the system will work. A certain
amount of pressure may be held in reserve, how-
ever, to allow for aging of the piping or decreases
in available water supply pressures as an area
incurs growth.
As previously determined, the governing ap-
pliance in the example in Figure 5-5 is the dish-
washer. For the same example, assume that the
minimum incoming water pressure is 60 psi
(413.7 kPa). To determine the pressure available
for friction, start with 60 psi (413.7 kPa) and
subtract 3 psi (20.7 kPa) for the meter loss, 10
psi 69 kPa) for the softener, 5 psi (34.5 kPa) for
the water-heater coil, and 25 psi (172.4 kPa) re-
sidual for the dishwasher. This leaves a remain-
der of 17 psi (117.2 kPa), which is the pressure
available for friction. The losses for the backflow
preventer and the static do not occur on the line
between the meter and the governing fixture or
appliance; therefore, they are not included in the
calculations at this time. Only losses that occur
on the line between the meter and the governing
fixture or appliance are to be included in the ini-
tial calculations to determine the pressure avail-
able for friction. The other losses will enter into
subsequent calculations.
After obtaining the pressure available for fric-
tion, the next step is to calculate the average
pressure drop. This is the pressure available for
friction divided by the equivalent length of the
run. The quotient is multiplied by l00 to obtain
an answer in terms of loss in psi/100 ft (kPa/
l00 m). In determining the equivalent length of
run, an allowance must be made for fittings. This
can be determined from Table 5-7 or by adding a
percentage to the developed length. The average
pressure drop is an average loss over the system
and should be used only as a guide in sizing
piping.
Part of the system can be designed to exceed
the average pressure drop, while another part is
designed to be less than the average. The aver-
age pressure drop can be exceededas long as
the total pressure available for friction is not
exceeded. The average pressure drop calculation,
which is made initially, pertains only to the line
from the meter to the governing fixture or appli-
ance. Care should be taken to account for the
average pressure drop calculations for the other
lines. The branches off the main line should be
sized on a different pressure-loss basis, or the
branches closest to the meter may take pres-
sure away from the farthest branches. Table 5-8
shows typical flow and pressure required during
flow for various fixtures.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 126
Example 5-1
Figure 5-6 illustrates how to determine the pres-
sure available for friction.
In the system shown (with a main line run-
ning from the meter, point A, to the governing
fixture or appliance, point L), each section of the
line is equivalent to 10 ft (3.1 m) in length. This
includes an allowance for fittings. The allowable
pressure drop for friction is 10 psi (69 kPa). The
first tabulation is the friction loss in the system.
Section AB has an equivalent length of 10
ft (3.1 m). The average pressure drop is 10 psi/
100 ft (226.2 kPa/100 m). If it is assumed that
Figure 5-3 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s),
Design Load vs. Fixture Units, Mixed System
127 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
precisely sized pipe is obtained to give a pres-
sure loss (due to friction) of exactly 10 psi/100 ft
(226.2 kPa/l00 m), the pressure loss in this sec-
tion is 1 psi (6.9 kPa) and the pressure for fric-
tion at point B is 9 psi (62.1 kPa). In section
KL, at point L, there is 0 pressure left for fric-
tion. This is the governing fixture.
The next tabulation illustrates the sizing of
branches (using a different friction-loss basis
than was used for the main).
10 psi (69 kPa) available for friction loss; long-
est run: AL, 100 ft (30.5 m); average pressure
drop: (10 100)/100 = 10 psi/100 ft (226.2 kPa/
100 m).
Method A uses the same average pressure
loss in the branches as was used in the line to
the governing fixture. The pressure available for
friction at the end of each branch is not 0. At
point M, it is 1 psi (6.9 kPa); at point R, it is 5 psi
(34.5 kPa); and at point U, it reaches a maxi-
mum of 8 psi (55.2 kPa). Unless the pressure to
each fixture is used up as friction loss, it tends
to cause more water than necessary to flow
through the branches to use the excess avail-
able pressure.
Method B illustrates the ideal system. All the
available frictional pressure in each of the
branches is used. In actual practice, this method
can not be utilized. The average pressure loss in
each section is very high, far higher than is nor-
mally accepted in modern construction. Many
engineers and designers would be concerned with
the high pressure loss as well as with the high
velocity shown by this example.
Method C is a modified header system. The
main was sized on the average pressure drop of
the system and the branches sized on their al-
lowable frictional pressure drop. At section MJ,
the total allowable pressure drop over the entire
system (point A to point M) is 10 psi (69 kPa).
Point M has an equivalent length of 90 ft (27.4
m) from point A. This gives an average pressure
Figure 5-4 Typical Friction Losses for Disk-Type Water Meters
4
"
6
"
3
"
2
"
1
-
1
/
2
"
1
"
3
/
4
"
5
/
8
"
137.9
110.3
69.0
62.1
55.2
48.3
41.4
34.5
27.6
20.7
13.8
6.9
20
16
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000
0
.
2
5
0
.
3
2
0
.
3
8
0
.
4
4
0
.
5
0
0
.
5
7
0
.
6
3
1
.
2
6
1
.
8
9
2
.
5
2
3
.
1
5
3
.
7
8
5
.
0
4
6
.
3
0
1
2
.
6
1
8
.
9
2
5
.
2
3
7
.
8
5
0
.
4
6
3
.
0
Flow, liters per second
Flow, gallons per minute
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
L
o
s
s
,
k
i
l
o
P
a
s
c
a
l
s
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
L
o
s
s
,
p
o
u
n
d
s
p
e
r
i
n
c
h
s
q
u
a
r
e
d
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 128
Table 5-7 Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings
Equivalent Length of Pipe for Various Fittings (ft)
Diameter 90 45 Coupling
of Fitting Standard Standard Standard or Straight Gate Globe Angle
(in.) Elbow Elbow T 90 Run of T Valve Valve Valve
a 1 0.6 1.5 0.3 0.2 8 4
2 1.2 3 0.6 0.4 15 8
2.5 1.5 4 0.8 0.5 20 12
1 3 1.8 5 0.9 0.6 25 15
1 4 2.4 6 1.2 0.8 35 18
1 5 3 7 1.5 1 45 22
2 7 4 10 2 1.3 55 28
2 8 5 12 2.5 1.6 65 34
3 10 6 15 3 2 80 40
4 14 8 21 4 2.7 125 55
5 17 10 25 5 3.3 140 70
6 20 12 30 6 4 165 80
Note: Allowances based on nonrecessed threaded fittings. Use the allowances for recessed threaded fittings or streamline solder fittings.
Table 5-7 (M) Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings
Equivalent Length of Pipe for Various Fittings (m)
Diameter 90 45 Coupling
of Fitting Standard Standard Standard or Straight Gate Globe Angle
(mm) Elbow Elbow T 90 Run of T Valve Valve Valve
9.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.09 0.06 2.4 1.2
12.7 0.6 0.4 0.9 0.18 0.12 4.6 2.4
19.1 0.8 0.5 1.2 0.24 0.15 6.1 3.7
25.4 0.9 0.6 1.5 0.27 0.18 7.6 4.6
31.8 1.2 0.7 1.8 0.4 0.24 10.7 5.5
38.1 1.5 0.9 2.1 0.5 0.3 13.7 6.7
50.8 2.1 1.2 3.1 0.6 0.4 16.8 8.5
63.5 2.4 1.5 3.7 0.8 0.5 19.8 10.4
76.2 3.1 1.8 4.6 0.9 0.6 24.4 12.2
101.6 4.3 2.4 6.4 1.2 0.8 38.1 16.8
127 5.2 3.1 7.6 1.5 1.0 42.7 21.3
152.4 6.1 3.7 9.1 1.8 1.2 50.3 24.4
Note: Allowances based on nonrecessed threaded fittings. Use the allowances for recessed threaded fittings or streamline solder fittings.
129 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
Table 5-8 Flow and Pressure Required for Various Fixtures during Flow
Fixture Pressure, psi (kPa)
a
Flow, gpm (L/s)
Basin faucet 8 (55.2) 3 (0.19)
Basin faucet, self-closing 12 (82.7) 2.5 (0.16)
Sink faucet, a in. (9.5 mm) 10 (69) 4.5 (0.28)
Sink faucet, in. (12.7 mm) 5 (34.5) 4.5 (0.28)
Dishwasher 1525 (103.4172.4)
b
Bathtub faucet 5 (34.5) 6 (0.38)
Laundry tub cock, in. (6.4 mm) 5 (34.5) 5 (0.32)
Shower 12 (82.7) 310 (0.190.6)
Water closet, ball cock 15 (103.4) 3 (0.19)
Water closet, flush valve 1020 (69137.9) 1540 (0.952.5)
Urinal flush valve 15 (103.4) 15 (0.95)
Garden hose, 50 ft (15.2 m), and sill cock 30 (206.8) 5 (0.32)
a
Residual pressure in the pipe at the entrance of the fixture considered.
b
See manufacturers data.
Figure 5-5 Establishing the Governing Fixture or Appliance
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 130
METHOD A
Developed Developed Friction Friction Loss Total Pressure Pressure at End
Length in Section, Length from Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, Loss from Friction, of Section for
Section ft (m) Point A, ft (m) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa) Friction, psi (kPa)
AB 10 (3.1) 10 (3.l) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1)
BC 10 (3.1) 20 (6.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 2 (13.8) 8 (552)
CD 10 (3.1) 30 (9.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 3 (20.7) 7 (48.3)
DE 10 (3.1) 40 (12.2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 4 (27.6) 6 (41.4)
EF 10 (3.1) 50 (15 2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6 9) 5 (34.5) 5 (34.5)
FG 10 (3.1) 60 (18.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 6 (41.4) 4 (27.6)
GH 10 (3.1) 70 (21.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 7 (48.3) 3 (20.7)
HJ 10 (3.1) 80 (24.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 8 (55.2) 2 (13.8)
JK 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1) 1 (6.9)
KL 10 (3.1) 100 (30.5) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 10 (69) 0 (0)
METHOD B
Developed Developed Pressure Friction Friction Pressure
Length in Section, Length from at Start, Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End,
Section ft (m) Point A, ft (m) psi (kPa) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)
MJ 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 2 (13.8) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9)
NH 10 (3.1) 80 (24.4) 3 (20.7) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 2 (13.8)
PG 10 (3.1) 70 (21.3) 4 (27.6) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 3 (20.7)
QF 10 (3.1) 60 (18.3) 5 (34.5) 10 (226.2) 1 (6 9) 4 (27.6)
RE 10 (3.1) 50 (15.2) 6 (41.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 5 (34 5)
SD 10 (3.1) 40 (12.2) 7 (48.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 6 (41.4)
TC 10 (3.1) 30 (9.1) 8 (55.2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 7 (48.3)
UB 10 (3.1) 20 (6.1) 9 (62.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 8 (55.2)
METHOD C
Friction Friction Pressure Friction Friction Pressure
Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End, Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End,
Section (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)
MJ 20 (452.4) 2 (13.8) 0 (0) 11.1 (251.1) 1.1 (7.6) 0.90 (6.2)
NH 30 (678.6) 3 (20.7) 0 (0) 12.5 (282.8) 1.25 (8.6) 1.75 (12.1)
PG 40 (904.8) 4 (27.6) 0 (0) 14.3 (323.5) 1.43 (9.9) 2.57 (17.7)
QF 50 (1131) 5 (34.5) 0 (0) 16.6 (375.5) 1.66 (11.5) 3.34 (23)
RE 60 (1357.2) 6 (41.4) 0 (0) 20 (452.4) 2 (13.8) 4 (27.6)
SD 70 (1583.5) 7 (48.3) 0 (0) 25 (565.5) 2.5 (17.2) 4.5 (31)
TC 80 (1809.7) 8 (55.2) 0 (0) 33.3 (753.3) 3.33 (23) 4.66 (32.1)
UB 90 (2035.9) 9 (62.1) 0 (0) 50 (1131) 5 (34.5) 4 (27.6)
Figure 5-6 Determining Pressure Available for Friction
131 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
drop of 11.1 psi (7.6 kPa) and an unused fric-
tional pressure of 0.9 psi (6.2 kPa). By going
through all the branches in the same manner,
one can see that the unused frictional pressure
varies from 0.9 psi (6.2 kPa) to a maximum of
4.66 psi (32.1 kPa). These pressures are far less
than those resulting from Method A and the av-
erage pressure drops are far less than those re-
sulting from Method B. Consequently, Method C
is the one most widely used by designers. In ac-
tual practice, it is not necessary to calculate the
average pressure drop for each branch; usually,
the branches are close together and the changes
in the average pressure drop are very small.
The last step is to take advantage of all avail-
able pressure. For example, a water heater could
be located on the roof of a building. If the water
system was designed to have a residual pres-
sure on the roof of 15 psi (103.4 kPa), then the
hot water piping system can be sized with a static
pressure gain available, to be used for friction
loss in the hot water piping. Another example of
utilizing available pressure is an installation with
a combination of flush valves and flush-tank
water closets sized on the basis of a flush-valve
system having a residual pressure of 15 psi
(103.4 kPa). Within this system, the branches
that have only flush-tank fixtures have an addi-
tional 7 psi (48.3 kPa) of pressure, which can be
used for friction. The 7 psi (48.3 kPa) is the dif-
ference between the 15 psi (103.4 kPa) and 8 psi
(55.2 kPa) residual pressures.
Velocity Method Another method designers
use to size water piping is the velocity method.
The average pressure drop available for friction
is calculated and, if it is greater than 7 or 8 psi/
100 ft (158.4 or 181 kPa/100 m), the lines are
sized on the basis of a 5 or 6-fps (1.5 or 1.8 m/s)
velocity. In this method, the main line is conser-
vatively sized and the short branches may slightly
exceed the average pressure drop. However, the
total pressure drop of the system does not ex-
ceed the allowable pressure loss for friction.
Summary
The following items must be determined and cal-
culated when sizing a system:
1. The maximum flow rate of the system.
2. The maximum and minimum water pressure
in the main.
3. The residual pressure required at the gov-
erning fixture or appliance.
4. The static pressure loss to get to the govern-
ing fixture or appliance.
5. The meter loss.
6. Other losses between the meter and the gov-
erning fixture or appliance.
7. The pressure available for friction.
8. The average pressure drop from the meter to
the governing fixture or appliance.
9. The average pressure drop for the other sys-
tems.
10. The size of the line from the meter to the
governing fixture or appliance.
11. The size of the branch line.
For the convenience of the designer in sizing
water systems, the following tables and figures
are provided:
Table 5-9. Water pipe sizing, fixture units vs.
psi/100 ft (kPa/100 m), Type L copper tub-
ing.
Table 5-10. Water pipe sizing, fixture units
vs. psi/100 ft (kPa/l00 m), galvanized, fairly
rough pipe.
Figure 5-7. Pipe sizing data, copper tubing,
smooth pipe.
Figure 5-8. Pipe sizing data, fairly smooth
pipe.
Figure 5-9. Pipe sizing data, fairly rough pipe.
Figure 5-10. Pipe sizing data, rough pipe.
WATER HAMMER
Water hammer is the term used to define the
destructive forces, pounding noises, and vibra-
tions that develop in a piping system when a
column of noncompressible liquid (water) flow-
ing through a pipeline at a given pressure and
velocity is stopped abruptly. The surge pressure
(or pressure wave) generated at the point of im-
pact or stoppage travels back and forth through
the piping system until the destructive energy is
dissipated in the piping system. This violent ac-
tion accounts for the piping noise and vibration.
The common cause of shock is the quick clos-
ing of electrical, pneumatic, spring-loaded valves
or devices, as well as the quick, hand closure of
valves or fixture trim. The valve closure time is
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 132
directly related to the intensity of the surge
pressure.
Shock Intensity
Quick valve closure may be defined as a closure
time equal to or less than 2L/a seconds, where
L is the length of pipe (ft) (m) from the point of
closure to the point of relief (the point of relief is
usually a larger pipe riser or main or a water
tank), and a is the velocity of propagation of
elastic vibration in the pipe (fps). The expression
2L/a is the time interval required for the pres-
sure wave to travel from the point of closure to
the relief point and back to the point of closure.
Maximum pressure rise can be calculated by
the following, known as Joukowskys formula:
Equation 5-2
P
r
=
wav
144g
where
P
r
= Pressure rise above flow pressure, psi
(kPa)
w = Specific weight of liquid, lb/ft
3
(kg/m
3
)
a = Velocity of pressure wave, fps (4000
4500 average for water) (m/s [1219
1372 average])
v = Change in flow velocity, fps (m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 32 ft/s
2
(10 m/s
2
)
This action produces a pressure rise of ap-
proximately 60 times the change in velocity. En-
gineers generally employ a velocity between 5 and
10 fps (1.5 and 3.1 m/s), which may produce a
shock pressure of 300600 psi (20684137 kPa).
The resultant water-hammer shock wave trav-
els back and forth in the piping, between the
point of quick closure and the point of relief, at a
rate of 40004500 fps (12191372 m/s).
Although noise is generally associated with
the occurrence of water hammer, water hammer
can occur without audible sound. Quick closure
always creates some degree of shockwith or
without noise. Therefore, the absence of noise
does not indicate that water hammer or shock is
nonexistent in a water-distribution system.
System Protection and Control
Water hammer arresters prolong the life and
service of piping, valves, fittings, trim, equipment,
apparatus, and other devices that are part of, or
connected to, a water-distribution system.
To reduce shock pressure and confine its
action to the section of piping in which it oc-
curs, a suitable means of control must be pro-
vided to absorb and dissipate the energy causing
the shock. Water hammer arresters provide a
diaphragm that moves with the pressure fluc-
tuations, absorbing the shock wave. Air or an-
other gas is the most effective medium to use for
this purpose since it is highly compressible,
thereby offering the maximum displacement
cushion for absorbing the shock.
Air chambers The air chamber has been uti-
lized for controlling shock for many years. The
unit consists of a capped piece of pipe having
the same diameter as the line it serves; its length
ranges from 12 in. to 24 ft (304.8609.6 mm).
The air chamber is constructed in several differ-
ent shapes.
Figure 5-11 shows a few examples of air
chambers. Plain air chambers, Figure 5-11(a) and
(b), are generally placed on the supply lines to
fixtures or equipment. A standpipe type of air
chamber, Figure 5-11(c), is generally placed on
a piping main. A rechargeable type of air cham-
ber, Figure 5-11(d), is generally placed at the end
of a branch line or on a piping main.
The air chambers shown are made of pipe
and fittings. Unless devices are of the correct
size and contain a prescribed volume of air, how-
ever, they cannot be regarded as suitable even
for the temporary control of shock.
Most valves and fittings used in plumbing
water-distribution systems are designed and con-
structed for normal maximum working pressures
of 150 psig (1034 kPa). Therefore, unless an air
chamber can reduce shock pressures to some
degree less than 250 psig (1724 kPa), serious
damage to the valves, fittings, and other compo-
nents of the piping system may result. The com-
monly used air chamber, even when correctly
sized, controls shocks only temporarily after its
initial installation.
