TRANSPORTASI FLUIDA

Dr. Ir. Ahmad Rifandi, M.Sc. Cert. IV

Teknik Kimia - POLBAN

PENGERTIAN-PENGERTIAN DASAR

Properties of Fluids
A fluid is any substance which flows because its particles are not rigidly attached to one another. This includes liquids, gases and even some materials which are normally considered solids, such as glass. Essentially, fluids are materials which have no repeating crystalline structure.
Buoyancy is defined as the tendency of a body to float or rise when submerged in a fluid. We all have had numerous opportunities of observing the buoyant effects of a liquid. When we go swimming, our bodies are held up almost entirely by the water.
Compressibility is the measure of the change in volume a substance undergoes when a pressure is exerted on the substance. Liquids are generally considered to be incompressible. For instance, a pressure of 16,400 psig will cause a given volume of water to decrease by only 5% from its volume at atmospheric pressure. Gases on the other hand, are very compressible. The volume of a gas can be readily changed by exerting an external pressure on the gas

PENGERTIAN-PENGERTIAN DASAR

Relationship Between Depth and Pressure Anyone who dives under the surface of the water notices that the pressure on his eardrums at a depth of even a few feet is noticeably greater than atmospheric pressure. Careful measurements show that the pressure of a liquid is directly proportional to the depth, and for a given depth the liquid exerts the same pressure in all directions As shown in Figure 1 the pressure at different levels in the tank varies and this causes the fluid to leave the tank at varying velocities. Pressure was defined to be force per unit area. In the case of this tank, the force is due to the weight of the water above the point where the pressure is being determined

PENGERTIAN-PENGERTIAN DASAR

PENGERTIAN-PENGERTIAN DASAR CONTINUITY EQUATION

PENGERTIAN-PENGERTIAN DASAR Volumetric Flow Rate The volumetric flow rate ( V ) of a system is a measure of the volume of luid passing a point in the system per unit time. The volumetric flow rate can be calculated as the product of the rcosssectional area (A) for flow and the average flow velocity (v).

Example:

A pipe with an inner diameter of 4 inches contains water that flows at an average velocity of 14 feet per second. Calculate the volumetric flow rate of water in the pipe.

Solution:

Use Equation 3-1 and substitute for the area.

PENGERTIAN-PENGERTIAN DASAR Mass Flow Rate The mass flow rate (m ) of a system is a measure of the mass of fluid passing a point in the system per unit time. The mass flow rate is related to the volumetric flow rate as shown in Equation 3-2 where r is the density of the fluid.

Example:

The water in the pipe of the previous example had a density of 62.44 lbm/ft3. Calculate the mass flow rate

Solution:

Conservation of Mass
In thermodynamics, energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only changed in form. The same is true for mass. Conservation of mass is a principle of engineering that states that all mass flow rates into a control volume are equal to all mass flow rates out of the control volume plus the rate of change of mass within the control volume

CONTINUITY EQUATION

Example:
The inlet diameter of the reactor coolant pump shown in Figure 3 is 28 in. while the outlet flow through the pump is 9200 lbm/sec. The density of the water is 49 lbm/ft3. What is the velocity at the pump inlet? Solution:

Example:

A piping system has a "Y" configuration for separating the flow as shown in Figure 4. The diameter of the inlet leg is 12 in., and the diameters of the outlet legs are 8 and 10 in. The velocity in the 10 in. leg is 10 ft/sec. The flow through the main portion is 500 lbm/sec. The density of water is 62.4 lbm/ft3. What is the velocity out of the 8 in. pipe section?

Flow Regimes
All fluid flow is classified into one of two broad categories or regimes. These two flow regimes are laminar flow and turbulent flow. Flow Velocity Profiles Not all fluid particles travel at the same velocity within a pipe. The shape of the velocity curve (the velocity profile across any given section of the pipe) depends upon whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.

