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LiDAR Mapping
abstract
This white paper on LiDAR mapping provides the reader with an introduction to a maturing technology used to acquire land based Digital Elevation Models (DEM), and an existing mature technology used to acquire marine (undersea) DEMs. Common to both the land-based and marinebased systems is the use of lasers, integrated into what are known as LIght Detection And Ranging systems, or LiDAR. The paper begins with an introduction to LiDAR, and follows-through with how the systems are used, a description of land and marine variants, and statements as to what accuracy is attainable. Data products driven by applications are outlined, and the ability of these products to be integrated into a GIS is addressed. In turn and integral to the theme of the paper, evidence is presented to support applications developments that will ultimately benefit the public at large. Where valid, comparisons of LiDAR to other mapping technologies are presented to give the reader an understanding of current traditional practices. In many cases the combination of LiDAR with other technology creates a result that is unachievable with a single methodology. Finally, conclusions are presented for discussion purposes that draw on the experiences of LiDAR practitioners and clients, as well as those of Terrapoint.
LiDAR
is an enabling technology is an enhancing technology has revolutionized the surveying and mapping world has empowered clients saves clients money offers flexibility is unobtrusive and environmentally friendly
what is LiDAR?
Contents:
hydrographic LiDAR vs. topographic LiDAR LiDAR acquisition platforms expected accuracies LiDAR data products & GIS applications examples SHOALS-specific applications conclusions references 2 3 3 4 5 8 8 9 On a functional level, LiDAR is typically defined as the integration of three technologies into a single system capable of acquiring data to produce accurate digital elevation models (DEMs). These technologies are lasers, the Global Positioning System (GPS), and inertial navigation systems (INS). Combined, they allow the positioning of the footprint of a laser beam as it hits an object, to a high degree of accuracy. Lasers themselves are very accurate in their ranging capabilities, and can provide distances accurate to a few centimeters. The accuracy limitations of LiDAR systems are due primarily to the GPS and IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) components. As advancements in commercially available GPS and IMUs occur, it is becoming possible to obtain a high degree of accuracy using LiDAR from moving platforms such as aircraft.
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Multiple returns.
A LiDAR system combines a single narrow-beam laser with a receiver system. The laser produces an optical pulse that is transmitted, reflected off an object, and returned to the receiver. The receiver accurately measures the travel time of the pulse from its start to its return. With the pulse travelling at the speed of light, the receiver senses the return pulse before the next pulse is sent out. Since the speed of light is known, the travel time can be converted to a range measurement. Combining the laser range, laser scan angle, laser position from GPS, and laser orientation from INS, accurate x, y, z ground coordinates can be calculated for each laser pulse. Laser emission rates can be anywhere from a few pulses per second to tens of thousands of pulses per second. Thus, large volumes of points are collected. For example, a laser emitting pulses at 10,000 times per second will record 600,000 points every minute. Typical raw laser point spacing on the ground ranges from 2 to 4 meters. Some LiDAR systems can record multiple returns from the same pulse. In such systems the beam may hit leaves at the top of tree canopy, while part of the beam travels further and may hit more leaves or branches. Some of the beam is then likely to hit the ground and be reflected back, ending up with a set of recorded multiple
returns each having an x, y, z position. This feature can be advantageous when the application calls for elevations for not only the ground, but for tree or building heights. As surface types and characteristics vary and change the laser beams reflectivity, then the ability of the LiDAR to record the return signals changes. For example, a laser used for topographic applications will not penetrate water, and in fact records very little data even for the surface of the body of water. Where the application calls for a laser to penetrate water to determine x, y, z positions of undersea features, then a slightly different variation of LiDAR technology is used.
SHOALS has been described as one of the most versatile hydrographic LiDAR systems in use in the world today.