Although a correctly sized air chamber tem-
porarily controls shock to within safe limits of
pressure, its performance is effective only while
133 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
15 69
1.0 0 2 6 12 21 58 155
(22.6)
17 73
1.1 0 2 7 13 22 62 170
(24.9)
20 82
1.2 0 3 7 14 23 67 185
(27.2)
23 91
1.3 0 3 7 15 24 74 199
(29.4)
26 100
1.4 0 3 8 15 25 81 213
(31.7)
28 109
1.5 0 3 8 16 27 86 226
(33.9)
31 120
1.6 0 3 8 17 28 93 241
(36.2)
33 130
1.7 0 4 9 17 30 98 252
(38.5)
36 140
1.8 0 4 9 18 31 105 264
(40.7)
39 150
1.9 0 4 10 19 32 111 277
(43)
42 161
2.0 0 4 10 20 33 115 287
(45.2)
6 48 183
2.2 0 4 11 21 36 127 312
(49.8)
7 53 205
2.4 1 4 12 22 39 138 337
(54.3)
8 59 225
2.6 1 4 12 23 42 150 360
(58.8)
9 66 245
2.8 1 5 13 24 45 160 380
(63.3)
10 74 265
3.0 1 5 13 25 47 171 401
(67.9)
11 81 285
3.2 1 6 14 26 50 183 421
(72.4)
12 87 309
3.4 1 6 15 28 52 194 441
(76.9)
13 95 336
3.6 1 6 15 29 55 205 460
(81.4)
14 102 365
3.8 1 6 16 30 57 215 479
(86)
15 106 390
4.0 1 6 16 31 58 225 500
(90.5)
16 116 410
4.2 1 7 16 32 61 236 517
(95)
18 124 430
4.4 1 7 17 34 63 245 533
(99.5)
5 20 131 448
4.6 2 7 18 35 65 253 549
(104.1)
6 21 139 466
4.8 2 7 19 36 68 263 564
(108.6)
6 22 145 484
5.0 2 7 19 37 72 271 580
(113.1)
7 24 153 504
5.2 2 8 19 38 75 280 597
(117.6)
7 25 163 526
5.4 2 8 20 40 79 289 614
(122.2)
8 26 171 *549
5.6 2 8 20 42 83 298 630
(126.7)
8 27 177 *570
5.8 2 8 21 43 85 306 646
(131.2)
9 29 185 *591
6.0 2 8 21 44 88 314 662
(135.7)
9 30 199 *610
6.2 2 9 22 45 92 323 676
(140.3)
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
Table 5-9 Water Pipe SizingFixture Units vs. psi/100 ft (kPa/100 m),
Type L Copper Tubing
Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.
a
Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
(Continued)
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 134
10 31 202 *631
6.4 2 9 22 46 95 333 692
(144.8)
10 32 210 *652
6.6 3 9 23 47 97 343 709
(149.3)
11 34 216 *673
6.8 3 9 23 49 101 351 725
(153.8)
11 35 *223 *693
7.0 3 9 23 50 104 359 742
(158.4)
12 37 *231 *713
7.2 3 10 24 51 106 367 758
(162.9)
12 38 *241 *732
7.4 3 10 24 52 109 375 775
(167.4)
13 40 *250 *754
7.6 3 10 24 53 112 385 791
(171.9)
13 41 *259 *774
7.8 3 11 25 54 114 394 808
(176.4)
14 43 *265 *793
8.0 3 11 25 55 117 401 824
(181)
14 44 *273 *811
8.2 3 11 26 56 120 409 840
(185.5)
14 46 *280 *829
8.4 3 11 26 57 123 416 856
(190)
15 47 *286 *848
8.6 3 11 27 57 126 423 872
(194.5)
15 48 *295 *867
8.8 3 11 27 58 128 431 889
(199.1)
16 50 *305 *887
9.0 3 12 27 59 130 437 906
(203.6)
16 51 *314 *908
9.2 3 12 28 60 133 444 925
(208.1)
17 52 *323 *930
9.4 3 12 29 61 136 450 944
(212.6)
17 54 *329 *950
9.6 3 12 29 62 140 455 963
(217.2)
18 *56 *336 *970
9.8 3 12 29 64 145 460 982
(221.7)
19 *58 *346 *993
10.0 4 13 30 65 148 467 1003
(226.2)
20 *61 *366 *1022
10.4 4 13 31 67 153 480 1030
(235.3)
21 *63 *374 *1039
10.6 4 13 31 68 155 487 1044
(239.8)
22 *66 *390 *1068
11.0 4 13 32 71 160 500 1072
(248.8)
23 *70 *405 *1089
11.4 4 14 33 74 166 513 1099
(257.9)
24 *72 *414 *1124
11.6 4 14 34 76 169 520 1124
(262.4)
5 25 *76 *430 *1124
12.0 4 14 34 79 175 533 1124
(271.5)
5 *26 *80 *444 *1124
12.4 4 14 35 82 181 545 1124
(280.5)
6 *27 *81 *452 *1124
12.6 4 15 36 84 184 552 1124
(285)
6 *28 *85 *466 *1124
13.0 4 15 37 86 190 564 1124
(294.1)
6 *29 *88 *480 *1124
13.4 4 15 37 89 195 577 1124
(303.1)
6 *30 *90 *488 *1124
13.6 4 15 38 91 199 583 1124
(307.6)
7 *31 *94 *502 *1124
14.0 5 16 40 94 204 595 1124
(316.7)
7 *32 *98 *517 *1124
14.4 5 16 41 98 208 608 1124
(325.7)
8 *33 *99 *526 *1124
14.6 5 16 41 99 210 614 1124
(330.3)
8 *34 *102 *536 *1124
15.0 5 16 42 101 215 622 1124
(339.3)
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
(Table 5-9 continued)
Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.
a
Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
(Continued)
135 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
8 *35 *106 *536 *1124
15.5 5 16 43 104 221 622 1124
(350.6)
9 *37 *110 *536 *1124
16.0 5 17 44 107 227 622 1124
(361.9)
9 *39 *114 *536 *1124
16.5 5 17 45 110 233 622 1124
(373.2)
*10 *41 *119 *536 *1124
17.0 5 18 46 114 239 622 1124
(384.6)
*10 *43 *124 *536 *1124
17.5 5 18 47 117 245 622 1124
(395.9)
*11 *44 *129 *536 *1124
18.0 6 19 49 120 250 622 1124
(407.2)
*11 *46 *134 *536 *1124
18.5 6 19 50 123 257 622 1124
(418.5)
*12 *48 *139 *536 *1124
19.0 6 19 51 126 263 622 1124
(429.8)
*12 *49 *144 *536 *1124
19.5 6 20 52 129 270 622 1124
(441.1)
*13 *51 *149 *536 *1124
20 6 20 53 132 276 622 1124
(452.4)
* *13 *53 *160 *536 *1124
21 6 21 54 138 286 622 1124
(475)
* *14 *57 *160 *536 *1124
22 6 21 56 145 286 622 1124
(497.7)
* *15 *61 *160 *536 *1124
23 7 21 58 152 286 622 1124
(520.3)
* *16 *65 *160 *536 *1124
24 7 22 60 158 286 622 1124
(542.9)
* *16 *68 *160 *536 *1124
25 7 23 62 164 286 622 1124
(565.5)
* *19 *71 *160 *536 *1124
26 7 23 65 168 286 622 1124
(588.1)
* *21 *71 *160 *536 *1124
28 7 24 68 168 286 622 1124
(633.4)
* * *23 *71 *160 *536 *1124
30 8 26 75 168 286 622 1124
(678.6)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
32 8 27 81 168 286 622 1124
(723.9)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
34 8 28 82 168 286 622 1124
(769.1)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
36 9 29 82 168 286 622 1124
(814.4)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
38 9 31 82 168 286 622 1124
(859.6)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
40 9 32 82 168 286 622 1124
(904.8)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
42 10 33 82 168 286 622 1124
(950.1)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
44 10 34 82 168 286 622 1124
(995.3)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
44 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(1040.6)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
48 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(1085.8)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
50 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(1131)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
55 12 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(1244.1)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
60 13 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(1357.2)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
80 14 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(1809.7)
* * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
100 14 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(2262.1)
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
(Table 5-9 continued)
Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.
a
Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 136
40 162
3.2 0 3 9 19 35 112 288
(72.4)
6 43 174
3.4 0 3 10 20 36 118 302
(76.9)
7 46 186
3.6 0 4 10 20 38 123 315
(81.4)
7 49 198
3.8 0 4 11 21 40 129 329
(86)
8 52 210
4.0 1 4 11 21 42 135 343
(90.5)
9 54 221
4.2 1 4 12 22 43 141 356
(95)
10 58 238
4.4 1 5 12 23 45 147 369
(99.5)
10 62 345
4.6 1 5 12 23 46 153 380
(104.1)
10 66 256
4.8 1 5 12 24 48 160 391
(108.6)
11 71 265
5.0 1 5 13 24 49 167 403
(113.1)
12 75 278
5.2 1 6 13 25 51 174 415
(117.6)
13 79 290
5.4 1 6 13 26 52 180 426
(122.2)
13 82 302
5.6 1 6 14 27 54 185 436
(126.7)
14 85 314
5.8 1 6 14 27 55 191 446
(131.2)
14 89 329
6.0 1 6 15 28 56 197 455
(135.7)
15 93 343
6.2 1 6 15 29 57 202 465
(140.3)
Table 5-10 Water pipe sizing fixture units versus psi/100 ft. (kPa/100 m),
Galvanized fairly-rough pipe
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
8 37
1.0 0 1 4 8 16 42 107
(22.6)
9 42
1.1 0 1 5 9 17 45 115
(24.9)
11 46
1.2 0 1 5 10 19 48 124
(27.2)
12 51
1.3 0 1 6 11 20 51 133
(29.4)
13 55
1.4 0 2 6 11 20 54 143
(31.7)
14 62
1.5 0 2 6 12 21 56 153
(33.9)
15 67
1.6 0 2 6 12 22 58 162
(36.2)
16 74
1.7 0 2 6 12 23 60 171
(38.5)
18 80
1.8 0 2 6 13 23 63 180
(40.7)
20 85
1.9 0 2 7 13 24 66 189
(43)
22 90
2.0 0 3 7 14 25 70 190
(45.2)
25 102
2.2 0 3 7 15 26 77 215
(49.8)
27 112
2.4 0 3 7 15 28 85 231
(54.3)
30 124
2.6 0 3 8 16 30 92 245
(58.8)
33 136
2.8 0 3 8 17 32 99 259
(63.3)
36 148
3.0 0 3 9 18 33 105 275
(67.9)
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.
a
Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
(Continued)
137 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
8 28 164 557
9.8 1 8 20 41 87 291 636
(221.7)
8 29 170 *570
10.0 1 8 20 42 88 297 646
(226.2)
8 31 175 *592
10.4 2 8 20 43 93 304 663
(235.3)
9 31 177 *603
10.6 2 9 21 44 95 307 669
(239.8)
9 33 186 *620
11.0 2 9 21 45 66 315 684
(248.8)
10 34 193 *638
11.4 2 9 22 46 101 323 697
(257.9)
10 35 197 *647
11.6 2 9 22 47 104 327 704
(262.4)
11 37 208 *666
12.0 2 9 23 48 107 334 719
(271.5)
11 39 213 *687
12.4 2 9 23 49 110 348 737
(280.5)
11 40 218 *698
12.6 3 10 23 50 112 242 746
(285)
12 41 *226 *724
13.0 3 10 24 51 114 362 766
(294.1)
12 43 *234 *745
13.4 3 10 24 52 118 370 783
(303.1)
13 44 *239 *754
13.6 3 10 24 53 128 374 791
(307.6)
13 46 *247 *775
14.0 3 10 24 53 122 382 809
(316.7)
13 47 *255 *795
14.4 3 11 25 54 125 290 826
(325.7)
14 48 *258 *805
14.6 3 11 25 55 126 394 834
(330.3)
15 96 358
6.4 1 6 15 29 58 208 474
(144.8)
16 100 372
6.6 1 6 15 30 59 213 484
(149.3)
17 104 384
6.8 1 7 16 31 61 219 495
(153.8)
18 107 395
7.0 1 7 16 32 62 224 505
(158.4)
19 112 407
7.2 1 7 16 32 64 230 515
(162.9)
20 116 420
7.4 1 7 17 33 66 236 525
(167.4)
20 119 432
7.6 1 7 17 33 67 240 535
(171.9)
5 20 123 443
7.8 1 7 17 34 68 244 544
(176.4)
5 22 127 454
8.0 1 7 18 34 71 249 554
(181)
6 23 131 465
8.2 1 7 18 35 73 253 563
(185.5)
6 24 134 475
8.4 1 7 18 36 75 257 572
(190)
6 25 138 487
8.6 1 7 19 37 77 262 582
(194.5)
7 25 142 498
8.8 1 8 19 38 79 267 591
(199.1)
7 26 146 508
9.0 1 8 19 39 81 272 600
(203.6)
7 26 150 519
9.2 1 8 19 39 83 277 609
(208.1)
7 27 154 532
9.4 1 8 20 40 85 281 618
(212.6)
8 28 160 545
9.6 1 8 20 41 86 286 627
(217.2)
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
(Table 5-10 continued)
Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.
a
Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
(Continued)
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 138
* *33 *100 *515 *1173
28 4 16 41 98 225 606 1173
(633.4)
* *35 *118 *521 *1173
30 5 17 43 104 238 611 1173
(678.6)
* *40 *128 *521 *1173
32 5 17 45 112 250 611 1173
(723.9)
* *43 *138 *521 *1173
34 5 18 47 117 262 611 1173
(769.1)
* * *46 *148 *521 *1173
36 6 19 49 123 275 611 1173
(814.4)
* * *49 *159 *521 *1173
38 6 20 51 128 285 611 1173
(859.6)
* * *52 *160 *521 *1173
40 6 20 53 134 286 611 1173
(904.8)
* * *54 *160 *521 *1173
42 6 21 55 141 286 611 1173
(950.1)
* * *59 *160 *521 *1173
44 6 21 56 148 286 611 1173
(995.3)
* * *63 *160 *521 *1173
46 6 22 58 154 286 611 1173
(1040.6)
* * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
48 7 23 60 156 286 611 1173
(1085.8)
* * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
50 7 23 61 156 286 611 1173
(1131)
* * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
55 7 24 66 156 286 611 1173
(1244.1)
* * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
60 7 25 72 156 286 611 1173
(1357.2)
* * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
80 9 31 72 156 286 611 1173
(1809.7)
* * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
100 10 31 72 156 286 611 1173
(2262.1)
14 50 *265 *827
15.0 3 11 26 56 129 401 854
(339.3)
14 52 *275 *851
15.5 3 11 26 57 134 411 875
(350.6)
15 53 *284 *875
16.0 3 12 27 58 138 420 896
(361.9)
16 54 *292 *900
16.5 3 12 27 59 142 428 918
(373.2)
16 57 *302 *924
17.0 3 12 28 61 146 436 939
(384.6)
17 *60 *315 *947
17.5 3 13 29 62 150 444 960
(395.9)
18 *62 *325 *969
18.0 3 13 29 64 153 452 981
(407.2)
19 *64 *336 *992
18.5 3 13 30 65 157 460 1002
(418.5)
20 *66 *350 *1015
19.0 3 13 30 66 160 469 1023
(429.8)
21 *69 *362 *1040
19.5 3 13 31 68 166 477 1045
(441.1)
21 *72 *371 *1066
20 4 13 31 69 169 484 1066
(452.4)
23 *76 *390 *1116
21 4 13 32 74 175 500 1116
(475)
*25 *81 *410 *1165
22 4 14 34 77 183 517 1165
(497.7)
*26 *85 *430 *1173
23 4 14 34 82 190 533 1173
(520.3)
*27 *90 *448 *1173
24 4 15 35 85 198 549 1173
(542.9)
*28 *95 *466 *1173
25 4 15 37 87 205 564 1173
(565.5)
*30 *99 *484 *1173
26 4 15 39 91 211 580 1173
(588.1)
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
Pipe Size,
Pressure
in. (mm)
Loss,
1 1 1 2 2
psi/100 ft
(12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Units
a
(Table 5-10 continued)
Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.
a
Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
139 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
Figure 5-7 Pipe Sizing Data, Smooth Pipe
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 140
Figure 5-8 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Smooth Pipe
141 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
Figure 5-9 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Rough Pipe
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 142
Figure 5-10 Pipe Sizing Data, Rough Pipe
143 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
it retains its initial charge of air. Air-chamber
requirements are shown in Table 5-11.
The air charge can be depleted during the
flow cycle since water is drawn from all direc-
tions during flow. Moreover, the entrapped air is
also diminished by turbulence. During this pro-
cess the water absorbs the air, and as the unit
becomes waterlogged, it loses its ability to ab-
sorb shock.
Water hammer arresters
Symbols There are six manufactured sizes of
water hammer arrester, each having a different
capacity to control shock in piping systems of
varied sizes and scopes. The following symbols,
recommended by the Plumbing and Drainage
Institute (PDI), were devised to denote the range
in size of water hammer arrester:
A B C D E F
A is the smallest-sized unit and F represents
the largest.
Sizing and placement Sizing is based on fix-
ture units for single and multiple-fixture branch
lines and on pipe size.
Table 5-11 Required Air Chambers
Nominal Pipe Flow Velocity,
Required Air Chamber
Pipe Diam., Length, Pressure, fps Volume, Phys. Size,
in. (mm) ft (m) psig (kPa) (m/s) in.
3
(cm
3
) in. (cm)
(12.71) 25 (7.62) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 8 (1.3) 15 (1.9 38.1)
(12.71) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 60 (9.8) 1 69 (2.5 176.5)
(19.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 13 (2.1) 1 5 (2.5 12.7)
(19.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 108 (17.7) 1 72 (3.2 184.2)
1 (25.4) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 19 (3.1) 1 12
7
/10 (3.2 32.3)
1 (25.4) 50 (15.25) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 40 (6.6) 1 27 (3.2 68.6)
1 (31.8) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 110 (18.0) 1 54 (3.2 137.2)
1 (38.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 5 (1.52) 90 (14.8) 2 27 (5.1 68.6)
1 (38.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 170 (27.9) 2 50 (5.1 128.3)
2 (50.8) 100 (30.5) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 329 (53.9) 3 44 (7.6 113.0)
2 (50.8) 25 (7.62) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 150 (24.6) 2 31 (6.4 78.7)
2 (50.8) 200 (61.0) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 300 (49.2) 3 40 (7.6 102.9)
In most installations where there are several
fixtures, usually only one fixture valve will be closed
at a time. Occasionally, however, two or more fix-
ture valves may be closed at the same instant.
Table 5-12, Sizing and Selection of Water-Hammer
a b c d
Figure 5-11 Air Chambers: (a, b) Plain Air
Chambers, (c) Standpipe Air Chamber,
(d) Rechargeable Air Chamber
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 144
Arresters, takes into consideration all design fac-
tors, including simultaneous usage, pipe size,
length, flow, pressure, and velocity.
Table 5-12 Sizing and Selection of
Water-Hammer Arresters
PDI Units A B C D E F
Fixture Units 111 1232 3360 61113 114154 155330
In the sizing of cold and hot-water branch
lines, it is usual practice to obtain the total num-
ber of fixture units on each branch line. This
information is then applied to sizing charts to
determine the required size of the branch line.
The properly sized water-hammer arresters
can be selected once the total number of fixture
units for a cold or hot-water branch line is
known. It is only necessary to apply the fixture
units to Table 5-12 and select the appropriate
water-hammer arrester.
Note the following:
When water pressure in the line exceeds 65
psig, select the next larger size water-ham-
mer arrester.