For practical purposes, if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar. If it is greater than 3500, the flow is turbulent. Flows with Reynolds numbers between 2000 and 3500 are sometimes referred to as transitional flows

Ideal Fluid An ideal fluid is one that is incompressible and has no viscosity. Ideal fluids do not actually exist, but sometimes it is useful to consider what would happen to an ideal fluid in a particular fluid flow problem in order to simplify the problem. Reynolds Number The flow regime (either laminar or turbulent) is determined by evaluating the Reynolds number of the flow (refer to figure 5). The Reynolds number, based on studies of Osborn Reynolds, is a dimensionless number comprised of the physical characteristics of the flow. Equation 3-7 is used to calculate the Reynolds number (NR) for fluid flow.

General Energy Equation

The conservation of energy principle states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. This is equivalent to the First Law of Thermodynamics, which was used to develop the general energy equation in the module on thermodynamics. Equation 3-8 is a statement of the general energy equation for an open system.

Persamaan Bernoulli Sederhana Bernoullis equation results from the application of the general energy equation and the first law of thermodynamics to a steady flow system in which no work is done on or by the fluid, no heat is transferred to or from the fluid, and no change occurs in the internal energy (i.e., no temperature change) of the fluid. Under these conditions, the general energy equation is simplified to Equation 3-9.

Persamaan Bernoulli Sederhana lanjutan Energi dalam sistem tertutup terdiri atas:

pressure, motion, dan position

position

motion

pressure

Apabila motion diubah tetapi position tidak berubah maka pressure akan berubah tetapi jumlah energi dalam sistem tetap tidak berubah. Contoh: apabila kita menekan ujung selang plastik ketika kita menyiram kebun maka tekanan air akan berubah dan air akan memancar lebih kuat dari ujung selang karet.

Multiplying all terms in Equation 3-10 by the factor gc/mg results in the form of Bernoullis equation shown by Equation 3 -11

The Bernoulli equation can be modified to take into account gains and losses of head. The resulting equation, referred to as the Extended Bernoulli equation, is very useful in solving most fluid flow problems

Contoh Soal Water is pumped from a large reservoir to a point 65 feet higher than the reservoir. How many feet of head must be added by the pump if 8000 lbm/hr flows through a 6-inch pipe and the frictional head loss is 2 feet? The density of the fluid is 62.4 lbm/ft3, and the cross-sectional area of a 6-inch pipe is 0.2006 ft2. Penyelesaian To use the modified form of Bernoullis equation, reference points are chosen at the surface of the reservoir (point 1) and at the outlet of the pipe (point 2). The pressure at the surface of the reservoir is the same as the pressure at the exit of the pipe, i.e., atmospheric pressure. The velocity at point 1 will be essentially zero. Using the equation for the mass flow rate to determine the velocity at point 2:

Now we can use the Extended Bernoulli equation to determine the required pump head.

Head Losses
The head loss that occurs in pipes is dependent on the flow velocity, pipe length and diameter, and a friction factor based on the roughness of the pipe and the Reynolds number of the flow. The head loss that occurs in the components of a flow path can be correlated to a piping length that would cause an equivalent head loss. Head loss is a measure of the reduction in the total head (sum of elevation head, velocity head and pressure head) of the fluid as it moves through a fluid system

Frictional loss is that part of the total head loss that occurs as the fluid flows through straight pipes. The head loss for fluid flow is directly proportional to the length of pipe, the square of the fluid velocity, and a term accounting for fluid friction called the friction factor. The head loss is inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe.

Friction Factor
The friction factor has been determined to depend on the Reynolds number for the flow and the degree of roughness of the pipes inner surface The quantity used to measure the roughness of the pipe is called the relative roughness, which equals the average height of surface irregularities (e) divided by the pipe diameter (D). The value of the friction factor is usually obtained from the Moody Chart (Figure B-1 of Appendix B). The Moody Chart can be used to determine the friction factor based on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness. Contoh Soal Determine the friction factor (f) for fluid flow in a pipe that has a Reynolds number of 40,000 and a relative roughness of 0.01 Penyelesaian Using the Moody Chart, a Reynolds number of 40,000 intersects the curve corresponding to a relative roughness of 0.01 at a friction factor of 0.04.