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expected accuracies
There are many factors that affect the accuracy attainable by a LiDAR system. The system components (i.e., GPS, IMU, and laser) all have inherent accuracy limitations, which for the most part are understood and can be predicted. Other factors affecting end product accuracy arise from flight planning and flying conditions, atmospheric effects, terrain undulation and vegetation cover. Experienced LiDAR practitioners are careful to assess all these factors when planning and executing projects. It is also important that contracting agencies establish a quality control plan with contractors to include sufficient ground survey checks (ground truthing) to validate data in representative regions of a project area. Given that it is possible to ascertain the errors associated with the GPS, IMU and laser, the resultant accuracy of LiDAR points (x, y, z) is best described as a function of terrain type and vegetation cover. For any given point accuracy achieved, and where the density of points (laser point spacing) is sufficient, the accuracy of the resultant DEM should be a reflection of the point accuracy. In terms of varying terrain and vegetation, the following point accuracy is achievable. Note that all accuracy statements are quoted at the 95% confidence level (2 sigma). Typical Absolute Vertical Accuracy: +/- 0.15 meters on Hard Surfaces and Open Regular Terrain +/- 0.25 meters on Soft/Vegetated Surfaces (flat to rolling terrain) +/- 0.30 to 0.50 meters on Soft/Vegetated Surfaces (hilly terrain)
Typical Absolute Horizontal Accuracy: +/- 0.50 to 0.75 meters on all but extremely hilly terrain (depends on flying height and beam divergence)
The accuracy of LiDAR points is best described as a function of terrain type and vegetation cover.
In areas of extremely dense vegetation, such as second growth forests and/or tropical rain forests, the percentage of laser points that penetrate to the ground decreases, and this affects the accuracy of the resultant DEM. Careful survey practices are required to ensure that a reliable DEM is generated under these conditions. Typical Absolute Vertical Accuracy: +/- 0.15 meters (Depending on turbidity of the water) Typical fixed-wing LiDAR installation.
Although not as easy to ground truth as topographic LiDAR, it is possible to deploy undersea reflectors from which the blue-green LiDAR wavelength is returned. These reflectors are also used to ascertain the turbidity of the water, by varying the depth of the reflector and analyzing the return signal.
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Programs such as AutoCad, ArcView, and ERDAS have the capability to import and export LiDAR data
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applications examples
flood risk mapping
LiDAR surveys are one of the quickest and most accurate methods to produce a DEM. Using the LiDAR derived DEM, hydrologists are able to predict flood extents and plan mitigation and remediation strategies. The reliability of flood risk mapping and hydrological models is dependent on the accuracy of the terrain elevation data used. This is especially true for modeling in areas of little terrain relief. For example, in a flat river basin such as the Red River in Manitoba and North Dakota, a slight increase in water level can flood a large area. This may mean that many communities would be affected by a rise in water level. In areas with more relief, the accuracy of the DEM is not as critical, but knowledge of slope and aspect can aid considerably in predicting water volumes and flow characteristics. The following is an excerpt from the IJCs final report Living with the Red, and is based on the results of LiDAR surveys done in the region: The Task Force found that current mapping of high risk areas was not adequate for modeling and analysis of flood risk, or for the consideration of flood protection options. Among other things, the Task Force produced high-resolution digital elevation data for the lower Pembina River and for the area south of the Winnipeg Floodway, and analyzed data collection technologies. Through these efforts, the Task Force found that airborne laser mapping can be a fast, reliable, and costeffective method of obtaining three-dimensional data suitable for the creation of a digital elevation models (DEM).
engineering/construction surveys
LiDAR surveys are well suited for producing accurate elevation data for engineering surveys of road and other construction projects. Using DEMs created from LiDAR, cut and fill quantities can be more precisely estimated during planning stages when compared to ground survey or photogrammetric techniques. The DEM can also be used in conjunction with GIS and CAD software to enable planners and engineers to model various scenarios in choosing the best route or location for future construction. As-built surveys can be used as a stand-alone record of construction, or as a comparison with the pre-construction survey to validate initial quantity estimates. Combining a LiDAR DEM with orthophotos can provide an engineering design team with all the topographic and planimetric information they need. Using LiDAR survey technology, the time between data acquisition and delivery of the finished DEM/Orthophoto product to the client can be far shorter than any other survey methodology, an important consideration for time sensitive projects. Throughout North America, various DOTs have carried out LiDAR surveys of new and existing road corridors over the past several years. In areas around the world, LiDAR surveys would aid considerably in constructing and/or improving primary and secondary roadways.