If the fixture-unit total includes a fraction, it
should be rounded up to the next larger whole
number. Thus, if the total is 11 fixture units,
the unit should be sized for 12 fixture units.
All sizing data in this chapter are based on
flow velocities of 10 fps (3 m/s) or less.
It is suggested that the engineer employ PDI
symbols for the riser diagrams for sizing water-
hammer arresters. This practice will enable
manufacturers to furnish the correct units.
The location of the water-hammer arresters
from the start of the horizontal branch line to
the last fixture supply on the branch line should
not exceed 20 ft (6.1 m) in length. When the
branch lines exceed the 20-ft (6.10-m) length,
an additional water-hammer arrester should be
used and each should be sized for half the fix-
ture-unit load. It has been established that the
preferred location for the water-hammer arrester
is at the end of the branch line between the last
two fixtures served. Units for branches serving
pieces of equipment with quick-closing valves
should be placed within a few ft (m) of the equip-
ment isolation valve.
To prevent the harboring of Legionella
pneumophila, bellows containing rubber should
not be used.
BACKFLOW PREVENTION
Theoretically, a well-designed and operated wa-
ter-supply system should always be under a con-
stant positive pressure, and contamination via
backflow or back-siphonage should never be able
to enter the distribution mains. Unfortunately,
accidents do occur when excessive water de-
mands for fire protection, operation of booster
pumps, flushing of water mains, repairs, modi-
fications, and maintenance to the distribution
system cause the water pressure to drop.
Whenever the pressure in the distribution
system becomes low or negative, a condition de-
velops that allows contamination to enter the
distribution system through connections with
fixtures, equipment, or tanks that contain toxic,
unsafe, or unpleasant liquids or gases. These
physical connections by which a water supply
may be contaminated are known as cross con-
nections. There are numerous, well-documented
cases where cross connections have been respon-
sible for contaminating drinking water and, as a
result, sometimes contributing to the spread of
fatal disease.
The contamination of a water system through
cross connections can be avoided. This section
describes the current recommended practice for
the detection and elimination of unprotected
cross connections.
Types of Cross-Connection Control
Device
When plumbing fixtures and equipment in wa-
ter-supply systems are subject to backflow con-
ditions, approved air gaps, backflow preventers,
or vacuum breakers should be used. The follow-
ing methods or devices can be used to protect
against backflow or back-siphonage:
Approved air-gap separation.
Barometric loop.
Mechanical protection devices.
Reduced-pressure-principle backflow devices
(RPBD).
Double-check valve assemblies (DCVA).
Atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB).
145 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
Pressure vacuum breakers (PVB).
Check valves with vent port (CVB).
The theory of backflow and back-siphonage
and the devices for their prevention are described
in Volume 4, Chapter 9, of the ASPE Data Book
(forthcoming). Refer to local codes and standards
before making selections.
Assessment of Hazard
The correct application of devices depends on the
correct assessment of the degree of hazard, on
whether back pressure or back-siphonage will oc-
cur, and on knowledge of the operation of various
types of approved backflow-prevention device.
In applying the recommendations outlined
in this section, three degrees of hazard must be
considered: severe, moderate, and minor. They
are defined as follows:
1. Severe. A cross connection or probable cross
connection involving any substance in suffi-
cient concentration to cause death or spread
disease or illness or containing any substance
that has a high probability of causing such
an effect.
2. Moderate. A cross connection or probable
cross connection involving any substance
that has a low probability of becoming a se-
vere hazard and would constitute a nuisance
or be aesthetically objectionable if introduced
into the domestic water supply.
3. Minor. An existing connection, or a high prob-
ability of a connection being made, between
the domestic water pipe and any pipe, equip-
ment, vat, or tank intended for carrying or
holding potable water that has a low prob-
ability of becoming contaminated with any
substance.
The application of backflow and back-sipho-
nage prevention devices is related to the prob-
ability of contamination as well as the recognition
of an existing health hazard. For the assessment
of probability, consideration must be given to the
possibility of changes being made to piping, im-
proper use of equipment, negligence of the cus-
tomer, etc.
Where a severe hazard exists, an air-gap
separation or a reduced-pressure-principle,
backflow-prevention device should be used be-
cause these two devices offer the highest known
degree of protection. An atmospheric or pressure
vacuum breaker should be used only to isolate a
severe hazard if area isolation is provided. Where
a moderate hazard exists, a double-check valve
assembly, or pressure or atmospheric vacuum
breaker may be used. Where a minor hazard ex-
ists, a pressure or atmospheric vacuum breaker
or check valves with vent port (no test cocks)
may need to be installed.
Toxicity and probability of occurrence illus-
trate the relationship between assessment of
hazard and application of devices. Because of
the subjective nature of assessing hazard, such
illustrations cannot be used as a strict guide,
providing a fixed answer for all circumstances.
Instead, past experience and local code require-
ments must also be used as guides. Such past
experience was the basis of Tables 5-13 and 5-14.
The requirement of protection increases as a
function of both an increase in the probability
that backflow or back-siphonage will occur and
an increase in the toxicity or possible toxicity of
a potential source of contamination. Where it is
highly probable that backflow or back-siphon-
age will occur, say from a standpipe in a tall
apartment building, the need for a backflow-pre-
vention device is low if the hazard of the poten-
tial source of contamination (sinks, water closets,
etc.) becoming toxic is very low. The converse is
also true, however, where a known health haz-
ard exists, the tendency is to be conservative
when selecting a backflow-prevention device
(RPBD used in place of DVC). The risk factor for
a health hazard is usually of greater concern than
the probability of backflow or back-siphonage in
the selection of a device.
Premise Isolation
In addition to installing backflow-prevention de-
vices at the source of potential contamination, it
may be necessary, or required by code, to install
a backflow-prevention device on the water-ser-
vice pipe to isolate an entire area or premise.
This additional protection for the purveyors wa-
ter system is warranted if the potential health
hazard is severe, or if a high probability exists
that piping within a premise will be changed. If
inspection on private property is restricted, the
only protection for the purveyors water system
is the installation of a backflow-prevention de-
vice on the water-service pipe.
Whenever possible, in-plant isolation is pre-
ferred over premise isolation because it protects
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 146
Table 5-13 Guide to the Assessment of Hazard and Application of Devices
Isolation at the Fixture
Recommended Additional
Description of Assessment of Recommended Device for Area of
Cross Connection Hazard Device at Fixture Premise Isolation
Aspirator (medical) Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Bed pan washers Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Autoclaves Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Specimen tanks Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Sterilizers Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Cuspidors Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Lab bench equipment Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Autopsy & mortuary equip. Severe AVB or PVB
Sewage pump Severe RPBD
Sewage ejectors Severe RPBD
Firefighting system (toxic-foamite) Severe RPBD
Connection to sewer pipe Severe AG
Connection to plating tanks Severe RPBD RPBD
Irrigation system or
chemical injectors or pumps Severe RPBD
Connection to salt-water cooling system Severe RPBD
Tank vats or other vessels containing
toxic substances Severe RPBD
Connection to industrial fluid systems Severe RPBD
Dye vats or machines Severe RPBD
Cooling towers with chemical additives Severe RPBD
Trap primer Severe AG
Steam generators Moderate
a
DCV
Heating equipment Moderate
a
DCV
Irrigation systems Moderate
a
DCV, AVB or PVB
Swimming pools Moderate
a
DCV or AG
Vending machines Moderate
a
DCV or PVB
Ornamental fountains Moderate
a
DCV or AVB or PVB
Degreasing equipment Moderate
a
DCV
Lab bench equipment Minor
a
AVB, PVB or CVP
Hose bibbs and yard hydrants Minor
a
AVB
Trap primers Minor
a
AG
Flexible shower heads Minor
a
AVB
Steam tables Minor
a
AVB
Washing equipment Minor
a
AVB
Shampoo basins Minor
a
AVB
Kitchen equipment Minor
a
AVB
Aspirators Minor
a
AVB
Domestic heating boiler Minor
a
CVP
a
Where a higher hazard exists (due to toxicity or health hazard), additional area protection with RPBD is required. See Table 5-14 for
additional information.
147 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
in-plant personnel and, in most cases, the de-
vice can be sized smaller because in-plant pip-
ing is smaller. However, even with in-plant
isolation, the purveyor may still require premise
isolation.
The choice of devices for in-plant or premise
isolation depends on the degree of hazard. Sev-
eral premises that fall into the severe hazard clas-
sification and should be considered for isolation
from the purveyors system are noted in Tables
5-13 and 5-14 and on the following list.
1. Premises with unapproved auxiliary water
supplies.
2. Premises where inspection is restricted.
3. Hospitals, mortuaries, clinics, etc.
4. Laboratories.
5. Piers, docks, and other waterfront facilities.
6. Sewage-treatment plants.
7. Food and beverage-processing plants.
8. Chemical plants using a water process.
9. Metal-plating plants.
10. Petroleum-processing or storage plants.
11. Radioactive-material-processing plants and
nuclear reactors.
12. Car-washing facilities.
13. Animal-research, care, and processing
plants.
Table 5-14 Guide to the Assessment of Facility Hazard and Application of Devices
Containment of Premise
Recommended Device
Description of Premise Assessment ot Hazard on Water-Service Pipe
Hospital building with operating,
mortuary, or laboratory facilities Severe RPBD
Plants using radioactive material Severe RPBD
Petroleum-processing or stage facilities Severe RPBD
Premise where inspection is restricted Severe RPBD
Sewage-treatment plant Severe RPBD
Commercial laundry Severe RPBD
Plating or chemical plants Severe RPBD
Docks, dockside facilities Severe RPBD
(if no protection at fixture)
DCV
(if protection at fixture)
Food & beverage-processing plants Severe RPBD
Pleasure boat marina Severe RPBD
Tall buildings (protection against
excessive head of water) Moderate DCV
Steam plants Moderate DCV
Fire or sprinkler system to tall building
(protection against excessive head of water) Moderate DCV
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 148
Installation Requirements
1. All backflow devices should be installed in
an accessible area to facilitate inspection,
semiannual or annual testing, and mainte-
nance. Some municipalities now require li-
censed inspectors to test and report on each
device on an annual basis. Consideration
should be given to future changes that may
take place in the plumbing system. The de-
vices should be installed so that they will re-
main accessible regardless of new or future
piping. Check the manufacturers literature
for minimum clearances required for the re-
moval of parts.
2. Adequate drainage should be provided for the
discharge from the reduced-pressure-device,
relief-valve port. Minimum flow rates and
diameters of relief-valve porting are given in
Table 5-15 as a guide in the sizing of drain
pipes.
A. In the case of a reduced-pressure de-
vice installed in a hut, the bore-sighted
daylight drain must be capable of han-
dling the volumes discharged from the
relief valve.
B. The relief-valve outlet of the reduced-
pressure device shall not be directly con-
nected to the drain. An air gap of not less
than 2 diameters of the relief valve outlet
or 1 in. (2.5 cm), whichever is greater,
must separate the drain from the outlet.
C. A funnel type collector or splash screen
should be used to direct the discharge to
the drain to prevent objectionable spillage
or splashing.
3. Pressure and atmospheric vacuum breakers
may also split or spill water. Spillage may
occur during the testing of devices. Care must
be taken in choosing the location of devices
so that spillage will not cause damage or be
a nuisance.
4. Do not install a reduced-pressure device in a
pit below ground unless a drain to the sur-
face is provided. If the atmospheric vent is
submerged in groundwater, a cross connec-
tion is created that may be more serious than
the hazard the device isolates.
5. Before the installion of a backflow-preven-
tion device, pipelines should be thoroughly
flushed to remove all foreign material that
could foul the operation of the device.
Table 5-15 Minimum Flow Rates and Size of Minimum Area of RPBD
Minimum Flow Rate Minimum Diameter of
Size of Device Past Relief Valve Relief Valve Porting (IPS)
in. mm gpm L/s in. mm
and s 15 and 17 2.5 0.19 a 10
and 1 20 and 25 4.15 0.31 15
I and 1 32 and 40 8.30 0.63 20
2 50 16.70 1.27 1 25
2 65 16.70 1.27 1 25
3 80 25.00 1.89 1 32
4 100 33.40 2.53 1 32
6 150 33.40 2.53 1 32
8 200 50.00 3.79 2 50
10 250 50.00 3.79 2 50
12 300 62.50 4.74 2 65
14 350 75.00 5.68 3 80
16 400 83.00 6.29 3 80
149 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
6. Use of an in-line strainer may be required if
the condition is such that foreign material is
continually collecting in the line and lodging
under seating surfaces. No strainer is to be
used in a fire line without the approval of
the insurance underwriters or fire marshal.
7. Isolating valves are necessary on reduced-
pressure backflow devices, double-check
valve assemblies, and pressure vacuum
breakers to permit replacement, testing, and
maintenance.
8. Internally weighted double-check valve as-
semblies must be installed in the horizontal
position. Some brands of spring-loaded,
double-check valve devices also must be in-
stalled in the horizontal position. Check the
list of approved devices issued in each juris-
diction and the manufacturers recommen-
dations.
9. All reduced-pressure-principle devices must
be installed in the horizontal position, un-
less it is specifically noted otherwise in the
manufacturers data.
10. Check with the authority having jurisdiction
and the manufacturer before installing any
backflow device in hot-water lines.
11. Backflow preventers are not to be installed
in corrosive or polluted atmospheres. The
surrounding atmosphere can enter the pipe-
line through the open vent port of atmo-
spheric and pressure vacuum breakers,
check valves with vent ports and reduced-
pressure-principle devices.
12. Reduced-pressure-principle devices, double-
check valves, and vacuum breakers installed
in regions subject to freezing must be pro-
tected by the insulation of the units in above-
ground, heated structures. Care should be
taken to enure that the testing and mainte-
nance of the unit is not hindered by the ap-
plication of the insulating material.
13. For installations where 24-hour, uninter-
rupted service is a necessity, a parallel de-
vice should be provided to permit annual
testing and maintenance. The bypass or par-
allel device must provide the same degree of
protection as the main-line device.
14. For 8-in. (200-mm) and larger units, a
method of lifting and installation is required.
Existing crane facilities should be taken ad-
vantage of when determining a location for a
water-service and backflow-prevention
device.
15. Adequate support should be provided for de-
vices 6 in. (150 mm) and larger to prevent
damage to connected pipe.
16. Backflow-prevention devices should be pro-
tected against damage. Units placed in work
areas, areas with public access, or areas with
vehicular traffic should be protected by
fenced enclosures, stanchions, or some other
means.
17. The possibility of vandalism and theft should
be considered when choosing a location for a
backflow-prevention device.
18. For reduced-pressure-principle and double-
check-valve devices located outside of build-
ings, consideration should be given to the
use of landscaping, etc., to obtain an aes-
thetically pleasing installation.
19. In a device installed in a deep chamber, the
chamber should be self venting. Workers
Compensation Board regulations require that
the air within a chamber be checked for com-
bustible gas and adequate oxygen content
before a workman enters the chamber.
20. A coupling should be installed in the line to
allow flexibility for alignment during instal-
lation.
21. When installing a double-check-valve, check-
valve-with-vent-port, or reduced-pressure-
principle device on the feed waterline to a
pressure vessel, always install the pressure-
relief valve between the backflow device and
the pressure vessel.
22. If possible, a reduced-pressure-principle or
double-check-assembly device should be in-
stalled no more than 3 ft (1 m) above the
floor to facilitate access.
INADEQUATE WATER PRESSURE
When pressure in public water mains is not great
enough to satisfy building requirements, there
are three ways to boost pressure to an accept-
able level: with a hydropneumatic tank, a grav-
ity tank, or a booster pump. These systems can
be used singly or in combination.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 150
Hydropneumatic-Tank System
A hydropneumatic tank is not a storage tank.
Its sole purpose is to boost inadequate pressure,
though it operates between predetermined pres-
sure limits and always contains a minimum
amount of water.
It was the storage concept that led to the
establishment of many wholly incorrect water-
air ratios, which are still in use today. Formerly,
a 50% tank volume was split into 25% water and
25% air. This resulted in a total of 75% water
and 25% air in the tank. Later, this was re-
fined to 66Q% water and 333% air.
Figure 5-12 illustrates that water remaining
in a tank after a given pressure drop cannot be
used as a reserve. Assume that a sufficient sup-
ply of water is available and that it must be de-
livered to all water-service outlets at a minimum
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa). A 1000-gal (3785-
L) capacity tank is selected and filled using the
rule-of -thumb ratio: q water, 3 air. A minimum
tank pressure of 40 psi (275.8 kPa) is required
to overcome static head and friction losses if a
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa) is required at the
highest and farthest outlet. The maximum pres-
sure differential in the tank is limited by how
much pressure variation the piping system can
tolerate. Usually, a variation of 20 psi (137.9 kPa)
is acceptable. On this basis, the tank high pres-
sure is set at 60 psi (413.7 kPa), and the system
is ready for operation.
Typical installation details for hydro-
pneumatic-tank systems are shown in Figure
5-13.
Three factors are considered in the selection
of a hydropneumatic tank: waterair ratio, pump
capacity, and desired water withdrawal. Assume
the system demand is 100 gpm (6.3 L/s) con-
stant, the maximum number of pumping cycles
is 6/h (5 min on, 5 min off), and withdrawal of
25% of the total tank capacity is desired. Tank
size can be determined by equating of the pump
capacity (limited to no more than 6 pumping
cycles/h) to the 25% withdrawal capacity. For
example, 100 gpm/2 = 50 gpm, and 5 min 50
gpm = 250 gal. Thus, 250 gal should equal 25%
withdrawal. Tank capacity, then, is 100% or 250
4 = 1000 gal.
Selecting capacity on this basis results in a
minimum size tank and maintenance of efficient
cycling operation of the pumps.
Gravity-Tank System
Basically, a gravity-tank system consists of an
elevated tank and a pump or pumps for raising
water to fill the tank. Controls in the tank start
and stop the pumps to maintain fluid level and
Figure 5-12 Hydropneumatic Pressure
System Layout that Determines
the Minimum Tank Pressure
Figure 5-13 Typical
Hydropneumatic Supply System
151 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
capacity. Water then flows from the tank to the
waterlines by gravity action.
Three approaches may be used to determine
tank capacity for a building:
1. Rule of thumb. An arbitrary tank capacity
equal to 30 times pump capacity (gpm) (L/s)
is recommended by some authorities. This
criterion theoretically provides a building
with a 30-min emergency reserve supply of
water in case of power failure or disruption
of the source of water supply.
2. Empirical. With this method, the quantity of
water required for emergency conditions is
arbitrarily fixed. Based on this determina-
tion, the length of time needed for pumping
the water before safe shutdown can be esti-
mated.
3. Cycling of pumps. The capacity of the tank
is sized so that cycling of pumps will not oc-
cur more than 6 times per hour. This trans-
lates to 5 min off, 5 min on. The fewer the
cycles per hour, the less the wear and tear
on motors and the less maintenance required.
Reducing the number of cycles, however, will
produce greater fluctuations in tank-water
reserve.
Selecting a tank that provides a large water
surface relative to its capacity makes it possible
to withdraw a considerable volume of water with-
out appreciably lowering the liquid level. Main-
taining the water level in this way ensures a rela-
tively constant water pressure regardless of
whether demand is at a low or peak condition.
The following piping connections are required at
the tank:
Water supply to the tank.
Water supply to the system.
Overflow line.
Tank drain.