Moody Chart

Moody Chart

Persamaan Darcy
The frictional head loss can be calculated using a mathematical relationship that is known as Darcys equation for head loss. The equation takes two distinct forms. The first form of Darcys equation determines the losses in the system associated with the length of the pipe.

Contoh Soal

A pipe 100 feet long and 20 inches in diameter contains water at 200 F flowing at a mass flow rate of 700 lbm/sec. The water has a density of 60 lbm/ft3 and a viscosity of 1.978 x 10-7 lbf-sec/ft2. The relative roughness of the pipe is 0.00008. Calculate the head loss for the pipe.

Penyelesaian The sequence of steps necessary to solve this problem is first to determine the flow velocity. Second, using the flow velocity and the fluid properties given, calculate the Reynolds number. Third, determine the friction factor from the Reynolds number and the relative roughness. Finally, use Darcys equation to determine the head loss.

Use the Moody Chart for a Reynolds number of 8.4 x 107 and a relative roughness of 0.00008.

Minor Losses
The losses that occur in pipelines due to bends, elbows, joints, valves, etc. are sometimes called minor losses.

Equivalent Length
Minor losses may be expressed in terms of the equivalent length (Leq) of pipe that would have the same head loss for the same discharge flow rate. This relationship can be found by setting the two forms of Darcys equation equal to each other This yields two relationships that are useful

Contoh Soal
A fully-open gate valve is in a pipe with a diameter of 10 inches. What equivalent length of pipe would cause the same head loss as the gate valve

Penyelesaian From Table 1, we find that the value of Leq/D for a fully-open gate valve is 10.
Leq = (L/D) D = 10 (10 inches) = 100 inches

PUMPING SYSTEM

The main elements of a pumping system are:

Supply side (suction or inlet side) Pump (with a driver) Delivery side (discharge or process) Energy input = Energy useful + Losses Efficiency = Energy useful /Energy input

Losses = Mechanical
bearings coupling Rubbing

Volumetric
leakage (slip)

Hydraulic
friction entrance/exit vortices separation disc friction

PUMPING SYSTEM

Work equals force multipled by distance

For a steady motion, the force is balanced by the pressure p, acting on area, A:

W = (p A) L = p (A L) = p V INPUT POWER, LOSSES, AND EFFICIENCY

Work per unit of time equals power. So, dividing both sides of the equation by t, we get:

Q is the volume per unit of time, which in pump language is called flow, capacity, or delivery.

INPUT POWER, LOSSES, AND EFFICIENCY Ideal Power = Fluid Horsepower = FHP = p Q constant

since all power goes to fluid horsepower, in the ideal world

Pressure is measured in psi , and flow in gpm, (US units)

INPUT POWER, LOSSES, AND EFFICIENCY

Untuk pompa sentrifugal pressure biasanya diekspresikan dengan feet of head

PUMP SELECTION

Contoh Soal
Hitung ukuran pipa dan spesifikasi pompa yang diperlukan untuk memompa cairan orthodichlorobenzene (ODBC) dengan kecepatan aliran 10.000 kg/j, suhu 20 oC dan jenis pipa carbon steel (density ODBC = 1306 kg/m3 dan viscosity = 0,9 cp 2m

20 m

C 203 2 bar

C 201 1 bar
LC

3,0 m

3,5 m

HE 205

2,5 m

0,5 m

1,0 m

1m
4m

7,5 m

Two storage tanks, A and B, containing a petroleum product, discharge rough pipes each 0.3 m in diameter and 1.5 km long to a junction at D, as shown in Figure 3.9. From D the liquid is passed through a 0.5 m diameter pipe to a third storage tank C, 0.75 km away. The surface of the liquid in A is nitially 10 m above that in C and the liquid level in B is 6 rn higher than that in A. Calculate the initial rate of discharge of liquid into tank C assuming the ipes are of mild steel. The density and viscosity of the liquid are 870 kg/m3 and 0.7 mN s/m2 respectively.