Highway engineering.
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forestry
One of the first areas investigated for commercial application of LiDAR was the forest industry. Accurate information of the terrain and topography beneath the tree canopy is extremely important to both foresters and natural resource managers. Accurate information on tree heights and densities is critical information that is difficult to obtain using conventional techniques. Airborne laser technology, unlike radar or satellite imaging, can simultaneously map the ground beneath the tree canopy as well as the tree heights. Post-processing of the data allows the individual laser returns to be analysed and classified as vegetation or ground returns, allowing for both a ground DEM and a tree canopy model. Using applicationspecific software it is possible to compute information related to the forest industry such as; tree heights, crown cover and biomass. Consequently, airborne laser mapping is an extremely effective tool for forestry companies especially when compared to traditional tools such as photogrammetry or ground surveys. There is still much work to do in developing reliable and robust modelling software for the forest industry, and this is an area where university research is playing a role. Forest layer vs. ground layer.
urban modeling
Accurate digital models of urban environments are required for a variety of applications including telecommunications, wireless communications, law enforcement and disaster planning. Using the proper operational parameters, LiDAR offers the ability to accurately map urban environments without shadowing. Detailed Surface Elevation Models (SEMs) can be extracted from the LiDAR data, and enhanced for applied analysis using specialized 3-D rendering software.
One of the first areas investigated for commercial application of LiDAR was the forest industry.
other applications
Miscellaneous other applications of LiDAR include the following: Property assessment, where county-wide mapping programs are being supported by LiDAR; Airport Exclusion zones, where landing and takeoff zones are mapped with LiDAR to detect obstructions that rise above regulatory height restrictions; Rectification of Satellite Imagery, where LiDAR is used to provide the DEM to complete the satellite image rectification process.
Urban modelling.
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SHOALS-specific applications
While most of the preceding applications have been directed at topographic LiDAR systems, there are several key applications that can only be conducted with a hydrographic LiDAR.
wreck detection
SHOALS 3-D contour data Several projects have been conducted using LiDAR to detect underwater shipwrecks, especially in shallower waters. With the ability of LiDAR to operate in these depths of water, and given the accuracy of the system, it has been shown that the technology is a viable way to detect and identify sunken ships.