The locations of these connections on the
tank are illustrated in Figure 5-14. The system
shown is also equipped with fire-standpipe and
sprinkler connections to meet local code require-
ments. The tank connections shown in Figure
5-14 provide the required water supply for each
system, with the sprinkler reserve at the bot-
tom, the fire-standpipe reserve at the next level,
and the water storage at the top. Piping connec-
tions to the standpipe and sprinkler systems
should be fitted with bronze strainers within the
tank to prevent any debris from entering those
systems.
Level controls are installed in the tank to start
and stop pumps at low and high levels. The level
control can be a float switch, pressure switch,
electric prober, or any other acceptable device.
Tanks should be equipped with both high and
low-level alarms. The low-level alarm indicates
that the pumps are not keeping up with demand.
Figure 5-14 Piping Connections for a
Gravity Water-Storage Tank with Reserve Capacity for Firefighting
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 152
The high-level alarm warns that water has
reached the overflow level and is spilling to waste.
When storage tanks are used for gravity feed,
consideration must be given to the weight of the
tank and water so proper support can be
provided.
Booster-Pump System
There are two ways to make a continuously run
system deliver a relatively constant system pres-
sure under varying load conditions. One way is
to use a constant-speed pump with a pressure-
regulating valve in the discharge piping. The
other way is to vary the speed of the pump shaft
either at the motor or in the coupling.
A variety of booster-pump systems are cur-
rently in use, with more being introduced all the
time. Detailed information on the design criteria
and operational characteristics of water-pressure
boosting systems is given in the ASPE Pumps
and Pump Systems Handbook.
EXCESS WATER PRESSURE
One of the main sources of trouble in a water-
distribution system is excessive pressure. Un-
less a piece of equipment, fixture, or operation
requires a specified high pressure, a water sys-
tem should not exceed a maximum of 80 psi
(551.6 kPa) (check local code). To ensure this, a
pressure-regulating valve (PRV) should be in-
stalled.
The purpose of a pressure-regulating valve
is to reduce water pressure from higher, supply-
main pressures to desirable and adequate flow
pressures when water is required at fixtures,
appliances, or equipment.
Pressure-Regulating Valves
Definitions The following are definitions of
terms used in discussing, sizing, and ordering
pressure-regulating valves:
Accuracy The degree of fall-off in the outlet
pressure from the set pressure at full-flow ca-
pacity. Also, the capability of producing the same
results for repetitive operations with identical
conditions of flow.
Dead-end service The type of service in which
the PRV is required to close bottle-tight when
there is no demand on the system.
Fall-off The amount that pressure is decreased
from set pressure to meet demand. The amount
of fall-off depends on the quantity of flowthe
greater the flow, the greater the fall-off. A fall-off
of 20 psi (137.9 kPa) is considered to be the maxi-
mum allowable fall-off.
No-flow pressure The pressure maintained in
the system when the PRV is shut tight so that
high pressure at the inlet of the valve is not per-
mitted to enter the system.
Reduced-flow pressure The pressure main-
tained at the PRV outlet when water is flowing.
The no-flow (closed), set-point pressure of a PRV
is always higher than the reduced-flow (open)
pressure. A PRV that is set to open at 45 psi
(310.3 kPa) pressure (no-flow) would deliver a
reduced-flow pressure of 30 psi (206.8 kPa) at
peak demand if a 15 psi (103.4 kPa) fall-off had
been selected. Then the reduced-flow pressure
at peak flow would be 30 psi (206.8 kPa).
Response The capability of a PRV to respond
to change in outlet pressure.
Sensitivity The ability of a PRV to sense a
change in pressure. If the valve is too sensitive
and quick to respond, the results are over-con-
trol and a hunting effect. Not enough sensitivity
results in operation that is sluggish and great
variations in the outlet pressure.
Set pressure That pressure, at the outlet of
the PRV, at which the valve will start to open.
Types of pressure-regulating valve All pres-
sure-regulating valves fall into the following gen-
eral categories:
Single-seateddirect-operated or pilot-oper-
ated.
Double-seateddirect-operated or pilot-oper-
ated.
Single-seated pressure-regulating valves are
used for dead-end service and when the flow to
be regulated is intermittent. For dead-end ser-
vice, the valve must be able to shut tight and
not permit the passage of any water when there
is no demand. Double-seated PRVs are used for
continuous-flow conditions. They are not suited
for dead-end service and should never be used
for this purpose.
153 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
Direct-operated PRVs tend to have a reduc-
tion of the outlet pressure in direct proportion
with the increase of the flow rate. Pilot-operated
PRVs will maintain a close fluctuation of the
outlet pressure independent of the flow rate as-
suming that the valve was sized properly.
Sizing, selection, and installation Initial cost,
maintenance cost, and specific project require-
ments regarding flow rates and pressure should
determine which PRV is recommended for a par-
ticular application.
Sizing and selection of a pressure-regulating
valve can be performed after the following crite-
ria are estimated: inlet pressure, outlet pressure,
and capacity (flow rate). Inlet pressure is the
maximum pressure expected upstream of the
regulating valve. Outlet pressure is the pres-
sure required downstream of the regulating valve.
For large-capacity systems, which may also ex-
perience periods of low flow, or when extreme
pressure reductions are expected, it is not ad-
visable to have only one regulating valve.
A PRV sized to accommodate both small and
large flows has, in general, a high noise level
during operation. In addition, small flows will
produce wire-drawing of the seat and possible
chatter.
In addition to having economic advantages,
the proper application of pressure-regulating
valves can greatly influence the overall perfor-
mance of the system. Under most circumstances,
a good application can increase system perfor-
mance, reduce operating costs, and ensure a
longer life expectancy for regulators.
For example, where initial pressures exceed
200 psi (1379.0 kPa) or where there is a wide
variation between the initial pressure and the
reduced pressure, or where the initial pressure
varies considerably, two-stage reduction is ben-
eficial. Two-stage reduction is the use of two PRVs
to reduce high service pressure proportionately
and to eliminate an extremely wide variance be-
tween the initial and reduced pressure. It is rec-
ommended where the initial pressure is 200 lb
(1379.0 kPa) or more and where the ratio of ini-
tial to reduced pressure is more than 4 to 1 (e.g.,
200 to 50 lb [1379.0 to 344.7 kPa]), or where the
initial pressure fluctuates greatly. The advan-
tage of this installation is that neither valve is
subjected to an excessive range of pressure re-
ductions. This seems to stabilize the final reduced
pressure, ensuring close and accurate perfor-
mance. Also, this type of installation reduces the
velocity of flow (theres less pressure drop across
two regulators than across one), providing longer
valve life.
Selection of PRVs and pressure settings is
fairly simple. The first PRV could reduce from
250 to 150 lb (1723.7 to 1034.2 kPa) and the
second from 150 to approximately 50 lb (1034.2
to 344.7 kPa) or there could be some similar di-
vision. PRV size can be selected according to the
manufacturers capacity tables if it is remem-
bered that each PRV should exceed the total ca-
pacity of the system.
Where there is a wide variation of demand
requirements and where it is vital to maintain a
continuous water supply as well as provide
greater capacity, parallel installation is recom-
mended. Parallel installation is the use of two or
more smaller size pressure-regulating valves
serving a larger size supply-pipe main. This type
of installation should be employed wherever there
is a wide variation of reduced-pressure require-
ments and where it is vital to maintain a con-
tinuous water supply. It also has the advantage
of providing increased capacity beyond that pro-
vided by a single valve where needed. Multiple
installation improves valve performance for
widely variable demands and permits the ser-
vicing of an individual valve without the com-
plete shutdown of the line, thus preventing costly
shutdowns.
For a two-valve parallel installation, the to-
tal capacity of the valves should equal or exceed
the capacity required by the system. One valve
should be set at 10 psi (69.0 kPa) higher delivery
pressure than the other. For example, assume
that the system requires 400 gpm (25.2 L/s) and
the reduced-flow pressure required is 50 psi
(344.7 kPa). Select two valves, each rated at 200
gpm (12.6 L/s), with one valve set at 50 psi (344.7
kPa) and the other valve set 10 psi (69.0 kPa)
higher at 60 psi (413.7 kPa). Thus, when low
volume is required, the higher-set valve oper-
ates alone. When a larger volume is demanded,
both valves open, delivering full-line capacity.
Another possible choice is to install two PRV
combinations of different sizes. This is practical
on larger installations where supply lines are 2
in. (50 mm) and larger and where there are fre-
quent periods of small demand. The smaller PRV
would have the 10-psi (69.0-kPa) higher delivery
pressure and thus operate alone to satisfy small
demands, such as urinals and drinking foun-
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 154
tains. When a larger volume is demanded, the
main PRV would open to satisfy the system de-
mand. For example, take an apartment building
requiring 300 gpm (18.9 L/s) at 60 psi (413.7
kPa). The selection might be a 4-in. (100-mm)
PRV rated for 240 gpm (15.1 L/s) (80% of total
maximum flow rate) and set at 60 psi (413.7 kPa)
and a 1-in. (40-mm) PRV rated for 60 gpm (3.8
L/s) and set at 70 psi (472.7 kPa).
Manufacturers have tables indicating recom-
mended capacities and valve sizes for use in par-
allel installations.
TESTING, CLEANING, AND
DISINFECTION OF DOMESTIC,
WATER-SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Testing
Prior to disinfection, connection to faucets and
equipment, and installation of pipe insulation,
the domestic water system should be hydrostati-
cally tested for leakage. A typical test for interior
piping is accomplished by capping all system
openings, filling the system with water, and then
pumping a static head into the system at a mini-
mum of 1 times the working pressure (100 psi
[689.5 kPa] minimum) for a period of not less
than 2 hours. The aforementioned test require-
ments are acceptable to most inspectors, but note
that 80 psi (551.6 kPa) is the maximum pres-
sure allowed by most designs and codes.
Under conditions where systems are subject
to freezing, and with the approval of the author-
ity having jurisdiction, an air test may be sub-
stituted for the water test. This can be
accomplished by connecting an air compressor
to the system, bringing the system up to 40 psi
(275.8 kPa), checking for leaks with liquid soap,
repairing any leaks, and then subjecting the sys-
tem to a minimum of 1 times the working pres-
sure (100 psi [689.5 kPa] minimum) for a
minimum of 2 hours.
Any equipment that may be damaged by
these tests should be disconnected from the
system.
Cleaning and Disinfecting
New or repaired potable water systems shall be
cleaned and disinfected prior to use whenever
required by the administrative authority. The
method to be followed should be per AWWA or
as follows (or as required by the administrative
authority):
1. Cleaning and disinfection applies to both hot
and cold, domestic (potable) water systems
and should be performed after all pipes,
valves, fixtures, and other components of the
systems are installed, tested, and ready for
operation.
2. All domestic yard, hot and cold-water piping
should be thoroughly flushed with clean, po-
table water prior to disinfection to remove
dirt and other contaminants. Screens of fau-
cets and strainers should be removed before
flushing and reinstalled after completion of
disinfection.
3. Disinfection should be done using chlorine,
either gas or liquid. Calcium or sodium hy-
pochlorite or another approved disinfectant
may be used.
4. A service cock should be provided and lo-
cated at the water-service entrance. The dis-
infecting agent should be injected into and
through the system from this cock only.
5. The disinfecting agent should be injected by
a proportioning pump or device through the
service cock slowly and continuously at an
even rate. During disinfection, flow of the dis-
infecting agent into the main connected to
the public water supply is not permitted.
6. All sectional valves should be opened during
disinfection. All outlets should be fully opened
at least twice during injection and the re-
sidual checked with orthotolidin solution.
7. If chlorine is used, when the chlorine residual
concentration, calculated on the volume of
water the piping will contain, indicates not
less than 50 parts per million (ppm) or milli-
grams per liter (mg/L) at all outlets, then all
valves should be closed and secured.
8. The residual chlorine should be retained in
the piping systems for a period of not less
than 24 hours.
9. After the retention, the residual should be
not less than 5 ppm. If less, then the pro-
cess should be repeated as described above.
10. If satisfactory, then all fixtures should be
flushed with clean, potable water until re-
sidual chlorine by orthotolidin test is not
greater than that of the incoming water sup-
ply (this may be zero).
155 Chapter 5 Cold-Water Systems
11. All work and certification of performance
should be performed by approved applica-
tors or qualified personnel with chemical and
laboratory experience. Certification of perfor-
mance should indicate:
Name and location of the job and date
when disinfection was performed.
Material used for disinfection.
Retention period of disinfectant in pip-
ing system.
Ppm (mg/L) chlorine during retention.
Ppm (mg/L) chlorine after flushing.
Statement that disinfection was per-
formed as specified.
Signature and address of company/per-
son performing disinfection.
12. Upon completion of final flushing (after re-
tention period) the contractor should obtain
a minimum of one water sample from each
hot and cold-water line and submit samples
to a state/province and/or local, approved
laboratory. Samples should be taken from
faucets located at the highest floor and fur-
thest from the meter or main water supply.
The laboratory report should show the fol-
lowing:
Name and address of approved labora-
tory testing the sample.
Name and location of job and date the
samples were obtained.
The coliform organism count. An accept-
able test shall show the absence of
coliform organisms. (Some codes require
an acceptable test for 2 consecutive days.)
Any other tests required by local code
authorities.
13. If analysis does not satisfy the above mini-
mum requirements, the disinfection proce-
dure must be repeated.
14. Before acceptance of the systems, the con-
tractor should submit to the architect (engi-
neer) for his review 3 copies of the laboratory
report and 3 copies of the certification of per-
formance as specified above.
15. Under no circumstances should the contrac-
tor permit the use of any portion of domestic
water systems until they are properly disin-
fected, flushed, and certified.
NOTE: It should be understood that local code
requirements, if more stringent than above sug-
gested procedures, shall be included in the speci-
fications.
REFERENCES
1. American Water Works Association (AWWA).
AWWA cross connection control manual. New York.
2. AWWA. AWWA standard for disinfecting water
mains, AWWA C601.
3. AWWA. AWWA standard for disinfection of water
storage facilities, AWWAD105.
4. AWWA. Standard for hypochlorites, AWWA B300,
AWWA M22.
5. AWWA. Standard for liquid chlorine, AWWAB301.
6. Manas, V.T. National plumbing code illustrated
handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
7. n.a. 1978. Piping systems fundamentals and ap-
plication. Plant Engineer Magazine.
8. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 65, Methods of estimating
loads in plumbing systems, by R.B. Hunter.
Washington, DC.
9. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 66, Plumbing manual. Wash-
ington, DC.
10. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 79, Water distributing sys-
tems for buildings, by R.B. Hunter. Washington,
DC.
11. White, George Clifford. 1972. Handbook of chlo-
rination. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
157 Chapter 6 Domestic Water Heating Systems
Domestic
Water-
Heating
Systems
6
INTRODUCTION
Proper design of the domestic hot-water supply
system for any building is extremely important.
Careful planning on the basis of all available data
will ensure an adequate supply of water at the
desired temperature to each fixture at all times.
A properly designed system must, of course, con-
form with all the regulations of the authorities
having jurisdiction.
The design objectives for an efficient hot-
water distribution system include:
1. Providing adequate amounts of water at the
prescribed temperature to all fixtures and
equipment at all times.
2. A system that will perform its function safely.
3. The utilization of an economical heat source.
4. A cost-effective and durable installation.
5. An economical operating system with reason-
able maintenance.
A brief discussion of each of these objectives
is warranted. Any well-designed system should
deliver the prescribed temperature at the outlet
almost instantaneously to avoid the wasteful
running of water until the desired temperature
is achieved. The hot water should be available at
any time of the day or night and during low-
demand periods as well as peak flows.
Safety must be built into any hot-water sys-
tem, and the safety features must operate
automatically. The two paramount dangers to be
guarded against are excessive pressures and tem-
peratures. Exploding hot-water heaters and
scalding water at fixtures must be prevented in
the design stage.
An economic heat source is of prime impor-
tance in conserving energy. Various sources
include coal, gas, oil, steam, condensate, waste
hot water, and solar energy. The availability and
cost of any of these sources or combinations of
these sources will dictate selection. If an espe-
cially economical source is not adequate to satisfy
the total demand, then it can be used to preheat
the cold-water supply to the heater.
An economical and durable installation can
be achieved by judicious selection of the proper
materials and equipment. The piping layout also
has a marked effect on this objective and will
later determine the ease of replacement and
repair.
Cost-effective operation and maintenance
also depend upon the proper pre-selection of
materials and equipment. The choice of
instantaneous or storage type heaters, the se-
lection of insulation on heaters and piping, the
location of piping (avoiding cold, unheated ar-
eas), the ease of circulation (the avoidance of
drops and rises in piping), bypasses around
pumps and tanks, and adequate valving acces-
sibility are all items that affect the operation and
maintenance of a system.
The design of a domestic water-heating sys-
tem begins with estimating the facilitys load
profile and identifying the peak demand times.
To accomplish these steps, the designer must
conduct discussions with the users of the space,
determine the building type, and learn of any
owner requirements. The information thus gath-
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 158
ered will establish the required capacity of the
water heating equipment and the general type of
system to be used.
BASIC FORMULAE AND UNITS
The equations in this chapter are based on the
principle of energy conservation. The fundamen-
tal formula for this expresses a steady-state heat
balance for the heat input and output of the
system:
Equation 6-1
q = r w c T
where
q = Time rate of heat transfer,
Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = Flow rate, gph (L/h)
w = Weight of heated water, lb (kg)
c = Specific heat of water,
Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T = Change in heated water temperature
(temperature of leaving water minus
temperature of incoming water,
represented as T
h
T
c
, F [K])
For the purposes of this discussion, the spe-
cific heat of water is constant, c = 1 Btu/lb/F
(c = 4.19 kJ/kg/K), and the weight of water is
constant at 8.33 lb/gal (999.6 kg/m
3
).
Equation 6-2
q = gph
a Y
1 Btu
Z
Y
8.33 lb
Z
(T)
lb/F gal
'
q =
m
3
a Y
4.188 kJ
Z
Y
999.6 kg
Z
(T)
)
____ ____________ ___________
h kg/K m
3
Example 6-1 Calculate the heat output rate
required to heat 600 gph from 50 to 140F (2.27
m
3
/h from 283.15 to 333.15K).
Solution From Equation 6-2,
q = 600 gph
a Y
8.33 Btu
Z
(14050F)
= 449,820 Btu/h
gal /F
'
q =
2.27 m
3
a Y
4188.32 kJ
Z
(333.15283.15 K)
___________ ______________
h m
3
/K
= 475 374 kJ/h
)
Note: The designer should be aware that water
heaters installed in high elevations must be de-
rated based on the elevation. The water heaters
manufacturers data should be consulted for in-
formation on required modifications.
HEAT RECOVERYELECTRIC
WATER HEATERS
It takes 1 Btu of energy to raise 1 lb of water
1F. Since 1 kW is equal to 3413 Btu and 1 gal of
water weighs 8.33 lb, then it would take 1 kW of
electrical power to raise 410 gal (1552.02 L) of
water 1F. This can be expressed in a series of
formulae, as follows:
Equation 6-3
410 gal
= gal of water per kW at T
T
Y
1552.02 L
= L of water per kW at T
Z T
Equation 6-4
gph T
= kW required
410 gal
Y
L/h T
= kW required
Z 1552.02 L
Equation 6-5
gph
= kW required
gal of water per kW at T
Y
L/h
= kW required
Z L of water per kW at T
where
T = Temperature rise (temperature
differential), F (C)
gph = Gallons per hour of hot water
required
159 Chapter 6 Domestic Water Heating Systems
L/h = Liters per hour of hot water
required
Equation 6-3 can be used to establish a
simple table based on the required temperature
rise.