Because the pipes are long, the kinetic energy of the fluid and minor losses at the entry to the pipes may be neglected. It may be assumed, as a first approximation, that R/pu2 is the same in each pipe and that the velocities in pipes AD, BD, and DC are MI , 2. and uj espectively, if the pressure at D is taken as PD and point D is id m above the datum for the calculation of potential energy, the liquid level in C. Then applying the energy balance equation between D and the liquid level in each of the tanks gives:

Contoh Soal
Hitung ukuran pipa dan spesifikasi pompa yang diperlukan untuk memompa cairan orthodichlorobenzene (ODBC) dengan kecepatan aliran 10.000 kg/j, suhu 20 oC dan jenis pipa carbon steel (density ODBC = 1306 kg/m3 dan viscosity = 0,9 cp

Penyelesaian

Penyelesaian

Penyelesaian

Penyelesaian

P = 65,27 psi, Q = 32,93 gpm; BHP = 2,09 PK= 1,5 kVA

Penyelesaian

Penyelesaian

Penyelesaian

Penyelesaian

Penyelesaian

SYSTEM CURVE From the discussion above, we have established that flow and pressure are the two main parameters for a given application. Other parameters, such as pump speed, fluid viscosity, specific gravity, and so on, will have an effect on flow and/or pressure, by modifying the hydraulics of a pumping system in which a given pump operates. A mechanism of such changes can be traced directly to one of the components of losses, namely the hydraulic losses. Essentially, any flow restriction requires a pressure gradient to overcome it. These restrictions are valves, orifices, turns, and pipe friction. From the fundamentals of hydraulics based on the Bernoulli equation, a pressure drop (i.e., hydraulic loss) is proportional to velocity head:

For the flow of liquid through a duct (such as pipe), the velocity is equal to:

which means that pressure loss is proportional to the square of flow:

SYSTEM CURVE

Essentially, any flow restriction requires a pressure gradient to overcome it. These restrictions are valves, orifices, turns, and pipe friction.

Hydraulic losses, as a function of flow.

PUMP CURVE

A pump curve shows a relationship between its two main parameters: flow and pressure The shape of this curve (see Figure) depends on the particular pump type.

Pump curves, relating pressure and flow. The slope of the centrifugal pump curve is mostly flat or horizontal; the slope of the PD-pump is almost a vertical line.

PUMP CURVE

Therefore, the pump operating point is an intersection of the pump curve and a system curve (see Figure 6). In addition to friction, a pump must also overcome the elevation difference between fluid levels in the discharge and suction side tanks, a so called static head, that is independent of flow (see Figure 7). If pressure inside the tanks is not equal to atmospheric pressure then the static head must be calculated as equivalent difference between total static pressures (expressed in feet of head) at the pump discharge and suction, usually referenced to the pump centerline (see Figure 8). The above discussion assumes that the suction and discharge piping near the pump flanges are of the same diameter, resulting in the same velocities. In reality, suction and discharge pipe diameters are different (typically, a discharge pipe diameter is smaller). This results in difference between suction and discharge velocities, and their energies (velocity heads) must be accounted for. Therefore, a total pump head is the difference between all three components of the discharge and suction fluid energy per unit mass: static pressure heads, velocity heads, and elevations

PUMP CURVE

For example,

Note that the units in Equation 16 are feet of head of water. The conversion between pressure and head is:

PUMP CURVE

FIGURE 6 Pump operating point intersection of a pump and a system curves. Note : Due to the almost vertical curve slope of rotary pumps (b), their performance curves are usually and historically plotted as shown on (c) (i.e., flow vs. pressure).

PUMP CURVE

PUMP CURVE

From our high school days and basic hydraulics, we remember that the pressure, exerted by a column of water of height, h, is

Where is a specific weight of the substance, measured in lbf/ft3 .A specific gravity (SG) is defined as a ratio of the specific weight of the substance to the specific weight of cold water: o = 62.4 lbf/ft 3 . (SG is also equal to the ratio of densities, due to a gravitational constant between the specific weight and density). So,

(To obtain pressure in more often used units of lbf/in2 (psi), divide by 144).