conclusions
LiDAR mapping is a maturing technology, and applications are still being identified and developed as end-users begin to work with the data. There are on-going initiatives to identify areas where the technology allows value-added products to be generated or where it offers significant cost reductions over traditional survey methods. There are a number of conclusions to be drawn from the information presented herein. These deal with LiDAR technology itself, the impact of the technology on the survey and mapping industry, and the societal and economic benefits that accrue through its use. They have been presented below in point form, in no particular order. 1. Electronic chart with shipping channel. LiDAR is an enabling technology. Primarily, it has allowed data to be collected that was difficult or impossible to obtain prior to its introduction. This is especially true in the forest industry and utility corridor arena, where it has been very difficult and expensive to get elevation models using ground-based GPS, conventional survey and/or photogrammetric techniques. 2. LiDAR is an enhancing technology. For applications where a more precise DEM is required, such as engineering and road design and flood plain mapping, LiDAR is able to provide much more information than can be acquired by virtually any other means at least within economic reason. LiDAR has revolutionized the survey and mapping world. In practical terms, hydrographic LiDAR has been a viable survey tool since the early 1980s. With the advent of a full constellation of GPS in the early 1990s, hydrographic LiDAR has taken a giant leap forward in being able to provide accurate data for difficult survey operations. Topographic LiDAR has evolved from a relative physics experiment to a useable and reliable survey tool, all since the mid 1990s. Now that the technological chasm is virtually crossed, and more people are buying into LiDAR,
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the survey and mapping industry is racing to meet the demand for services. This includes the industrys ability to properly acquire, process and quality control the data. 4. LiDAR has empowered clients. The speed with which data can be collected, and the relative speed at which it can be processed compared to any other technology, has given clients the power to demand products more quickly. In many cases, time saved on surveying and mapping translates into huge downstream economic gains. LiDAR saves clients money. For many projects, especially those where DEMs are required for heavily vegetated areas, LiDAR can greatly reduce survey time and effort. This translates directly into cost savings for clients. LiDAR offers flexibility. Although it can be said of data collected via other methods, data collected by LiDAR is extremely versatile. It can be used for anything from power line detection to DEM generation in a second growth forest. This is due to the tremendous point density achieved from LiDAR, its accuracy, and its ability to penetrate to the ground through foliage in vegetated areas. LiDAR is unobtrusive and environmentally friendly. Unlike ground survey techniques, airborne LiDAR can be flown over areas where access is limited, impossible, or undesirable. Apart from the need to validate the
LiDAR with ground truthing, it is not necessary to send pervasive ground crews to conduct intense survey operations. LiDAR surveying can also avoid unnecessary tree cutting and other practices that can harm the environment. In conclusion, it is hoped that this paper will have provided an insight into the possibilities of LiDAR, and will elicit discussion regarding the use of LiDAR to conduct mapping projects. Given the versatility of the technology, and its maturation, it seems logical that any strategic plan or project should at least consider its use. If required, more information can be obtained by contacting TerraPoint.
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references
1. Berg. R., and Ferguson. J. Airborne Laser Mapping for Highway Engineering Applications ASPRS AGM 2001, St. Louis MS, April, 2001. Ferguson J. Vegetation Identification and Classification Using LiDAR data ASPRS/ ACSM Rhode Island Workshops, Providence Rhode Island, December 2000. Ferguson J. Draft LiDAR Guidelines, ASPRS LiDAR Committee Presentation International LiDAR Mapping Forum, Denver Colorado, February 2001. Fowler R. Using LiDAR for Flood Mapping ASPRS AGM 2000, Washington DC., May 2000. Optech WebSite www.optech.on.ca Mosaic Mapping Systems Inc. Internal documentation LaRoque, P.E., West, G.R. - Airborne Laser Hydrography: An Introduction Proceedings, ROPME/PERSGA/IHB Workshop on Hydrographic Activities in the ROPME Sea Area and Red Sea, Kuwait City, October 1999. Smith, R.A., West, G.R. Airborne LiDAR: A Surveying Tool for the New Millennium Proceedings, Oceans 99 MTS/IEEE, Seattle Washington, September 1999. 9. SHOALS WebSite - http://shoals.sam.usace. army.mil/
In many cases, time saved on surveying and mapping translates into huge downstream economic gains.
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10. Renslow, Michael, - Utilization/Integration of LiDAR in Mapping and GIS Programs ASPRS/ ACSM Rhode Island Workshops, Providence Rhode Island, December 2000.
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Downtown Houston.
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With offices in Houston, Ottawa, and Calgary, Terrapoint has over 18 years of experience delivering high quality airborne and groundbased mapping products to a diverse international customer base.
Terrapoint owns and operates a total of 7LiDAR systems (three lowaltitude helicopter mount ALMIS-350 systems, and four highaltitude fixed wing ALTMS systems) thus making thecompany one of the worlds largest providers of high quality LiDAR mapping services. With the advent of our newest LiDAR innovation the ground-based TITAN system we are able to offer high-altitude, and ground-based LiDAR mapping services.
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