Temperature Rise, T, Gal (L) of Water
F (C) per kW
110 (43) 3.73 (14.12)
100 (38) 4.10 (15.52)
90 (32) 4.55 (17.22)
80 (27) 5.13 (19.42)
70 (21) 5.86 (22.18)
60 (16) 6.83 (25.85)
50 (10) 8.20 (31.04)
40 (4) 10.25 (38.8)
This table can be used with Equation 6-5 to solve
for the kW electric element needed to heat the
required recovery volume of water.
Example 6-2 An electric water heater must be
sized based on the following information: (a) 40
gph (151.42 L/h) of hot water at a temperature
of 140F (43C) is required. (b) The incoming
water supply during winter is 40F (4C).
Solution Using Equation 6-5 and the above
table, we find the following:
40 gph
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal (100F)
a
151.42 L/h
= 9.8 kW required
15.52 L (38C)
HOT-WATER TEMPERATURE
The generally accepted minimum hot-water tem-
peratures for various plumbing fixtures and
equipment are given in Table 6-1. Both tempera-
ture and pressure should be verified with the
client and checked against local codes and the
manuals of equipment used.
Table 6-1 Typical Hot-Water Temperatures
for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use Temperature
F (C)
Lavatory
Hand washing 105 (40)
Shaving 115 (45)
Showers and tubs 110 (43)
Therapeutic baths 95 (35)
Surgical scrubbing 110 (43)
Commercial and institutional
laundry 140180 (6082)
Residential dishwashing
and laundry 140 (60)
Commercial, spray-type dishwashing
(as required by the NSF):
Single or multiple-tank hood
or rack type:
Wash 150 min. (66 min.)
Final rinse 180195 (8291)
Single-tank conveyor type:
Wash 160 min. (71 min.)
Final rinse 180195 (8291)
Single-tank rack or door type:
Single-temperature
wash and rinse 165 min. (74 min.)
Chemical sanitizing glassware:
Wash 140 (60)
Rinse 75 min. (24 min.)
Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners,
equipment manufacturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasion-
ally differ from those shown.
MIXED-WATER TEMPERATURE
Mixing water at different temperatures to make
a desired mixed-water temperature is the main
purpose of domestic hot-water systems.
P is a hot-water multiplier and can be used
to determine the percentage of supply hot water
that will blend the hot and cold water to pro-
duce a desired mixed-water temperature.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 160
Equation 6-6
P =
T
m
T
c
T
h
T
c
where
T
h
= Supply hot-water temperature
T
c
= Inlet cold-water temperature
T
m
= Desired mixed-water temperature
Values of P for a range of hot and cold water
temperatures are given in Table 6-2.
Example 6-3 A group of showers requires 25
gpm (1.58 L/s) of 105F (41C) mixed-water tem-
perature. Determine how much 140F (60C) hot
water must be supplied to the showers when the
cold-water temperature is 50F (10C).
Solution
P =
105 50F
= 0.61
140 50F
Y
P =
41 10C
= 0.61
Z 60 10C
Therefore,
0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140F water required
[0.61 (1.58 L/s) = 0.96 L/s of 60C water required].
Table 6-2 may also be used to determine P.
WATER HEATERS
The most commonly used type of water heater
for office buildings, multiple-unit dwellings, and
other similar establishments is the directly
heated, automatic storage heater. Such heat-
ers are simple, inexpensive to install, and very
low maintenance. They are generally low-demand
heaters, with low Btu input so that the heating
of the water is spread over several hours. This
reduces the amount of heating medium required.
Commonly used heating mediums are electric-
ity, fuel gas, and steam.
Instantaneous types of water heater must
have sufficient capacity to provide the maximum
flow rate of hot water at an adequate tempera-
ture. The instantaneous heater finds its best
application where water-heating demands are
constant, such as for swimming pools, certain
dishwasher booster requirements, and industrial
processes, or where space conditions are a prime
consideration. Because of these high flow rates
and the typical on-off operation, the efficiencies
of instantaneous heaters are lower than those of
storage type heaters.
Booster heaters are used to raise the tem-
perature of the regular hot-water supply to some
higher-than-normal temperature needed to per-
form special functions. Booster heaters are
utilized in applications such as commercial dish-
washers where there is a limited use of very hot
water. They can be located near their point of
intended use and have simple controls, minimal
waste, and smooth operation.
Semi-instantaneous heaters contain be-
tween 10 and 20 s of domestic water storage,
according to their rated heating capacity. This
small quantity of water is adequate to allow the
temperature-control system to react to sudden
fluctuations in water flow and to maintain the
outlet water temperature within 5F (2.7C). The
temperature-control system is almost always
included with this type of heater as a package.
Controls
The purpose for having controls on a hot-water
generator is to ensure that a sufficient volume
of hot water at the proper temperature for use is
provided to a facility. The control components
for water heaters differ depending on the type of
heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water
heater controls should be checked with the equip-
ment manufacturer. Also, the various regulatory
and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of
equipment used.
Stratification
Because of its lighter density, warm water rises
to the top of a storage tank. The result of this
rising action, known as stratification, occurs
in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the amount of usable temperature water in
stratified horizontal and vertical tanks is about
65% and 75%, respectively.
Stratification during recovery periods can be
reduced significantly by mechanical circulation
of the water in the tank. During periods of de-
mand, however, it is useful to have good
stratification since this increases the availabil-
ity of water at a usable temperature. If, for
example, a tank were equally stratified between
161 Chapter 6 Domestic Water Heating Systems
Table 6-2 Hot-Water Multiplier, P
T
h
= 110F Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Temp. (F) 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77
50 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
55 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
60 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
65 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67
T
h
= 120F Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Temp. (F) 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67
50 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
55 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
60 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
65 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55
T
h
= 130F Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Temp. (F) 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59
50 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
55 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
60 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
65 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46
T
h
= 140F Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Temp. (F) 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
50 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
55 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40
(Continued)
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 162
T
h
= 150F Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Temp. (F) 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100
45 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
50 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
55 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41
T
h
= 160F Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Temp. (F) 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110
45 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
50 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
55 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
60 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
65 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
T
h
= 180F Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Temp. (F) 180 175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130
45 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
50 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
55 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
60 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
65 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
110 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
120 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
130 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10
140 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13
150 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17
160 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25
(Table 6-2 continued)
163 Chapter 6 Domestic Water Heating Systems
T
h
= 43C Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Temp. (C) 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77
10 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
13 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
16 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
18 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67
T
h
= 49C Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Temp. (C) 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67
10 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
13 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
16 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
18 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55
T
h
= 54C Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Temp. (C) 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59
10 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
13 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
16 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
18 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46
T
h
= 60C Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Temp. (C) 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
10 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
13 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40
Table 6-2 (M) Hot-Water Multiplier, P
(Continued)
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 164
T
h
= 66C Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Temp. (C) 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38
7 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
10 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
13 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41
T
h
= 71C Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Temp. (C) 71 68 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43
7 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
10 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
13 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
16 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
18 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
T
h
= 82C Hot-Water System Temperature
T
c
, CW
T
m
, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Temp. (C) 82 79 77 74 71 68 66 63 60 58 54
7 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
10 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
13 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
16 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
18 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
43 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
49 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
54 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10
60 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13
66 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17
71 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25
(Table 6-2 continued)
165 Chapter 6 Domestic Water Heating Systems
140F (60C) at the top and 40F (4C) at the
bottom, this tank, in theory, could still deliver
half its volume at 140F (60C). But, if the two
layers were completely mixed, the tank tempera-
ture would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most
cases, is an unusable temperature.
HOT-WATER TEMPERATURE
MAINTENANCE
Hot water of a desired temperature should be
readily available at any fixture. Either a hot-wa-
ter circulation system or an electronically heated
system shall be used to achieve this purpose.
Hot-Water Circulation Systems
Hot-water supply piping, whether insulated or
not, transmits heat to the surrounding lower-
temperature air by conduction, convection, and
radiation. The user wastes water while waiting
for the desired temperature water to warm up
the piping system.
The sizing of the circulation system includes
selection of the pump, sizing the supply and re-
circulation piping, and selecting the insulation
type and thickness. Recirculation systems may
not be practical for small systems but may be
mandated for systems designed for such places
as food establishments. Proper sizing of the hot-
water circulating system is essential for the
efficient and economical operation of the hot-wa-
ter system. Oversizing will cause the system to
lose additional heat and result in unnecessary
expenditures on equipment and installation.
Undersizing will seriously hamper circulation and
thus starve the fixtures of the desired water tem-
perature.
The procedure for sizing the hot-water cir-
culating piping is as follows:
1. Calculate the heat-loss rates of the hot-wa-
ter supply piping.
2. Calculate the heat-loss rates of the hot-wa-
ter circulating piping.
3. Calculate the circulation rates for all parts
of the circulating piping and the total circu-
lation rate required.
4. Determine the allowable uniform friction-head
loss and the total head required to overcome
friction losses in the piping when the water is
flowing at the required circulation rate.
5. Calculate the rates of flow for various pipe
sizes that will give the uniform pressure drop
established in Step 4, and tabulate the re-
sults.
6. Size the system based upon the tabulation
set up in Step 5.
7. With the sizes as established in Step 6, re-
peat Steps 2 through 6 as a check on the
assumptions made.
As a guide to sizing circulation piping and
circulation pumps, the following empirical meth-
ods are given but are not recommended in lieu
of the more accurate procedures outlined above:
1. An allowance of gpm (0.23 L/min) is as-
signed for each small hot-water riser (1
in. [1.92.54 cm]), 1 gpm (2.2 L/min) for each
medium-sized hot-water riser (1-1 in.
[3.23.8 cm]), and 2 gpm (4.4 L/min) for each
large-sized hot-water riser (2 in.[5 cm] and
larger).
2. An allowance of 1 gpm (2.2 L/min) is assigned
for each group of 20 hot-water-supplied fix-
tures.
Self-Regulating Heat-Trace Systems
A heat-trace system is an economical, energy-
efficient system for domestic hot-water tempera-
ture maintenance. It is a self-regulating heating
cable installed on the hot-water supply pipes un-
derneath the standard pipe insulation. The cable
adjusts its power output to compensate for varia-
tions in water and ambient temperatures. It
produces more heat if the temperature drops and
less heat if the temperature rises. The heating
cable replaces supply-pipe heat losses at the
point where heat loss occurs, thereby providing
continuous, energy-efficient hot-water tempera-
ture maintenance and eliminating the need for a
recirculating system.
A one-pipe, heat-trace system design elimi-
nates the need for designing complex re-
circulation systems with their pumps, piping net-
works, and complicated flow balancing, and
special cases, such as retrofits and multiple-pres-
sure zones, are simple to design.
The installation of a heat-trace system is
simple. The heating cable can be cut to length,
spliced, tee-branched, and terminated at the job
site, which reduces installation costs. Also, fewer
plumbing components are needed; recirculating
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 166
piping, pumps, and balancing valves are all elimi-
nated.
The heat-trace system continuously main-
tains hot-water temperature at every point along
the supply pipe. Unlike conventional recircula-
tion systems, the heat-trace system does not
require the overheating of supply water to allow
for cooling; there is reduced heat loss from energy
supply piping, no heat loss from recirculation
piping, and no pump to run. The heat-trace sys-
tem reduces the energy requirements of typical
domestic hot-water systems.
Components All heating-cable components
shall be UL listed for use as a part of the system
to maintain hot-water temperature. Component
enclosures shall be rated NEMA 4X to prevent
water ingress and corrosion. Installation shall
not require the installing contractor to cut into
heating cable core to expose the bus wires.
Connection systems requiring the installing con-
tractor to strip the bus wires, or that use crimps
or terminal blocks shall not be acceptable. All
components, except for the power connection,
shall be re-enterable for servicing. No component
shall use silicone to seal the electrical connectors.
Performance
1. Operating temperatures. The system shall
maintain a nominal temperature of 105F
(40C), 115F (45C), 125F (50C), or 140F
(60C), at 208VAC.
2. Maintenance temperature. Each hot-water
system temperature shall be maintained by
specifying only one product. Temperature
shall be maintained with heating cable on
the pipe.
Insulation thickness shall be as follows:
Pipe Size, Fiberglass Insulation
in. (mm) Thickness, in. (cm)
1 (1325) 1 (2.54)
12 (3250) 1 (3.81)
26 (65150) 2 (5.08)
Note: For pipe sizes 1 in. and smaller, use
-in. larger diameter insulation to allow for
installation over cable.
3. Power control self-regulating index. The slope
of the powertemperature curve or graph
shall be such that the power of the heating
cable shall increase as the temperature de-
creases, at a rate of at least 0.028W/ft-F
(0.16 W/m-C) from 50100F (1039C).
4. Long-term thermal stability (as determined by
accelerated testing). The power retention of
the heating cable shall be at least 90%, after
300 cycles, between 50 and 212F (10 and
100C).
5. High-temperature withstand. The heater shall
not decrease in resistance, overheat, or burn
when powered at 208VAC and exposed to
499F (205C) in an oven for 30 min.
Selection Variables affecting the performance
of the heat-trace system include the system
range, time to tap, water wastages, and energy
efficiency. The design engineer should consider
these factors along with installation and life-cycle
costs when selecting the proper hot-water,
self-regulating, heat-trace system for a particu-
lar building. The heat-trace system is a good
system, but it cannot be used in all applications.
For more complete design information, refer to
the ASPE Domestic Water Heating Design Manual.
RELIEF VALVES
Water-heating systems shall be protected from
excessive temperatures and pressures by relief
valves. Temperature and pressure (T&P) relief
valves are available either separately or com-
bined. A combination T&P relief valve is preferred
because it offers a more economical and yet ef-
fective protective procedure.
A relief valve on a water-supply system is
exposed to many elements that can affect its
performance, such as corrosive water that at-
tacks materials, and deposits of lime, which close
up waterways and flow passages. For these rea-
sons, the minimum size of the valve should be
in. (19 mm) for inlet and outlet connections,
with the waterways within the valve of an area
not less than the area of the inlet connection.
Relief valves should be tested on a regular basis
to ensure safe and proper operation.
All valves should have a discharge pipe con-
nected to its outlet and terminate at a point where
the discharge will cause no damage to property
or injury to persons. The discharge pipe size shall
be at least the size of the valve discharge outlet,
shall be as short as possible, and shall run down
to its terminal without sags or traps.
Typically, T&P relief valves are tested to com-
ply with the standards of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American
Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of
167 Chapter 6 Domestic Water Heating Systems
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI)
and are so labeled. The designer should verify
which agencys standards are applicable to the
water-heating system being designed and follow
those standards for the sizes, types, and loca-
tions of required relief valves.
Sizing Pressure and
Temperature-Relief Valves
The following information applies to heaters with
more than 200,000 Btu (211 000 kJ) input:
Temperature relief valves These shall have the
capacity to prevent water temperature from ex-
ceeding 210F (99C). They shall be water rated
on the basis of 1250 Btu (1319 kJ) for each gph
of water discharged at 30 lb (13.6 kg) working
pressure and a maximum temperature of 210F
(99C).
The temperature rating is the maximum rate
of heat input to a heater on which a tempera-
ture-relief valve can be installed and is
determined as follows:
Equation 6-7
gph water heated 8.33 T(F)
=
Btu valve
0.8
capacity reqd
Y
L/h water heated 1 kg/L T(C)
=
kJ valve
Z 0.8
capacity reqd
Pressure relief valves These shall have the ca-
pacity to prevent a pressure rise in excess of 10%
of the set opening pressure. They shall be set at
a pressure not exceeding the working pressure
of the tank or heater.
The pressure rating is the maximum output
of a boiler or heater on which a pressure-relief
valve can be used and is determined as follows:
Equation 6-8
gph water heated 8.33 T (F) = Btu valve
capacity reqd
[L/h water heated 1.0 kg/L T (C) = kJ valve
capacity reqd]
Determine the Btu capacity required, then refer
to a manufacturers catalog for valve size
selection.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated. This expansion
shall be provided for in a domestic hot-water sys-
tem to avoid damage to the piping. Use of a
thermal expansion tank in the cold-water piping
to the water heater will accomplish this. It is
recommended that the designer contact the
manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for
information on installation and sizing. Plumb-
ing codes require some type of thermal expansion
compensationexpecially when there is either a
backflow-prevention device on the cold-water
service to the building or a check valve in the
system.
Relying only on the T&P relief valve to relieve
the pressure is not good practice. Many local
codes now require expansion tanks for systems
over 4-gal (8.8-L) capacity.
The relevant properties of water are shown
in Table 6-3.
Example 6-4 Using Table 6-3, determine the
thermal expansion of a typical residence. Assume
the initial heating cycle has incoming water at
40F (4C) and a temperature rise of 100F (38C).
The water heater is 50-gal (189-L) capacity and
the piping system volume is 10 gal (38 L).
Solution
Specific volume of water @ 40F = 0.01602 ft
3
/lb
Specific volume of water @ 140F = 0.01629 ft
3
/lb
S
v
40F
=
0.01602
=
1.66% increase in volume
S
v
140F 0.01629
Total volume = 50-gal tank + 10-gal system = 60 gal
60 gal 1.66% volume increase = 1-gal expansion
1 gal 8.33 lb/gal 0.01628 ft
3
/lb = 0.1356 ft
3
=
19.5 in.