PUMP CURVE

Clearly, if the system resistance changes, such as an opening or a closing of the discharge valve, or increased friction due to smaller or longer piping, the slope of the system curve will change (see Figure 9). The operating point moves: 1 2, as valve becomes more closed, or 1 3, if it opens more.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Stuffing Box - A : : Packing - B : : Shaft - C : : Shaft Sleeve - D : : Vane - E : : Casing - F : : Eye of Impeller - G : : Impeller - H : : Casing wear Ring - I : : Impeller - J : : Discharge Nozzle - K : :

PUMP IMPELLER

EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP

INTERNAL GEAR PUMP

LOBE PUMP

1. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate. 2. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the lobes and the casing -- it does not pass between the lobes. 3. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.

DOUBLE SCREW PUMP

VANE PUMP

1. body 2. rotor 3. piston valve 4. spring

SINGLE SCREW PUMP

PERISTALTIC PUMP

PISTON PUMP

DIAPHRAGM PUMP

FLEXIBLE IMPELLER PUMP

CHAIN PUMP
ECCENTRIC CAM PUMP

PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
System Curves For a specified impeller diameter and speed, a centrifugal pump has a fixed and predictable performance curve. The point where the pump operates on its curve is dependent upon the characteristics of the system In which it is operating, commonly called the System Head Curve. ..or, the relationship between flow and hydraulic losses* in a system. This representation is in a graphic form and, since friction losses vary as a square of the flow rate, the system curve is parabolic in shape.

By plotting the system head curve and pump curve together, it can be determined: Where the pump will operate on its curve. What changes will occur if the system head curve or the pump performance curve changes.

NO STATIC HEAD - ALL FRICTION As the levels in the suction and discharge are the same (Fig. 1), there is no static head and, therefore, the system curve starts at zero flow and zero head and its shape is determined solely from pipeline losses. The point of operation is at the intersection of the system head curve and the pump curve. The flow rate may be reduced by throttling valve.

POSITIVE STATIC HEAD The parabolic shape of the system curve is again determined by the friction losses through the system including all bends and valves. But in this case there is a positive static head involved. This static head does not affect the shape of the system curve or its "steepness", but it does dictate the head of the system curve at zero flow rate. The operating point is at the intersection of the system curve and pump curve. Again, the flow rate can be reduced by throttling the discharge valve.

NEGATIVE (GRAVITY) HEAD In the illustration below, a certain flow rate will occur by gravity head alone. But to obtain higher flows, a pump Is required to overcome the pipe friction losses in excess of "H" the head of the suction above the level of the discharge. In other words, the system curve is plotted exactly as for any other case involving a static head and friction head, except the static head is now negative. The system curve begins at a negative value and shows the limited flow rate obtained by gravity alone. More capacity requires extra work.

MOSTLY LIFT- LITTLE FRICTION HEAD The system head curve in the illustration below starts at the static head "H" and zero flow. Since the friction losses are relatively small (possibly due to the large diameter pipe), the system curve is "flat". In this case. the pump is required to overcome the comparatively large static head before it will deliver any flow at all.
*Hydraulic losses in piping systems are composed of pipe friction losses, valves, elbows and other fittings, entrance and exit losse (these to the entrance and exit to and from the pipeline normally at the beginning and end not the pump) and losses from changes in pipe size by enlargement or reduction in diameter.

CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF PUMP

How to Read Pump Curves

STEP 1: The basic pump curves are no different than reading any other head - flow curve. For a known head value, follow the head over to the pump curve then drop down to the capacity axis and this will be the flow rate. What you are trying to figure out here is what diameter impeller is needed to get the required head and capacity. STEP 2: The next thing to figure out is what motor is needed to drive this impeller without overloading. To do this use the dashed horsepower lines. To the right of the horsepower line is overloading and to the left is non-overloading. STEP 3: The last thing to determine is at what pump efficiency the pump will operate. Look at the U-shaped lines and interpolate to get the efficiency. Now let's try an example using ZM1570, Performance Data for Models 6650-6671 (5-15 BHp 4" discharge units). For the example we will size a pump for 400 GPM at 54 feet of total dynamic head.

STEP 1: Locate the point of 400 GPM at 54 feet on the pump curve. This point is slightly above the 8.31" impeller but well below the 8.63" impeller so I would go with an 8.38" impeller to hit the duty point.

