HUMAN COMMUNICATION REVIEWER Chapter 3 Verbal Communication A.

The Nature and Use of Language Language: is the body of words and the system for their use in communicating that are common to the people of the same community or nation, the same geographical area, or the same cultural tradition. : is a system of symbols used for communicating. Purposes: 1. We use language to designate, label, define, and limit. 2. We use language to evaluate. 3. We use language to discuss things outside our immediate experience. 4. We can use language to talk about language. Language and Meaning We select the correct word, and people will interpret our meanings correctly. In fact, the relationship between language and meaning is not nearly so simple for two reasons: Language must be learned, and the use of language is a creative act. The Denotative and Connotative meaning of Words Denotation: is the direct, explicit meaning people agree to give a word; is the meaning given in a dictionary. Connotation: is the feelings or evaluations associated with the word; is the emotional and value significance the word has for the listener. Meaning Varies across Subgroups In the Language Community Cultural groups define themselves in part through language, and members establish identity through language use. Hecht, Collier, and Ribeau (1993) B. Increasing Message Clarity Message clarity is improved by reducing ambiguity and confusion. Specificity, Concreteness, and Precision in Language Use Specific words clarify meaning by narrowing what is understood from a general category to a particular group within that category. Concrete words are not only specific, but are also likely to appeal to our senses- to conjure up a picture. We seek words that are precise- that most accurately or correctly capture the sense of what we are saying. Developing Our Ability to Speak More Clearly Being able to speak more clearly requires us to build our working vocabulary and to brainstorm to generate word choices from our active vocabulary. Vocabulary building: As a speaker, the larger your vocabulary, the more choices you have from which to select the word you want; as a listener, the larger your vocabulary, the more likely you are to understand the words used by others.

Mental brainstorming: One way to practice accessing choices from your memory is to brainstorm during practice sessions and later in conversation. -Brainstorming is an uncritical, nonevaluative process of generating alternatives. Dating Information: Because nearly everything changes with time, its important that we date the information we communicate by telling when it was true. Not dating our communications leads to inaccuracies that can be dangerous. To date information: 1. Consider or find out when the information was true 2. Verbally acknowledge it. Indexing Generalizations Generalizing allows people to use what they have learned from one experience and apply it to another. Indexing generalizations is the mental and verbal practice of acknowledging individual differences while still allowing us to draw on generalizations. Cultural Differences Affect Verbal Communication 3 dimensions of culture that help explain differences in connotations of language. Individualism/Collectivism: One major dimension that theorists use to explain similarities and differences in language and behavior is individualism versus collectivism. (Gudykunst and Matsumoto 1996) Individualistic cultures tend to value uniqueness and to emphasize the goals of individuals over those of the group. They use low-context communication, meaning that information is (1) embedded mainly in the messages transmitted and (2) presented directly. Collectivistic cultures tend to value harmony and solidarity and to emphasize group goals over those of individuals. They use high-context communication, in which people (1) expect others to know how theyre thinking and feeling and (2) present messages indirectly. Uncertainty avoidance: Although we all live in a world of uncertainty, societies respond to this uncertainty differently. Nations with low uncertainty avoidance accept uncertainty; they are tolerant of differing behavior and opinions. Masculinity/Femininity: Hofstede (1983) refers to those societies that require people to maintain rigid sex roles as masculine cultures. In these societies, men take more assertive and dominant roles and women more service oriented and caring roles. Gender Differences Affect Verbal Messages 1. Women tend to use both more intensifiers and more hedges than men. Intensifiers are words that modify other words and serve to strengthen the idea represented by the original word. Hedges are modifying words that soften or weaken the meaning of the idea represented by the original word. 2. Women add tag questions to their sentences more frequently than men do,

C. Speaking Appropriately Speaking appropriately means choosing language and symbols that are adapted to the needs, interests, knowledge, and attitudes of listeners in order to avoid language that alienates them. Formality of Language Language should be appropriately formal for the situation. In an interpersonal setting, we are likely to use more informal language when we are talking with our best friend and more formal language when we are talking with our parents. Jargon and Slang Appropriate language should be chosen so that jargon and slang do not interfere with understanding. We form language communities as a result of the work we do, our hobbies, and the subcultures with which we identify. Profanity and Vulgar Expressions Unfortunately, profanity and vulgarity are habits that are easily acquired and hard to extinguish. When used infrequently, profanity and vulgar expressions communicate strong emotions for which there may be no other appropriate words. Sensitivity Language is appropriate when it is sensitive to usages that others perceive as offensive. Some of the mistakes in language that we make result from using expressions that are perceived as sexist, racist, or otherwise biased- that is, any language that is perceived as belittling any person or group of people by virtue of their sex, race, age, handicap, or other identifying characteristic. Two of the most prevalent linguistic uses that communicate insensitivity are; Generic language: uses words that may apply to only one sex, race, or other gropu as though they represent all people. This usage is a problem because it linguistically excludes a portion of the population it ostensibly includes. 1. Generic he. 2. Generic man. Nonparallel language: occurs when terms are changed because of the sex, race, or other group characteristic of the individual. It is also belittling. 1. Marking means adding sex, race, age, or other designations unnecessarily to a general word. 2. Unnecessary association occurs when you emphasize a persons association with another when you are not talking about the other person. Avoiding Insensitive Language How can you speak more appropriately? 1. Assess whether the word or phrase used is less appropriate than it should be. 2. Pause to mentally brainstorm alternatives. 3. Select a more appropriate word.