3
(Specific volume of water @ 4C = 0.00100 m
3
/kg
Specific volume of water @ 60C = 0.00102 m
3
/kg
S
v
4C
=
0.00100
=
1.66% increase in volume
S
v
60C 0.00102
Total volume = 189-L tank + 38-L system = 227 L
227 L 1.66% volume increase = 3.79-L expansion
3.79 L 1 kg/L 0.0010 m
3
/kg = 0.0038 m
3
= 380
cm
3
expansion)
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 168
Table 6-3 Thermal Properties of Water
Saturation Specific
Temperature Pressure Volume Density Weight Specific Heat
F C psig kPa ft
3
/lb m
3
/kg lb/ft
3
kg/m
3
lb/gal kg/m
3
Btu/lb-F-h J/kg-C-h
32 0.0 29.8 3 019.6 0.01602 0.00100 62.42 999.87 8.345 1001.40 1.0093 4225.74
40 4.4 29.7 3 009.5 0.01602 0.00100 62.42 999.87 8.345 1001.40 1.0048 4206.90
50 10.0 29.6 2 999.4 0.01603 0.00100 62.38 999.23 8.340 1000.80 1.0015 4193.08
60 15.5 29.5 2 989.2 0.01604 0.00100 62.34 998.59 8.334 1000.08 0.9995 4184.71
70 21.1 29.3 2 969.0 0.01606 0.00100 62.27 997.47 8.325 999.00 0.9982 4179.26
80 26.7 28.9 2 928.4 0.01608 0.00100 62.19 996.19 8.314 997.68 0.9975 4176.33
90 32.2 28.6 2 898.0 0.01610 0.00100 62.11 994.91 8.303 996.36 0.9971 4174.66
100 37.8 28.1 2 847.4 0.01613 0.00101 62.00 993.14 8.289 994.68 0.9970 4174.24
110 43.3 27.4 2 776.4 0.01617 0.00101 61.84 990.58 8.267 992.04 0.9971 4174.66
120 48.9 26.6 2 695.4 0.01620 0.00101 61.73 988.82 8.253 990.36 0.9974 4175.91
130 54.4 25.5 2 583.9 0.01625 0.00101 61.54 985.78 8.227 987.24 0.9978 4177.59
140 60.0 24.1 2 442.1 0.01629 0.00102 61.39 983.37 8.207 984.84 0.9984 4180.10
150 65.6 22.4 2 269.8 0.01634 0.00102 61.20 980.33 8.182 981.84 0.9990 4182.61
160 71.1 20.3 2 057.0 0.01639 0.00102 61.01 977.29 8.156 978.72 0.9998 4185.96
170 76.7 17.8 1 803.7 0.01645 0.00103 60.79 973.76 8.127 975.24 1.0007 4189.73
180 82.2 14.7 1 489.6 0.01651 0.00103 60.57 970.24 8.098 971.76 1.0017 4193.92
190 87.8 10.9 1 104.5 0.01657 0.00103 60.35 966.71 8.068 968.16 1.0028 4198.52
200 93.3 6.5 658.6 0.01663 0.00104 60.13 963.19 8.039 964.68 1.0039 4203.13
210 98.9 1.2 121.6 0.01670 0.00104 59.88 959.19 8.005 960.60 1.0052 4208.57
212 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.01672 0.00104 59.81 958.06 7.996 959.52 1.0055 4209.83
220 104.4 2.5 253.3 0.01677 0.00105 59.63 955.18 7.972 956.64 1.0068 4215.27
240 115.6 10.3 1 043.7 0.01692 0.00106 59.10 946.69 7.901 948.12 1.0104 4230.34
260 126.7 20.7 2 097.5 0.01709 0.00107 58.51 937.24 7.822 938.64 1.0148 4248.76
280 137.8 34.5 3 495.9 0.01726 0.00108 57.94 928.11 7.746 929.52 1.0200 4270.54
300 148.9 52.3 5 299.6 0.01745 0.00109 57.31 918.02 7.662 919.44 1.0260 4295.66
350 176.7 119.9 12 149.5 0.01799 0.00112 55.59 890.47 7.432 891.84 1.0440 4371.02
400 204.4 232.6 23 569.4 0.01864 0.00116 55.63 891.11 7.172 860.64 1.0670 4467.32
450 232.2 407.9 41 332.5 0.01940 0.00121 51.55 825.75 6.892 827.04 1.0950 4584.55
500 260.0 666.1 67 495.9 0.02040 0.00127 49.02 785.22 6.553 786.36 1.1300 4731.08
550 287.8 1030.5 104 420.6 0.02180 0.00136 45.87 734.77 6.132 735.84 1.2000 5024.16
600 315.6 1528.2 154 852.5 0.02360 0.00147 42.37 678.70 5.664 679.68 1.3620 5702.42
169 Chapter 6 Domestic Water Heating Systems
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water-heating process
are considered, the actual input energy is higher
than the usable, or output, energy. Direct-fired
water heaters (i.e., those that use gas, oil, etc.)
lose part of their total energy capability to such
things as heated flue gases, inefficiencies of com-
bustion, and radiation at heated surfaces. Their
thermal efficiency, E
t
, is defined as the heat
actually transferred to the domestic water divided
by the total heat input to the water heater. Ex-
pressed as a percentage, this is
Equation 6-9
E
t
=
q B
100%
q
where
B = Internal heat loss of the water heater,
Btu/h (kJ/h)
q = Time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h
(kJ/h)
Refer to Equations 6-1 and 6-2 to determine q.
Many water heaters and boilers provide input
and output energy information.
Example 6-5 Calculate the heat input rate re-
quired for the water heater in Example 6-1 if
this is a direct gas-fired water heater with a ther-
mal efficiency of 80%.
Solution
From Example 6-1, q = 449,820 Btu/h (475 374 kJ/h).
Heat input =
q
=
449,820 Btu/h
= 562,275 Btu/h
E
t
0.80
Y
q
=
475 374 kJ/h
= 594 217.5 kJ/h
Z
E
t
0.80
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONCERNS
Legionella Pneumophila
(Legionnaires Disease)
Legionnaires disease is a potentially fatal respi-
ratory illness. The disease gained notoriety when
1
For more information regarding Scalding, refer to ASPE
Research Foundation, 1989.
2
Moritz and Henriques, 1947.
a number of American Legionnaires contracted
it during a convention. That outbreak was at-
tributed to the water vapor from the buildings
cooling tower(s). The bacteria that cause Legion-
naires disease are widespread in natural sources
of water, including rivers, lakes, streams, and
ponds. In warm water, the bacteria can grow and
multiply to high concentrations. Drinking water
containing the Legionella bacteria has no known
effects. However, inhalation of the bacteria into
the lungs, e.g., while showering, can cause Le-
gionnaires disease. Much has been published
about this problem, and yet there is still contro-
versy over the exact temperatures that foster the
growth of the bacteria. Further research is re-
quired, for there is still much to be learned. It is
incumbent upon designers to familiarize them-
selves with the latest information on the subject
and to take it into account when designing their
systems. Designers also must be familiar with
and abide by the rules of all regulating agencies
with jurisdiction.
Scalding
1
A research project by Moritz and Henriques at
Harvard Medical College
2
looked at the relation-
ship between time and water temperature
necessary to produce a first-degree burn. A first-
degree burn, the least serious type, results in no
irreversible damage. The results of the research
show that it takes a 3-s exposure to 140F (60C)
water to produce a first-degree burn. At 130F
(54C), it takes approximately 20 s, and at 120F
(49C), it takes 8 min to produce a first-degree
burn.
The normal threshold of pain is approxi-
mately 118F (48C). A person exposed to 120F
(49C) water would immediately experience dis-
comfort; it is unlikely then that the person would
be exposed for the 8 min required to produce a
first-degree burn. People in some occupancies
(e. g., hospitals), as well as those over the age of
65 and under the age of 1, may not sense pain
or move quickly enough to avoid a burn once
pain is sensed. If such a possibility exists, scald-
ing protection should be considered. It is often
required by code. (For more information on skin
damage caused by exposure to hot water, see
Table 6-4.)
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 170
Table 6-4 Time/Water Temperature
Combinations Producing Skin Damage
Water Temperature
F C Time (s)
Over 140 Over 60 Less than 1
140 60 2.6
135 58 5.5
130 54 15
125 52 50
120 49 290
Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Con-
tractor Magazine (September). First published in American Journal
of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evi-
dence of skin damage in adult males.
CODES AND STANDARDS
The need to conform to various codes and stan-
dards determines many aspects of the design of
a domestic hot-water system as well as the se-
lection of components and equipment.
Some of the most often used codes and stan-
dards are:
1. Regional, state, and local plumbing codes.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE/
IES 90.1.
3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) code for fired and unfired pressure
vessels.
4. ASME and American Gas Association (AGA)
codes for relief valves.
5. Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listing for elec-
trical components.
6. National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) listing.
7. AGA approval for gas-burning components.
8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
standards.
9. National Electrical Code (NEC).
10. Department of Health and Environmental
Control (DHEC).
In addition, the federal government, the agen-
cies with jurisdiction over public schools and
public housing, and many other agencies have
specific requirements that must be observed
when designing projects and selecting equipment
for them.
REFERENCES
1. ASPE Research Foundation. 1989. Temperature
limits in service hot water systems. Journal of
Environmental Health (June): 38-48.
2. Moritz, A. R., and F. C. Henriques, Jr. 1947. The
relative importance of time and surface tempera-
ture in the causation of cutaneous burns. American
Journal of Pathology 23: 695-720.
173 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
Fuel-Gas
Piping
Systems
7
LOW AND MEDIUM-PRESSURE
NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
The composition, specific gravity, and heating
value of natural gas vary depending upon the
well (or field) from which the gas is gathered.
Natural gas is a mixture of gases, most of which
are hydrocarbons, and the predominant hydro-
carbon is methane. Some natural gases contain
significant quantities of nitrogen, carbon diox-
ide, or sulfur (usually as H
2
S). Natural gases
containing sulfur or carbon dioxide are apt to be
corrosive. These corrosive substances are usu-
ally eliminated by treatment of the natural gas
before it is transmitted to the customers. Readily
condensable petroleum gases are also usually
extracted before the natural gas is put into the
pipeline to prevent condensation during trans-
mission.
The specific gravity of natural gas varies from
0.55 to 1.0 and the heating value varies from
900 to 1100 Btu/ft
3
(33.9 to 41.5 mJ/m
3
). Natu-
ral gas is nominally rated at 1000 Btu/ft
3
(37.7
J/m
3
), manufactured gas is nominally rated at
520 Btu/ft
3
(20 mJ/m
3
), and mixed gas is nomi-
nally rated at 800 Btu/ft
3
(30.1 mJ/m
3
). Liquefied
petroleum gases (LPG) are nominally rated at
2500 Btu/ft
3
(94.1 mJ/m
3
). Natural gas is trans-
mitted from the fields to the local marketing and
distribution systems at very high pressures, usu-
ally in the range of 500 to 1000 psi (3447.4 to
6894.8 kPa). Local distribution systems are at
much lower pressures. The plumbing engineer
should determine the specific gravity, pressure,
and heating value of the gas from the utility com-
pany or LPG provider serving the project area.
This chapter covers fuel-gas systems on con-
sumers premisesthat is, upstream and
downstream from the gas suppliers meter set
assemblyand includes system design and ap-
pliance gas usage, gas train venting, ventilation,
and combustion air requirements. Since natu-
ral gas is a depletable energy resource, the
engineer should design for its efficient use. The
direct utilization of natural gas is preferable to
the use of electrical energy when electricity is
obtained from the combustion of gas or oil. How-
ever, in many areas, the gas supplier and/or
governmental agencies may impose regulations
that restrict the use of natural gas. Refer to the
chapter Energy Conservation in Plumbing Sys-
tems, in Data Book Volume 1, for information
on appliance efficiencies and energy conserva-
tion recommendations.
Design Considerations
The energy available in 1 cubic foot (cubic meter)
of natural gas, at atmospheric pressure, is called
the heating (or caloric) value. The flow of gas,
expressed in cubic feet per hour (cfh) or cubic
meters per hour (m
3
/h), in the distribution pip-
ing depends on the amount of gas being
consumed by the appliances. This quantity of
gas depends on the requirements of the appli-
ances. For example, 33,200 Btu/h (35 mJ/h) are
required to raise the temperature of 40 gal (151.4
L) of water from 40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C) in 1
hour. This value is obtained as follows:
Equation 7-1
Q = m C
p
T
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 174
where
Q = Energy required, Btu/h (J/h)
m = Mass flow, gal/h (L/h)
C
p
= Specific heat of water, 1 Btu/F (J/C)
T = Temperature rise, F (C)
Q = (40 gal/h)(8.33 lb/gal)(1 Btu/lb-F)(100F) =
33,320 Btu/h
[Q = (151 L/h)(1 kg/L)(6.1 kJ/kg-C)(38C) =
35 MJ/h]
If the water heater in this case is 80% effi-
cient, then 41,650 Btu/h (43.8 mJ/h) of gas will
be needed at the appliances burner (33,320 Btu/
h/.80). If natural gas with a heating value of 1000
Btu/ft
3
(37.7 mJ/m
3
) serves the appliance, the
piping system must supply 41.7 cfh (1.2 m
3
/h)
of gas to the appliance with adequate pressure
to allow proper burner operation. The formula
for the flow rate of gas is shown below:
Equation 7-2
Q =
Output
(Eff HV)
where
Q = Gas flow rate, cfh (m
3
/h)
Output = Appliances output, Btu/h (J/h)
Eff = Appliances efficiency, %
HV = Heating value of the fuel gas,
Btu/ft
3
(J/m
3
)
The difference between the input and the out-
put is the heat lost in the burner, the heat
exchanger, and the flue gases. Water heating and
space heating equipment is usually 75 to 85%
efficient, and ratings are given for both input and
output. Cooking and laundry equipment is usu-
ally 75 to 85% efficient, and ratings are given for
both input and output. However, cooking and
laundry equipment is usually rated only by its
input requirements. When the input required for
the appliance is known, Equation 7-2 is ex-
pressed as follows:
Equation 7-3
Q =
Input
HV
where
Q = Gas flow rate, cfh (m
3
/h)
Input = Appliances input, Btu/h (J/h)
HV = Heating value of the fuel gas,
Btu/ft
3
(J/m
3
)
When the exact data on the appliances gas
usage is unavailable from the equipment manu-
facturer, Table 7-1 can be used to obtain the
approximate requirements for common appli-
ances.
The gas pressure in the piping system down-
stream of the meter is usually 5 to 14 in. (127 to
355.6 mm) of water column (wc). Design prac-
tice limits the pressure losses in the piping to
0.5 in. (12.7 mm) wc, or less than 10%, when 5
to 14 in. (127 to 355.6 mm) wc is available at the
meter outlet. However, local codes may dictate a
more stringent pressure drop maximum; these
should be consulted before the system is sized.
Most appliances require approximately 5 in.
(127mm) wc; however, the designer must be
aware that large appliances, such as boilers, may
require higher gas pressures to operate properly.
Where appliances require higher pressures or
where long distribution lines are involved, it may
be necessary to use higher pressures at the meter
outlet to satisfy the appliance requirements or
provide for greater pressure losses in the piping
system. If greater pressure at the meter outlet
can be attained, a greater pressure drop can be
allowed in the piping system. If the greater pres-
sure drop design can be used, a more economical
piping system is possible. Systems are often de-
signed with meter outlet pressures of 3 to 5 psi
(20.7 to 34.5 kPa) and with pressure regulators
to reduce the pressure for appliances as required.
The designer has to allow for the venting of such
regulators, often to the atmosphere, when they
are installed within buildings.
When bottled gas is used, the tank can have
as much as 150 psi (1044.6 kPa) pressure, to be
reduced to the burner design pressure of 11 in.
(279.4 mm) wc. The regulator is normally located
at the tank for this pressure reduction.
To size the gas piping for a distribution sys-
tem, the designer must determine the following
items:
1. The appliance requirements, including the
gas consumption, pressure, and pipe size re-
quired at the appliance connection (total
connected load). Is the appliance provided
with a pressure regulator?
2. The piping layout, showing the length of (hori-
zontal and vertical) piping, number of fittings
and valves, and number of appliances.
175 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
Table 7-1 Approximate Gas Demand for Common Appliances
a
Appliance Input, Btu/h (mJ/h)
Commercial kitchen equipment
Small broiler 30,000 (31.7)
Large broiler 60,000 (63.3)
Combination broiler and roaster 66,000 (69.6)
Coffee maker, 3-burner 18,000 (19)
Coffee maker, 4-burner 24,000 (25.3)
Deep fat fryer, 45 lb (20.4 kg) of fat 50,000 (52.8)
Deep fat fryer, 75 lb (34.1 kg) of fat 75,000 (79.1)
Doughnut fryer, 200 lb (90.8 kg) of fat 72,000 (76)
2-deck baking and roasting oven 100,000 (105.5)
3-deck baking oven 96,000 (101.3)
Revolving oven, 4 or 5 trays 210,000 (221.6)
Range with hot top and oven 90,000 (95)
Range with hot top 45,000 (47.5)
Range with fry top and oven 100,000 (105.5)
Range with fry top 50,000 (52.8)
Coffee urn, single, 5-gal (18.9 L) 28,000 (29.5)
Coffee urn, twin, 10-gal. (37.9 L) 56,000 (59.1)
Coffee urn, twin, 15-gal (56.8 L) 84,000 (88.6)
Stackable convection oven, per section of oven 60,000 (63.3)
Residential equipment
Clothes dryer (Type I) 35,000 (36.9)
Range 65,000 (68.6)
Stove-top burners (each) 40,000 (42.2)
Oven 25,000 (26.4)
30-gal (113.6-L) water heater 30,000 (31.7)
40 to 50-gal (151.4 to 189.3-L) water heater 50,000 (52.8)
Log lighter 25,000 (26.4)
Barbecue 50,000 (52.8)
Miscellaneous equipment
Commercial log lighter 50,000 (52.8)
Bunsen burner 5,000 (5.3)
Gas engine, per horsepower (745.7 W) 10,000 (10.6)
Steam boiler, per horsepower (745.7 W) 50,000 (52.8)
Commercial clothes dryer (Type 2) See manufacturers data.
a
The values given in this table should be used only when the manufacturers data are not available.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 176
3. The fuel gas to be supplied, where and by
whom; also the specific gravity and heating
value of the fuel gas and the pressure to be
provided at the meter outlet.
4. The allowable pressure loss from the meter
to the appliances.
5. The diversity factorthe number of appli-
ances operating at one time compared to the
total number of connected appliances. This
should be provided by the owner and/or user.
Standard engineering methods may be used
to determine pipe sizes for a system, or the ac-
ceptable capacity/pipe size tables may be used
when such tables are available for the specific
operating conditions of the system under con-
sideration. The diversity factor is an important
item when determining the most practical pipe
sizes to be used in occupancies such as mul-
tiple-family dwellings. It is dependent on the type
and number of gas appliances being installed.
Refer to the pipe sizing section later in this
chapter.
The most common material used for gas pip-
ing is black steel; however, many other materials
are utilized, including copper, wrought iron, plas-
tic, brass, and aluminum alloy. The proper
material to be used depends on the specific
installation conditions and local code limitations.
Any condition that could be detrimental to the
integrity of the piping system must be avoided.
Corrosion and physical damage are the most ob-
vious causes of pipe failure. The piping material
itself and/or the provisions taken for the protec-
tion of the piping material must prevent the
possibility of pipe failure. Corrosion can occur
because of electrolysis or because a corrosive ma-
terial is in contact with either the exterior or the
interior surface of the piping.
Coatings are commonly applied to buried me-
tallic pipe to prevent corrosion of the exterior
surface. The gas supplier should be contacted to
determine if the gas contains any corrosive ma-
terial, such as moisture, hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S),
or carbon dioxide (CO
2
). Due to the grave conse-
quences of leakage in the gas piping system, the
designer must carefully consider the piping ma-
terial to be used and the means to protect the
piping and protect against leaks.
Gas piping should be installed only in safe
locations. Buried piping should be installed deep
enough to protect the pipe from physical dam-
age. When piping is installed in concealed spaces,
care should be taken so that, in the event of gas
leakage, gas will not accumulate in the concealed
space. The installation of gas piping in an
unventilated space under a building should be
avoided. Such conditions have resulted in disas-
trous explosions. A gas leak anywhere along the
length of a buried pipe can flow in the annular
space around the pipe and accumulate in a cavity
under the building. Ignition of this accumulated
gas can result in an explosion. For this reason,
it is best to try to locate the gas main above grade
at the point of entrance into the building. If this
is not feasible, the main can be installed in a
ventilated sleeve (containment pipe). The designer
should carefully detail this installation so that
leaked gas will be harmlessly vented to the at-
mosphere and not accumulated in the building.
Gas piping should be located where it will not be
subject to damage by such things as vehicles,
forklifts, cranes, machinery, or occupants. Sup-
port of piping should be in accordance with codes
and as described in the chapter Hangers and
Supports, in Data Book Volume 4 (forthcoming).