STEP 2: Next, draw a new pump curve that passes through the duty point and is parallel to the existing pump curves. This will give you a close representation of the actual performance the pump will deliver. Look to see where this curve crosses the horsepower line to the right of the design point. In this example the pump curve crosses the 10 BHp curve at about 48 feet and crosses the 12.5 BHp curve at about 21 feet. We will not oversize an impeller on a pump if the overload point on the pump curve is greater than the static head for the system. So for this example, if the static head is greater than 48 feet then we can use the 10 BHp unit. If the static head is between 21 feet and 48 feet, use the 12.5 BHp motor. If the static head is less than 21 feet then use the 15 BHp motor.

STEP 3: Now let's figure the pump efficiency we can expect. The design point is about half way in between the efficiency lines of 60% and 63%. So, for the design point of 400 GPM at 54 feet, we would expect about 61.5% pump efficiency.

As you can tell from the above example, we would consider oversizing an impeller on a unit and not overload the unit due to engineering the right pump for the system. If this were the case we would also able to provide a more competitively priced unit since pricing is based on motor size (i.e. smaller motors cost less).
The only exception to this rule is a single-phase unit. ZOELLER COMPANY DOES NOT SELL SINGLE-PHASE UNITS WITH OVERSIZED IMPELLERS because we feel that this will compromise the life of a single-phase unit.

TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD

The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is the sum of the total static head, the total friction head and the pressure head. The components of the total static head for a surface water and well wate pumping system are shown

Total Static Head The total static head is the total vertical distance the pump must lift the water. When pumping from a well, it would be the distance from the pumping water level in the well to the ground surface plus the vertical distance the water is lifted from the ground surface to the discharge point. When pumping from an open water surface it would be the total vertical distance from the water surface to the discharge point. Pressure Head Sprinkler and drip irrigation systems require pressure to operate. Center pivot systems require a certain pressure at the pivot point to distribute the water properly. The pressure head at any point where a pressure gage is located can be converted from pounds per square inch (PSI) to feet of head by multiplying by 2.31. For example, 20 PSI is equal to 20 times 2.31 or 46.2 feet of head. Friction Head Friction head is the energy loss or pressure decrease due to friction when water flows through pipe networks. The velocity of the water has a significant effect on friction loss. Loss of head due to friction occurs when water flows through straight pipe sections, fittings, valves, around corners, and where pipes increase or decrease in size. Values for these losses can be calculated or obtained from friction loss tables. The friction head for a piping system is the sum of all the friction losses Velocity Head Velocity head is the energy of the water due to its velocity. This is a very small amount of energy and is usually negligible when computing losses in an irrigation system

Determining Flow and Head The pump is installed and running, but how do you know if it is operating at its design point? There is a simple way to check. Knowing that a pump will provide a certain flow at a given head, we can determine the point at which the pump is operating. To determine the head, a few gage readings will be necessary. Take one reading from the suction of the pump and one from the discharge after the system is balanced and with all the control valves wide open. The difference between the two gage readings will give you the head that the pump is providing. Remember to convert your gage readings to feet of head. Knowing the head and the impeller size, you can determine the flow of the pump. Now that we have the flow and head of the pump, lets see how close we are to the design point. Most often, the head will be less than what we expected, and the flow will be more. Why does this happen? There are many reasons, but it does no good to blame anyone. Lets just fix the problem.

Solutions Trimming the impeller is one of best solutions. Before we can trim the impeller, we need to determine where the pump is operating. In the pump curve above, lets call point D the design point, and draw the system curve that corresponds with that design point. Point A is where we actually are, which we determined from our gage readings. Along with that is our actual system curve. Remember that we are concerned with the actual system curve. This shows us how our system operates, not how it was designed. Operational and design points are often completely different. We would like to be on the unmodified actual system curve, but where on that curve? If our load has not changed and our heat transfer is the same, we want to be at our design flow. That isI, the ideal point.

Trimming the Impeller But how do we get there? Although its off our impeller curve, we can trim our impeller down to the right size. In this particular case, our ideal impeller size falls between 10-1/2 and 11-1/2 (actually about 11). Fortunately, trimming an impeller is not too difficult or expensive, and in fact it pays for itself very quickly. Notice from the figure that when we trim our impeller we lose some pump efficiency, but were more concerned about the cost of operating our pump and that cost has dropped tremendously. In this case we have dropped from 85Hp to 40 Hp-thats a lot. Even if your electric rates are low and you dont operate all year long, there is still the potential for great energy savings.

NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD

PB = Barometric pressure in feet absolute. VP = Vapor pressure of the liquid at maximum pumping temperature, in feet absolute. P = Pressure on surface of liquid in closed suction tank, in feet absolute. Ls = Maximum static suction lift in feet. LH = Minimum static suction head in feet. hf = Friction loss in feet in suction pipe at required capacity

Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)

The net positive suction head available is a function of the pump suction system. The Net Positive Suction Head is the absolute total suction head in feet.

The NPSH available in a flooded suction system is: Atmospheric Pressure (- ) Vapor Pressure (+) Liquid Height (-) Friction in the Suction Line

The NPSH available in a suction lift system is: Atmospheric Pressure (-) Vapor Pressure (-) Liquid Ht. (-) Friction in the Suction Line.

NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure(converted to head) + static head + surface pressure head vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings

Given: Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psi Gage pressure =The tank is at sea level and open to atmospheric pressure. Liquid level above pump centerline = 5 feet Piping = a total of 10 feet of 2 inch pipe plus one 90 long radius screwed elbow. Pumping =100 gpm. 68F. fresh water with a specific gravity of one (1). Vapor pressure of 68F. Water = 0.27 psia from the vapor chart. Specific gravity = 1 NPSHR (net positive suction head required, from the pump curve) = 9 feet
NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure(converted to head) + static head + surface pressure head - vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings Static head = 5 feet Atmospheric pressure = pressure x 2.31/sg. = 14.7 x 2.31/1 = 34 feet absolute Gage pressure = 0 Vapor pressure of 68F. water converted to head = pressure x 2.31/sg = 0.27 x 2.31/1 = 0.62 feet Looking at the friction charts: 100 gpm flowing through 2 inch pipe shows a loss of 17.4 feet for each 100 feet of pipe or 17.4/10 = 1.74 feet of head loss in the piping The K factor for one 2 inch elbow is 0.4 x 1.42 = 0.6 feet Adding these numbers together, 1.74 + 0.6 = a total of 2.34 feet friction loss in the pipe and fitting. NPSHA (net positive suction head available) = 34 + 5 + 0 - 0.62 - 2.34 = 36.04 feet The pump required 9 feet of head at 100 gpm. And we have 36.04 feet so we have plenty to spare.

Given: Gage pressure = - 20 inches of vacuum Atmospheic pressure = 14.7 psi Liquid level above pump centerline = 5 feet Piping = a total of 10 feet of 2 inch pipe plus one 90 long radius screwed elbow. Pumping = 100 gpm. 68F fresh water with a specific gravity of one (1). Vapor pressure of 68F water = 0.27 psia from the vapor chart. NPSHR (net positive suction head required) = 9 feet Now for the calculations: NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure(converted to head) + static head + surface pressure head - vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings
Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psi x 2.31/sg. =34 feet Static head = 5 feet Gage pessure pressure = 20 inches of vacuum converted to head inches of mercury x 1.133 / specific gravity = feet of liquid -20 x 1.133 /1 = -22.7 feet of pressure head absolute Vapor pressure of 68F water = pressure x 2.31/sg. = 0.27 x 2.31/1 = 0.62 feet Looking at the friction charts: 100 gpm flowing through 2.5 inch pipe shows a loss of 17.4 feet or each 100 feet of pipe or 17.4/10 = 1.74 feet loss in the piping The K factor for one 2 inch elbow is 0.4 x 1.42 = 0.6 feet Adding these two numbers together: (1.74 + 0.6) = a total of 2.34 feet friction loss in the pipe and fitting. NPSHA (net positive suction head available) = 34 + 5 - 22.7 - 0.62 - 2.34 = 13.34 feet. This is enough to stop cavitation also.