Valves, controls, pressure regulators, and
safety devices used in gas systems should be
designed and approved for such use. Shut-off
valves should be installed in accessible locations
and near each appliance, with a union between
the valve and the appliance. Shut-off valves
should be of the plug or cock type with a lever
handle. Larger sizes should be of the lubricated
plug type. The quarter-turn lever handle provides
visual indication of whether the valve is opened
or closed. An approved assembly of semirigid or
flexible tubing and fittings, referred to as an ap-
pliance connector, is sometimes used to connect
the piping outlet to the appliance. Appliance con-
nectors are rated by capacity, based on a specified
pressure, flow, and pressure drop.
Laboratory Gas
Natural gas or propane gas is used in laborato-
ries at lab benches for Bunsen burners and other
minor users. Typical Bunsen burners consume
either 5000 cfh (141.6 m
3
/h) (small burners) or
10,000 cfh (283.2 m
3
/h) (large burners). The
maximum pressure at the burner should not
exceed 14 in. wc (355.6 mm wc).
The gas distribution piping should be sized
in the manner discussed later in this chapter;
however, the following diversities may be applied:
177 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
Minimum
Flow,
Number of Outlets Use Factor cfh (m
3
/h)
18 100 9 (0.26)
916 90 15 (0.43)
1729 80 24 (0.68)
3079 60 48 (1.36)
80162 50 82 (2.32)
163325 45 107 (3.03)
326742 40 131 (3.71)
7431570 30 260 (7.36)
15712900 25 472 (13.37)
2901 and up 20 726 (20.56)
Branch piping that serves one or two labora-
tories should be sized for 100% usage regardless
of the number of outlets. Use factors should be
modified to suit special conditions and must be
used with judgment after consultation with the
owner and/or user.
Some local codes require that laboratory gas
systems, especially those in schools or universi-
ties, be supplied with emergency gas shut-off
valves on the supply to each laboratory. The valve
should be normally closed and opened only when
the gas is being used. It should be located inside
the laboratory and used in conjunction with shut-
off valves at the benches or equipment, which
may be required by other codes. The designer
should ensure that locations meet local code re-
quirements.
Where compressed air is also supplied to the
laboratory, aluminum check valves should be
provided on the supply to the laboratory to pre-
vent air from being injected back into the gas
system. An alternative to aluminum check valves
is gas turrets with integral check valves.
Gas Train Vents
Guidelines for the use of vents from pressure
regulators, also referred to as gas-train vents,
can be found in the latest editions of NFPA 54
and Factory Mutual (FM) Loss Prevention Data
Sheet 6-4, as well as in other publications of in-
dustry standards, such as those issued by
Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI) and the American
Gas Association (AGA). As a practical matter,
many boiler manufacturers can provide resource
materials, such as gas-train venting schemes,
that reference standards organizations. Factors
that determine which standard to reference are
based upon the input (Btu/h) and the owners
insurance underwriter. The plumbing designer
must be aware of the existence of these stan-
dardsespecially when designing piping for
boilers with input capacities of 2,500,000 Btu/h
(732 kW) or more that are not listed by a nation-
ally recognized testing laboratory agency, e.g.,
equipment that does not bear a UL label or have
Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC)
approval listing.
Industrial-boiler gas trains often require
multiple, piped, gas-train vents to the atmo-
sphere. These are usually in., and the material
used should follow the classification as specified
in NFPA 54 under the heading Gas Piping Sys-
tem Design, Materials, and Components. Where
multiple gas-train vents are indicated, each shall
run independently to the atmosphere. Care must
be exercised in the location of the termination
points of these pipes. Vent pipes should termi-
nate with 90 ells turned down vertically and be
protected with an insect screen over the outlet.
It should be noted that when the pressure
regulators activate they can release large
amounts of fuel gas. It is not uncommon for a
local fire department to be sumoned to investi-
gate an odor of gas caused by a gas-train vent
discharge. Every attempt should be made to lo-
cate the terminal point of the vents above the
line of the roof and away from doors, windows,
and fresh-air intakes. It should also be located
on a side of the building that is not protected
from the wind. Refer to NFPA 54 and local codes
for vent locations.
Appliances
Most manufacturers of gas appliances rate their
equipment by the gas consumption values that
are used to determine the maximum gas flow
rate in the piping. Table 7-1 shows the approxi-
mate gas consumption for some common
appliances.
The products of combustion from an appli-
ance must be safely exhausted to the outside. This
is accomplished with a gas vent system in most
cases. Where an appliance has a very low rate of
gas consumption (e.g., Bunsen burner or counter-
top coffee maker) or where an appliance has an
exhaust system associated with the appliance
(e.g., gas clothes dryer or range), and the room
size and ventilation are adequate, a gas vent sys-
tem may not be required. Current practice usually
dictates the use of factory-fabricated and listed
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 178
vents for small to medium-sized appliances. Large
appliances and equipment may require specially
designed venting or exhaust systems.
For proper operation, the gas vent system
must satisfy the appliance draft and building
safety requirements. To meet these conditions,
consideration of combustion and ventilation air
supplies, draft hood dilution, startup conditions,
flue gas temperatures, oxygen depletion, exter-
nal wind conditions, and pollution dispersion is
required. For example, appliances equipped with
draft hoods need excess vent capacity to draw in
the draft hood dilution air and prevent draft hood
spillage. Inadequate combustion air supply can
cause oxygen depletion and inadequate firing.
This condition can create a safety hazard because
of a combination of draft hood spillage and inad-
equate flue gas removal. The motive force
exhausting flue gases from an appliance can be
gravity (a natural draft due to the difference in
densities between hot flue gases and ambient
air) or mechanical (induced-draft fan or forced-
draft fan). The motive force involved affects the
size and configurations that may safely be ap-
plied to a vent system. The designer is referred
to the chapter on gas vent systems of the local
mechanical or plumbing code and to the data
developed by the manufacturers of gas vents for
sizing information. Due to the fact that many
codes require that appliances conform to an ap-
proved standard, such as the American Gas
Association (AGA), a simple approach to the de-
sign of vent systems can be as follows:
1. The vent system conforms to the manu-
facturers instructions and the terms of the
listing.
2. The gravity vents cannot exceed certain hori-
zontal lengths, must exceed certain minimum
slopes upward to their vertical chimneys, and
cannot terminate less than 5 ft (1.5 m) above
the appliance outlet.
3. The vent size cannot be smaller than the vent
connector collar size of the appliance.
4. The size of a single vent that services more
than one appliance must not be less than
the area of the largest vent connector served
plus 50% of the areas of the additional vent
connectors.
Since vent chimney heights and flue gas tem-
peratures determine the theoretical draft, there
are many situations where the above approach
will produce oversized vent systems. Whatever
approach is used, a great deal of care must be
taken when designing vents that are horizontal.
It is recommended that every system be engi-
neered and checked for compliance with codes.
A conservative design is warranted in light of
the hazards involved.
Combustion air is required for the proper
operation of gas appliances. In addition to the
theoretical amount of air required for combus-
tion, excess air is necessary to assure complete
combustion. Approximately 1 ft
3
(0.03 m
3
) of air
at standard conditions is needed for each 100
Btu (1055 J) of fuel burned. Air is also required
for the dilution of flue gases when draft hoods
are provided. Some additional amount of air is
also needed for ventilation of the equipment
room. This air for combustion, dilution, and ven-
tilation is usually supplied by permanent
openings or ducts connected to the outdoors. Two
openings should be supplied. One opening should
be high (above the draft hood inlet) and the other
opening should be low (below the combustion
air inlet to the appliance). The size of these open-
ings can be determined by standard engineering
methods, based on the air balance in the equip-
ment room and taking into account the energy
(natural draft or mechanical) available to draw
air into the room; however, these must comply
with codes, which usually give more conserva-
tive opening sizes, based on the area of the
opening required per Btu (J) of gas consumed.
Gas Boosters
Definition A gas booster is a mechanical piece
of equipment that increases the pressure of gas
for the purpose of meeting equipment or func-
tional demands. It is used when there is
insufficient pressure available from the gas utility
or LPG storage device to supply the necessary pres-
sure to the equipment at hand. It is important to
note that the gas service must be capable of the
volumetric flow rate required at the boosted level.
A booster cannot overcome an inadequate volu-
metric supply. (See Sizing a Gas Booster below.)
Gas boosters for natural or liquefied petroleum
gas Boosters for natural or utility-supplied gas
are hermetically sealed and are equipped to de-
liver a volumetric flow rate (user defined but within
the boosters rated capacity) to an elevated pres-
sure beyond the supply pressure. The outlet
pressure usually remains at a constant differen-
tial above the supply pressure within a reasonable
range. The discharge pressure is the sum of the
179 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
incoming gas pressure and the booster-added pres-
sure at the chosen flow rate. The incoming gas
pressure usually has an upper safety limit as stipu-
lated by the hermetic gas booster manufacturer.
Therefore, in the engineering literature from the
manufacturer, the engineer may find cautions or
warnings about the upper limits of incoming pres-
sure, usually about 5 psi (34.5 kPa).
Materials of construction
Housing and rotor Boosters used for fuel gas
must be UL listed for the specific duty intended
and shall be hermetically sealed. Casings on
standard boosters are usually constructed of
carbon steel, depending on the equipment sup-
plier. Booster casings are also available in
stainless steel and aluminum. Inlet and outlet
connections are threaded or flanged, depending
on the pipe size connection and the manufac-
turer selected, and the casings are constructed
leak tight. Drive impellers are contained within
the casing and always manufactured of a spark-
resistant material such as aluminum.
Discharge type check valves are furnished on
the booster inlet and on the booster bypass. It is
important that these checks are listed and ap-
proved for use on the gas stream at hand. The
fan, control panel, valves, piping, and interelec-
trical connections can be specified as a
skid-mounted package at the discretion of the
designer. This allows for UL listing of the entire
package rather than of individual components.
Electrical components Motor housings for
gas-booster systems are designed for explosion-
proof (XP) construction and are rated per NEMA
Class 1, Division 1, Group D classification with
thermal overload protection. A factory UL listed
junction box with a protected, sealed inlet is nec-
essary for wiring connections.
Other electrical ancillary equipment Boost-
ers are equipped with low-pressure switches that
monitor the incoming gas pressure. The switch
is designed to shut down the booster should the
utility-supplied pressure fall below a preset limit.
The set point is usually about 3 in. (80 mm) wa-
ter column (wc), but the designer should verify
the limit with the local gas provider. The switch
must be UL listed for use with the gas service at
hand. When the switch opens, it de-energizes
the motor control circuit and simultaneously
outputs both audible and visual signals, which
require manual resetting. The booster can be
equipped with an optional hi/low gas-pressure
switch. This feature equips the booster to run
only when adequate supply pressure is available.
The switch shuts the booster down at the maxi-
mum discharge set-point pressure at the output
line pressure.
Minimum gas flow Gas boosters normally re-
quire a minimum gas flow that serves as an
internal cooling medium. For example, a booster
sized at a flow rate of 10,000 cfh (283.2 m
3
/h)
will have an inherent minimum turndown based
on the minimum flow required to cool the unit.
This rate, in the example, may be, say 2000 cfh
(566.3 m
3
/h) (see Figure 7-2). Should the unit
be required to run below this turndown rate, ad-
ditional supplemental cooling systems must be
incorporated into the booster design. The heat
exchangers normally rated for this use are wa-
ter cooled.
Intrinsic safety Electrical connections are
made through a sealed, explosion-proof conduit
to the XP junction box on the booster unit. Con-
trol panels are rated NEMA 4 for outdoor use
and NEMA 12 for indoor use unless the booster
system is to be located in a hazardous area, which
may have additional requirements. The panel,
as an assembly, must display a UL label specific
for its intended use.
Gas laws
Pressure-volume relationships The gas laws
apply to the relationship of the incoming gas sup-
ply and the boosted service. The standard law for
compressed gas relationships is as follows:
Equation 7-4
PV = RT
where
P = Pressure, psi or in. wc
(kPa or mm wc)
V = Volume, cfh (m
3
/h)
R = Constant for the gas-air mixture
used
T = Temperature, F (C)
Usually the temperature of the gas remains
relatively constant and can therefore be ignored
in the relationship. Therefore, the pressure times
the volume is proportional to a constant R. Fur-
ther, the pressure/volume ratios before and after
the booster are proportional, that is:
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 180
Equation 7-5
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
where
P
1
= Pressure at a point prior to the
booster
P
2
= Pressure at a point after the booster
For almost every case, the volumetric rating
of gas-fired equipment is in Btu/h, which can
readily be converted to cfh. In the booster appli-
cation, sizing criteria should be approached from
a standard cfh (scfh) not an actual cfh (acfh)
rating.
Gas temperatures and density As stated, the
temperature of the gas is usually constant. How-
ever, in the event that the gas is to be heated or
cooled, the above gas laws are affected by tem-
perature. Gas-density changes affect the constant
but usually do not affect the relationship since
the same mixture is boosted across the fan.
High-rise building issues It should be noted
that consideration must be given to the rise ef-
fect in available gas pressure as gas rises in the
piping through a high-rise building. Therefore,
if the gas system supplies a kitchen on the first
level and a boiler in the penthouse of a 50-story
building, it may be necessary to boost the sup-
ply to the kitchen but not to the boiler. The gas
rises to the penthouse through the piping sys-
tem because of the density differential, its rising
is dependent on this stack effect, which is di-
rectly related to the piping system layout.
Design considerations Although a gas booster
is a basic mechanical piece of equipment, there
are significant design considerations that should
be taken into account when applying it:
1. Indoor vs. outdoor location. This may be
driven by local code or the end user. An in-
door location involves a lower initial cost and
lower costs for long-term maintenance. Out-
door locations are inherently safer.
2. Access. The location should be accessible for
installation, inspection, and maintenance. The
unit should not be so accessible as to create a
security issue. Keep the equipment out of
traffic patterns and protect it from heavy equip-
ment.
3. Minimum and maximum flow rates. Boosters
usually have a minumum flow rate that must
be maintained so that the boosters motor is
(A)
181 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
(B)
(C)
Figure 7-1 Variations of a Basic Simplex Booster System: (A) Standby Generator
Application with Accumulator Tank Having a Limitation on Maximum Pressure,
(B) Dual Booster System for Critical Systems Like Those in Hospitals,
(C) Heat Exchanger Loop ExampleRequired for High Flow Range with Low Minimum Flow.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 182
kept cool. When specifying a booster, always
indicate the minimum flow required in addi-
tion to other design parameters. Cooling
devices and bypass loops may be required if
the application requires a turndown in flow
(lowest flow expected) that is higher than the
boosters minimum flow.
4. Controls and interlocking. Determine how the
application should be controlled and what
demands the application will put on the sys-
tem. The control philosophy, method of
electrically interlocking the system to the gas-
fired equipment, and physical hardware will
vary based on the application.
For some specific examples, see the schemat-
ics in Figure 7-1, which shows variations of a
basic simplex booster system for an emergency
generator. In Figure 7-1(A), the regulator con-
trols maximum delivered pressure, and a
combination high/low pressure switch on the
tank cycles the booster to ensure emergency
startup pressure within a design deadband for
the generator. Oversized piping, in this case,
can be substituted for the tank itself. Provide
adequate volume so that the generator can fire
and deliver standby power back to the booster
system to continue operation during main
power interrupt. In Figure 7-1(B), a dual
booster system, the booster is controlled in a
lead/lag control scenario. Should one booster
fail, the second is started automatically. Unit
operation is rotated automatically via the con-
trol panel to share the duty and to keep both
units in operating order. The booster with a
heat-exchanger loop shown in Figure 7-1(C)
has a potential of up to 15 psi (103.4 kPa),
and down to 28 in. wc (711.2 mm wc) supply
pressure. The system automatically diverts gas
around the booster if there is sufficient sup-
ply pressure. While these illustrations
obviously do not cover all the potential appli-
cations, they are provided to give the system
designer some guidance.
Sizing a gas booster A gas boosters main pur-
pose is to elevate the pressure of a volume of gas
to overcome a supply-pressure deficiency. When
sizing a booster, an engineer needs to under-
stand the following terms and issues:
Maximum design flow (Q
max
) The sum of all gas
loads at the maximum capacity rating (MCR) for
all equipment downstream of the booster that could
possibly be required to operate simultaneously.
Minimum design flow (Q
min
) The minimum
volumetric flow that could exist while the booster
is operating. This flow is not always associated
with the smallest Btu/h rated piece of equipment.
For example, when evaluating a 75,000,000 Btu/
h (7.5 mmBtu/h) boiler with a 10:1 turndown ratio
in comparison to 1.0 mmBtu/h (0.3 mmW) hot-
water heater that is on/off in operation, the larger
Btu/h (W) rated boiler has the smaller flow of 0.75
mmBtu/h (0.2 mmW) at its minimum firing rate.
Turndown (TD) ratio The ratio of the MCR in-
put to the equipments minimum or low-fire
input. For example, a 100 mmBtu/h (29.3 mmW)
burner that can fire at a minimum rate of 20
mmBtu/h (5.9 mmW) has a TD ratio of 5:1.
Pressure droop and peak consumption
Pressure droop is the inability of a supply sys-
tem to maintain a steady or consistent inlet
pressure as an increase in volumetric flow is de-
manded. Often, in areas where boosters are
applied, the supply pressure in off-peak months
when gas is not in such demand can be suffi-
cient to run a system. As the local demand for
gas increases, the supply system can no longer
provide the gas efficiently and the pressure falls
off or droops. It is the boosters function to over-
come the droop (or excessive pressure drop) of
the supply system during such times.
Flow rate relationships Do your flows for
separate pieces of equipment relate to each other?
In other words, do the three boilers always oper-
ate in unison while another process machine
always operates off peak and alone? Relation-
ships among the equipment can significantly
affect both maximum and minimum flow rates.
Test block A factor of safety added to design
criteria. Typically, a minimum of 5% added vol-
ume and 10% added static pressure should be
applied to the design criteria. When specifying
the equipment, ensure that you note both the
design and test block conditions. This makes
other people working on the system aware and
ensures that safety factors are not applied to
criteria that already include safety factors.
Minimum inlet pressure (P
I-min
) What is the
minimum supply pressure in in. (mm) wc gage?
This must be evaluated during peak flow de-
mands both for the equipment and for the local
area! Always evaluate during flow, not static, con-
ditions! It is also important to know how high
the inlet pressure is expected to rise during off-
183 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
7. Test block flow (Q
TB
) = (1.05 Q
min
) to (1.05
Q
max
)
8. Test block pressure boost: 1.10 P = P
I-eq
+
P
PL
P
I-min
where
P
PL
= Pressure losses, psi (kPa)
Pipe Sizing
A number of formulae can be used to calculate
the capacity of natural gas piping based on such
variables as delivery pressure, pressure drop
through the piping system, pipe size, pipe mate-
rial, and length of piping. Most of these formulae
are referenced in numerous current model codes,
as well as in the NFPA standards. The most com-
monly referenced formula for gas pressures
under 1 psi (10.3 kPa), the NFPA formula listed
in the National Fuel Gas Code, NFPA 54, was used
as the basis for Tables 7-3 and 7-4. The other
commonly referenced equation, the Weymouth
formula, was used as the basis for Table 7-5 and
Appendix Tables 7-A1 through 7-A6. The
Weymouth formula, referenced within these
tables, is applicable only for initial gas pressures
greater than 1 psi (6.9 kPa). A third formula, the
Spitzglass formula, which is shown in Table 7-
A7, is limited to gas pressures under 1 psi (6.9
kPa).
The design of piping systems for gas flow is a
basic fluid flow problem and its solution is simi-
lar to that for any other pipe sizing problem. The
required flow rate can easily be determined, the
pressure losses due to friction can be calculated,
and the required residual pressure at each ap-
pliance is usually known. Using basic engineering
formulae, the engineer can tabulate the various
quantities, establish the pipe sizes for each sec-
tion of piping, and demonstrate the pressure and
flow rate at any point in the system. The flow of
gas in a pipe with pressures not exceeding 1 psi
(6.9 kPa) is often computed using the Spitzglass
formula, as shown below:
Equation 7-6
Q = 3550 K
h
G SL
Q = 3550 K
Y
h
Z
SL
Q = 3550
a
d
5
h
SL
X
1 +
3.6
+ 0.03d
d
peak periods. A booster is typically rated to about
5 psi (34.5 kPa). It may be possible to exceed
this rating during off-peak demand periods,
therefore, a bypass system or other means of pro-
tection is required. Often this pressure can be
specified by the local gas company as the mini-
mum guaranteed gas pressure from their supply
system. Also, the maximum inlet pressure (P
I-
max
) must be determined.
Maximum outlet pressure (P
O-max)
List all maxi-
mum and required supply pressures for the
various pieces of equipment being supplied gas
from the booster. Determine the differential be-
tween the highest expected gas pressure supply
to the booster (e.g., 8 in. wc [203.2 mm wc]) and
the lowest maximum supply pressure rating to
a piece of equipment (e.g., 18 in. wc [457.2 mm
wc]). The boosters pressure gain should not ex-
ceed this differential (for the above example, 18
8 = 10 in. wc [457.2 203.2 = 254 mm wc])
unless other means of protecting the downstream
equipment are provided.
Outlet pressure protection There are several
ways to protect equipment downstream of a
booster should it be necessary due to potential
over-pressurization during off-peak periods. If all
the equipment being serviced operates at nomi-
nally the same pressure, install a regulator on
the inlet or outlet of the booster to maintain a
controlled maximum outlet pressure. If the equip-
ment being serviced operates at various inlet
pressures, it may be best to supply a regulator
for each piece of equipment. Most often, pack-
aged equipment is supplied with its own
regulator. If this is the case, review the equip-
ment regulators maximum inlet pressure.
To perform an evaluation of system require-
ments:
1. Establish design Q
min
and Q
max
per the above
definitions while evaluating TD requirements.
2. Establish P
I-min
and P
I-max
per the above defi-
nitions.
3. Define maximum inlet pressure requirements
to equipment (P
I-eq
)
.
4. Define piping pressure losses (P
PL
) from gas
booster location to each piece of equipment.
5. Design flow rate (Q
D
) = Q
min
to Q
max
,
cfh (m
3
/h)
6. Design pressure boost (P) = P
I-eq
+ P
PL
P
I-min
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 184
where
Q = The gas at standard conditions, cfh (m
3
/h)
K = Constant for a given pipe size
h = The pressure drop, in. (mm) wc
S = Specific gravity of the gas
L = Length of pipe, ft (m)
The constant for a given pipe size (K) may be
calculated by using the following relation:
Equation 7-7
K =
Y
D
5
Z
1 +
3.6
+ 0.03 D
D
where
K = Constant for a given pipe size
D = Inside diameter of the pipe, in. (mm)
The length used in the above formula should
be corrected to allow for the added resistance to
flow caused by valves and fittings in the piping.
This corrected length is called the equiva-
lent length. Table 7-2 gives the equivalent
lengths for various valve and fitting sizes. The
designer is cautioned to conform to applicable
codes for the project location.
The above method is accurate and gives a
solution that has a definite technical basis. How-
ever, in actual practice, published tables show-
ing the capacities for the various pipe sizes and
lengths give solutions that are quickly and eas-
ily obtained and generally adequate for most situ-
ations. These tables are in many model codes
and in National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) Standard 54. The lengths shown are de-
veloped lengths (lengths measured along the cen-
ter line of the piping plus a fitting allowance).
The pressure drops include an allowance for a
nominal amount of valves and fittings.
To determine the size of each section of pipe
in a gas-supply system using the gas pipe-sizing
tables, the following method should be used:
1. Measure the length of the pipe from the gas
meter location to the most remote outlet on
the system. Add a fitting allowance.
2. Select the column showing that distance (or
the next longer distance, if the table does not
give the exact length).
3. Use the vertical column to locate all gas de-
mand figures for this particular system.
4. Starting at the most remote outlet, find in
the vertical column the selected gas demand
for that outlet. If the exact figure is not
shown, choose the next larger figure below
in the column.
5. Opposite this demand figure, in the first col-
umn at the left, the correct size of pipe will
be found.
Table 7-2 Equivalent Lengths for Various Valve and Fitting Sizes
Pipe Size, in. (mm)
Fitting (19.1) 1 (25.4) 1 (38.1) 2 (50.8) 2 (63.5) 3 (76.2) 4 (101.6) 5 (127) 6 (152.4) 8 (203.2)
Equivalent Lengths, ft (m)
90 elbow 1.00 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.50 6.50 9.00 12.0 15.0
(0.3) (0.61) (0.76) (0.91) (1.22) (1.68) (1.98) (2.74) (3.66) (4.57)
Tee (run) 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 3.50 4.50 6.00 7.00
(0.15) (0.23) (0.3) (0.46) (0.61) (0.91) (1.07) (1.37) (1.83) (2.13)
Tee (branch) 2.50 3.50 4.50 5.00 6.00 11.0 13.0 18.0 24.0 30.0
(0.76) (1.07) (1.37) (1.52) (1.83) (3.35) (3.96) (5.49) (7.32) (9.14)
Gas cock 4.00 5.00 7.50 9.00 12.0 17.0 20.0 28.0 37.0 46.0
(approx.) (1.22) (1.52) (2.29) (2.74) (3.66) (5.18) (6.1) (8.53) (11.28) (14.02)
Note: The pressure drop through valves should be taken from manufacturers published data rather than using the equivalent lengths, since
the various patterns of gas cocks can vary greatly.
185 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
6. Proceed in a similar manner for each outlet
and each section of pipe. For each section of
pipe, determine the total gas demand sup-
plied by that section.
7. To size all branches, other than the branch
to the most remote outlet, measure the length
of pipe from the outlet to the meter and fol-
low steps 1 through 6 above utilizing the new
length.
For conditions other than those covered
above, the size of each gas piping system may be
determined by standard engineering methods ac-
ceptable to the authority having jurisdiction. The
maximum allowable pressure drop through a
system should not exceed 10% of the supply pres-
sure, which must be verified with the locally
referenced code and the authority having juris-
diction.
Where a gas of a different specific gravity is
delivered or where the pressure differs from what
the referenced gas tables in the local code show,
the size of the piping required must be calcu-
lated by means of standard engineering methods
acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction.
As an example, calculate the following pro-
posed systems pipe size (see Figure 7-2):
1. The distance from the gas meter to outlet A
is 600 ft (182.9 m).
2. For sizing the pipe from outlet A to the meter,
use Table 7-3:
Section 1: 400-ft (123-m) length, carry-
ing 150 cfh (1.2 L/s)using the 400-ft
(123 m) column, the size would be 1
in. (31.8 mm).
Section 2: 550-ft (168-m) length, carry-
ing 600 cfh (4.7 L/s)using an
interpolation between the 500-ft (153.8-
m) column and the 750-ft (230.7-m)
column, the size would be 2 in. (63.5
mm).
Section 3: 600-ft (183-m) length, carry-
ing 2400 cfh (18.9 L/s)using an
interpolation between the 500-ft (153.8-
m) column and the 750-ft (230.7-m)
column, the size would be 4 in. (101.6
mm).
3. For sizing Section 4: from Table 7-3 on the
300-ft (91.4-m) column, carrying 450 cfh (3.5
L/s), size would be 2 in. (50.8 mm)
4. For sizing Section 5: from Table 7-3 on the
100-ft (30.5-m) column, carrying 1800 cfh
(14.2 L/s), size would be 2 in. (63.5 mm)
Figure 7-2
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 186
N
F
P
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187 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
N
F
P
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ASPE Data Book Volume 2 188
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191 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
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ASPE Data Book Volume 2 192
Enter chart at left, with cubic feet per hour (liters per second), move horizontally to pipe diameter line, drop perpendicularly to length line and move
horizontally to read pressure drop at right.
Figure 7-3 Pipe Sizing, Low Pressure System with an Initial Pressure Up to 1 psi (6.9 kPa)
Source: Reprinted from data developed by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company.
193 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
Enter chart at left, with cubic feet per hour (liters per second), move horizontally to pipe diameter line, drop perpendicu-
larly to length line and move horizontally to read pressure drop at right.
Figure 7-4 Pipe Sizing, Any System with an Initial Pressure
Between 1 and 20 psi (6.9 and 137.8 kPa)
Source: Reprinted from data developed by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 194
Many codes, including American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) Z223.1 and NFPA 54,
recommend the same procedures detailed above,
except for Step 7. These codes recommend uti-
lizing the same maximum distance column for
all branch lines regardless of the exact distance
from the meter. Steps 3 and 4 of the example
would be, from Table 7-3 on the 750-ft (230.7-
m) column carrying 450 cfh (3.5 L/s) for Section
4 and 1800 cfh (14.2 L/s) for section 5, pipe sizes
of 2 in. (63.5 mm) and 4 in. (91.2 mm), respec-
tively. The designer should investigate the local
code and apply the appropriate sizing procedure.
Therefore, for gas pressures less than 1 psi
(6.895 kPa), use Appendix Table 7-A7 and for
gas pressures less than 1.5 psi (10.3 kPa), use
Tables 7-3 or 7-4. For sizing systems with more
than 1 psi (6.9 kPa) supply pressure, Tables 7-4
and 7-5 and Appendix Tables 7-A1A6 may be
used. For sizing systems with less than 1 psi
(6.9 kPa) pressure, Table 7-A7 may be used. The
use of these tables is similar to that described
for Table 7-3.
Occasionally, it is necessary to size a natu-
ral gas distribution system for pressures other
than the conventional low and medium pressures
already discussed. Figures 7-3 and 7-4 are in-
cluded for such applications. (Proprietary pipe
sizing calculators are available which also solve
the applicable equations.)
Figure 7-3 is for any low-pressure system
with an initial pressure up to 1 psi (6.9 kPa) or
28 in. (711.2 mm) wc, and Figure 7-4 is for any
system with an initial pressure between 1 and
20 psi (6.9 and 137.8 kPa). These graphs can be
used in two ways: one, to determine the pres-
sure drop, and the other, to determine the pipe
size.
Essentially, diversity can only be used to
determine the gas flow rate for a system when
such a system serves laboratories, as previously
discussed, or cooking appliances. Diversity can-
not be applied to water heating or space heating
appliances because these appliances will, at
times, simultaneously demand full capacity gas
flows. For more than 25 years, however, many
codes have recognized that, in multifamily build-
ings, the demand is always less than the total
connected load when gas is used for cooking.
Figures 7-5 and 7-6 indicate the percentage of
the maximum possible demand (diversity) that
can be expected, based on the number of units
in the system.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a refined natu-
ral gas developed mainly for use beyond the
utilities gas mains, but it has proven to be com-
petitive within the areas not covered by mains
in rural areas. It is chiefly a blend of propane
and butane with traces of other hydrocarbons
remaining from the various production methods.
The exact blend is controlled by the LPG dis-
tributor to match the climatic conditions of the
area served. For this reason, the engineer must
confirm the heat value of the supplied gas. Un-
like natural gas, LPG has a specific gravity of
1.53 and a rating of 2500 Btu/cf (93 MJ/cm
3
).
The compact storage for relatively large quan-
tities of energy has led to widespread acceptance
and usage of LPG in all areas previously served
by utilities providing other gas to users, includ-
ing automotive users.
Storage
The LPG storage tanks can be provided by the
vendor or the customer and are subject to the
regulations of the US Department of Transpor-
tation (DOT) and the local authority, as well as
NFPA standards, so the plumbing designer has
little opportunity to design storage tanks and
piping, per se. Normally, the designer starts at
the storage supply outlet, and the piping system
is generally in the low-pressure, 11 in. (279 mm)
wc, range. Piping must be designed so that there
is no more than 2 in. (50 mm) wc pressure drop
at any outlet in the system. Gas pipes may be
sized in accordance with NFPA 54, which is ac-
cepted by most jurisdictions.
Small tanks (for example, those for residen-
tial cooking and heating) are allowed to be located
in close proximity to buildings. Large tanks (e.g.,
for industrial or multiple building use), however,
have strict requirements governing their loca-
tion in relation to buildings, public use areas,
and property lines. If large leaks occur, the
heavier-than-air gas will hug the ground and
form a fog. The potential for a hazardous condi-
tion could exist. Proper safety precautions and
equipment, as well as good judgment, must be
utilized when locating large LPG storage tanks.
Note: The following is only a very brief out-
line and is not intended to be used in lieu of
NFPA 54. The designer must use the current ac-
cepted edition.
195 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
Figure 7-5 Typical Diversity Curves for Gas Supply to High-Rise Apartments
Figure 7-6 Diversity Percentage for Multifamily Buildings (Average)
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 196
Material
Pipe Wrought iron, modular iron, steel (galva-
nized, plastic-wrapped, or black), brass, and
copper. Aluminum alloy pipe may be used if pres-
sure is not in excess of psi (34 kPa). To qualify,
aluminum piping must be factory coated for ex-
ternal, outdoor use. Cast-iron pipe shall not be
used.
Tubing Copper (K&L), steel, and aluminum al-
loy with same restrictions as in pipe. NFPA 54,
Par. 2.6.3.
Plastic pipe and tubing Plastic pipe and tub-
ing may be used outside underground only. NFPA
54, Par. 2.6.4.
Fittings Whenever pipe lines are run, joints and
fittings are involved. Since these are the weak
points in the system where leaks are most likely
to occur, their selection and installation should
be made with care and NFPA recommendations
should be followed. The following listing includes
some of the more important points to be consid-
ered regarding these connections.
Pipe joints For low-pressure piping ( psi [3.45
kPa] or less) with LPG, the following standards
apply:
Metallic pipe joints may be threaded, flanged,
or welded, and nonferrous metallic pipe may also
be soldered or brazed with material having a melt-
ing point in excess of 1000F (537.8C). Corrosion
of the piping must be prevented and the pipe must
not be in contact with plaster, cement, or damp
insulators and may not be used underground.
Brazing alloy must not contain phosphorous.
Metallic fittings (except valves, strainers, or fil-
ters) must be steel, brass, or malleable or ductile
iron when used with steel or wrought-iron pipe,
and must be copper or brass when used with cop-
per or brass pipe. NFPA 54, Par. 2-6-8(a)-(e).
Cast-iron fittings, in pipe sizes normally used
in LPG installations serving domestic and com-
mercial users, may be authorized by the
authority having jurisdiction for either low or
high-pressure piping. (NFPA 54, Par. 2.6.2.) De-
fective fittings for either pipe or tubing should
be replaced and not repaired. It is not good prac-
tice to use second-hand or used fittings unless
they are cleaned, carefully inspected, and de-
termined to be the equivalent of new before being
reused.
Tubing joints For pressures normally encoun-
tered in the utilization of LPG, the following
requirement is applicable to the methods of join-
ing tubing:
Metallic tubing joints must either be made
with approved gas tubing fittings or be soldered
or brazed with a material having a melting point
in excess of 1000F (537.8C). Metallic, ball
sleeve, compression type tubing fittings must not
be used for this purpose. NFPA 54, Par. 2.6.8(b).
Flared fittings are commonly used in connec-
tion with tube working and are generally less
expensive to use than those involving high-tem-
perature soldering. While sleeve type fittings are
used in some appliances, their use in piping sys-
tems is not approved. Flare nuts used out of doors
in areas where freezing temperatures are encoun-
tered should be of a heavier weight than those
used indoors. These are sometimes referred to
as frost proof and are preferable to the lighter
fittings, which are apt to crack and cause a gas
leak.
Flexible Gas Hose
The practice of connecting hot plates and por-
table space heaters with flexible hose is no longer
considered a safe practice. The current require-
ment regarding their use covers both indoor and
outdoor applications:
Indoor Indoor gas hose connectors may be used
with laboratory shop or ironing equipment that
requires mobility during operation, if listed for
this application. A shut-off valve must be in-
stalled where the connector is attached to the
building piping. The connector must be of mini-
mum length but shall not exceed 6 ft (1.8 m).
The connector must not be concealed and must
not extend from one room to another nor pass
through wall partitions, ceilings, or floors.
Outdoor Outdoor gas hose connectors may be
used to connect portable outdoor gas-fired
appliances, if listed for this application. A shut-
off valve or a listed quick-disconnect device must
be installed where the connector is attached to
the supply piping and in such a manner as to
prevent the accumulation of water or foreign
matter. This connection must be made only in
the outdoor area where the appliance is to be
used. NFPA 54, Par. 5.5.2
197 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
Warning
The fact that LPG vapors are heavier than air
has a practical bearing on several items. For one
thing, LPG systems are located in such a man-
ner that the hazard of escaping gas is kept at a
minimum.
Since the heavier-than-air gas tends to settle
in low places, the vent termination of relief valves
must be located at a safe distance from open-
ings into buildings that are below the level of
such valves. With many gas systems, for ex-
ample, both the gas pressure regulator and the
fuel containers are installed adjacently to the
building they serve. This distance must be a least
3 ft (0.91 m) measured horizontally. However,
the required clearances vary according to the
tank size and the adjacent activities. The designer
should refer to the local code and NFPA 54 for
these clearances.
The slope of flash tubes used in connection
with lighting devices is determined by the spe-
cific gravity of the gas. With propane, for example,
the tubes are slanted downward from the burner
to the ignition source as the heavier-than-air gas
tends to flow downward when released. Auto-
matic appliances are normally equipped with
safety pilots, which shut off the flow of gas in
the event of pilot failure. With lighter-than-air
gases, the automatic shut-off valve usually cuts
off the gas to the main burner only, leaving the
pilot burner unprotected. The small amount of
gas that is released is discharged through the
vent or otherwise dissipated. With LPG, however,
gas escaping from the pilot would tend to collect
in a low place and be a hazard. For this reason,
LPG appliances are normally equipped with 100%
safety pilots, which shut off the gas to both the
main burner and the pilot in the event of pilot
failure.
When LPG piping is installed in crawl spaces
or in pipe tunnels, the engineer may consider a
sniffer system, which automatically shuts down
the gas supply, sounds an alarm, and activates
an exhaust system to purge the escaping gas from
the area.
Leak Test
Prior to charging the new piping with LPG, a
satisfactory leak test must be conducted. The
designer should refer to the applicable local code
and NFPA 54 for test requirements.
APPENDIX A
The following gas pipe sizing tables (Tables 7-A1
through 7-A7) are for varying gas pressures in
both inch-pound (IP) and international standard
(SI) units.
These tables are based on the use of sched-
ule 40 black steel pipe with threaded joints.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 198
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199 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
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4
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.
ASPE Data Book Volume 2 200
W
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m
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F
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m
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a
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Q
=
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4
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203 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
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205 Chapter 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
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ASPE Data Book Volume 2 206
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