SPECIFIC HEAD

Suction specific speed (S or NS) is defined as:

Where N = Pump speed RPM Q = GPM = Pump flow at best efficiency point at impeller inlet
(for double suction impellers divide total pump flow by two).

hsv = NPSHR = Pump NPSH required at best efficiency point.

CAVITATION

Suction Cavitation Suction Cavitation occurs when the pump suction is under a low pressure/high vacuum condition where the liquid turns into a vapor at the eye of the pump impeller. This vapor is carried over to the discharge side of the pump where it no longer sees vacuum and is compressed back into a liquid by the discharge pressure. This imploding action occurs violently and attacks the face of the impeller. An impeller that has been operating under a suction cavitation condition has large chunks of material removed from its face causing premature failure of the pump.

Discharge Cavitation Discharge Cavitation occurs when the pump discharge is extremely high. It normally occurs in a pump that is running at less than 10% of its best efficiency point. The high discharge pressure causes the majority of the fluid to circulate inside the pump instead of being allowed to flow out the discharge. As the liquid flows around the impeller it must pass through the small clearance between the impeller and the pump cutwater at extremely high velocity. This velocity causes a vacuum to develop at the cutwater similar to what occurs in a venturi and turns the liquid into a vapor. A pump that has been operating under these conditions shows premature wear of the impeller vane tips and the pump cutwater. In addition due to the high pressure condition premature failure of the pump mechanical seal and bearings can be expected and under extreme conditions will break the impeller shaft.

BRAKE HORSE POWER

BHP = Flow(GPM) X TDH(FT) x SG /3960xEFFICIENCY(%) Example: BHP = (100 GPM) x (95 Ft) x (1.0) / 3960 x .6 BHP = 4.0

Horsepower at the output shaft of an engine, turbine, or motor is termed brake horsepower or shaft horsepower, depending on what kind of instrument is used to measure it. Horsepower of reciprocating engines, particularly in the larger sizes, is often expressed as indicated horsepower, which is determined from the pressure in the cylinders. Brake or shaft horsepower is less than indicated...

THE AFFINITY LAWS

The affinity laws express the mathematical relationship between the several variables involved in pump performance. They apply to all types of centrifugal and axial flow pumps. With impeller diameter D held constant:

Where: Q = Capacity, GPM H = Total Head, Feet BHP = Brake Horsepower N = Pump Speed, RPM

With speed N held constant:

When the performance (Q1, H1, & BHP1) is known at some particular speed (N1) or diameter (D1), the formulas can be used to estimate the performance (Q2, H2, & BHP2) at some other speed (N2) or diameter (D2). The efficiency remains nearly constant for speed changes and for small changes in impeller diameter

Example: To illustrate the use of these laws, refer to Fig. 8 below. It shows the performance of a particular pump at 1750 RPM with various impeller diameters. This performance data has been determined by actual tests by the manufacturer. Now assume that you have a 13" maximum diameter impeller, but you want to belt drive the pump at 2000 RPM.

The affinity laws listed under 1 above will be used to determine the new performance, with N1 1750 RPM and N2 = 2000 RPM. The first step is to read the capacity, head, and horsepower at several points on the 13" dia. curve in Fig. 9 below. For example, one point may be near the best efficiency point where the capacity is 300 GPM, the head is 160 ft, and the BHP is approx. 20 hp. This will then be the best efficiency point on the new 2000 RPM curve. By performing the same calculations for several other points on the 1750 RPM curve, a new curve can be drawn which will approximate the pump's performance at 2000 RPM, Fig. 9. Trial and error would be required to solve this problem in reverse. In other words, assume you want to determine the speed required to make a rating of 343 GPM at a head of 209 ft. You would begin by selecting a trial speed and applying the affinity laws to convert the desired rating to the corresponding rating at 1750 RPM. When you arrive at the correct speed, 2000 RPM in this case, the corresponding 1750 RPM rating will fall on the 13" diameter curve.

PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVE