Report 7-01-127-3 ISSN 0169-9288 January 2003

Constructing the Stiffness Master Curves for Asphaltic Mixes

T. O. Medani, M. Tech, M. Sc. and M. Huurman, ir, Ph. D

Smax (increase)

(increase) log Smix

Smin

log ffict

Delft University of Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering and GeoSciences Road and Railroad Research Laboratory & Steel and Timber Structures

Constructing the Stiffness Master Curves for Asphaltic Mixes

T. O. Medani, M.Tech., M. Sc. and M. Huurman, ir, Ph.D

Acknowledgement
The research described herein was supported by the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (Rijkswaterstaat), whose support is gratefully acknowledged. The study was conducted at the Road and Railroad Research Laboratory with collaboration with the Steel and Timber Structures of the Faculty of Civil Engineering and GeoSciences, Delft University of Technology.

CONTENTS CONTENTS..............................................................................................................4
1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................5 2. TIME-TEMPERATURE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE ..............................................6
2.1. SHIFTING THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS .................................................................................6 2.2. ARRHENIUS TYPE EQUATION..................................................................................................8 2.3. WILLIAMS-LANDEL-FERRY (WLF) EQUATION .........................................................................8

3. CONSTRUCTING MASTER CURVE USING SIGMOIDAL MODEL............................9 4. APPLICATION OF THE SIGMOIDAL MODEL TO CONSTRUCT THE STIFFNESS MASTER CURVE FOR MASTIC ASPHALT ..................................................................11
4.1. MIX COMPOSITION...............................................................................................................11 4.2. DETERMINATION OF THE MIX STIFFNESS AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND FREQUENCIES....11 4.3. APPLICATION OF THE SIGMOIDAL MODEL..............................................................................12 4.3.1. Fitting the experimental data using the Arrhenius equation ...................12

4.3.2. Fitting the experimental data using the Williams-Landel-Ferry equation

.............................................................................................................................................13

4.3.3. Comparing the polynomial model and the Sigmoidal model ..................15 4.3.4. Constructing the master curve using the sigmoidal model and data obtained for 3 temperatures ........................................................................................16 4.3.5. Constructing the master curve using the polynomial model and data obtained for 3 temperatures ........................................................................................17 5. CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................................19 6. REFRENCES ............................................................................................................20

1. Introduction
In road engineering, most of the mechanistic design methodologies for asphaltic pavements are based on estimating the structural response of the pavement, i.e. the critical stresses/strains due to a certain design load. The critical strains, which are generally considered, are the horizontal flexural tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer and the vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade. For the calculation of the stresses/strains, use is made of linear elastic multi-layer program like BISAR (de Jong et al, 1979) or visco-elastic multi-layer programs e.g. Kenlayer (Huang, 1993) and VEROAD (Hopman, 1993). Bituminous mixture stiffness needs to be determined in order to evaluate both the loadinduced and thermal stress and strain distribution in asphalt pavements. Stiffness has been used as an indicator of mixture quality for pavements and mixture design to evaluate damage and age-hardening trends of bituminous mixtures both in laboratory and the field (Epps, et al, 2000). The mix stiffness is generally estimated from the so-called master curves i.e. the relationship between the mix stiffness, loading time (or frequency) and temperature. In practice, the indirect tensile test or the four-point bending test is used to determine this relationship. This is done by measuring the stiffness of an asphaltic mix at different temperatures and frequencies. Typically the stiffness modulus of asphaltic mixes increases with decreasing temperature and increasing loading frequency. By shifting the stiffness modulus versus loading time relationship for various temperatures horizontally with respect to the curve chosen as reference, a complete modulus-time behaviour curve at a constant, arbitrary chosen, reference temperature Tref can be assembled. This report describes a methodology to construct the stiffness master curves for asphaltic mixes. The model described is based on physical observations and it is believed to give reasonable estimates for the mix stiffness at any arbitrary loading frequency.

2. Time-Temperature Superposition Principle

Test data collected at different temperatures can be shifted relative to the time of loading (or frequency), so that the various curves can be aligned to form a single master curve. The master curve can be constructed using an arbitrary selected reference temperature (Tref) to which all data are shifted. At reference temperature, the shift factor =1. The technique of the determination of the master curve is based on the principle of time-temperature correspondence, or thermorheological simplicity, which uses the equivalence between frequency and temperature for the stiffness modulus of bituminous mixes.

log f fict log f = log T

(1)

where:

ffict f
t

:the frequency where the master curve should be read (Hz) : loading frequency (Hz) : shifting factor.

The shifting factor t can be determined in three different ways: 1) 2) 3) by shifting the experimental results, by means of an Arrhenius type equation, by means of the Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation.

2.1 . Shifting the experimental results

The experimental (stiffness) data are plotted versus log frequency or log loading time. After choosing a reference temperature the data of the other temperatures are shifted horizontally until they fit the curve for the reference temperature (the shift can be obtained by inter- or extrapolation). Then the data obtained at the other temperatures are shifted until they fix the extended reference curve. This procedure was described by Germann and Lytton (1977) and is detailed in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Setting up of master curve using fitting of experimental data method, after Germann and Lytton, 1977

Referring to Figure 1:

Tmaster = e[ln(Told )ln( )]

ln( ) =

(2) (3)

ln(
i =1

ln( i ) = ln(Told ,i ) ln(Tnew,i )

Tnew,i = 10[log(T2 ) xi ]

(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

xi =

y i x = .yi tan y

x = [log(T1 ) log(T2 )]

y = [log( E1 ) log( E 2 )]
y = [log(Ei ) log(E2 )]

Tnew,i is the individually shifted time-value of data point i, shifted over ln(i), such that it exactly matches the reference curve. Tmaster is the shifted time-value of point i, shifted over the average shift factor for that temperature ln(i).
2.2 . Arrhenius type equation

A commonly used formula for the shift factor is an Arrhenius type equation (Francken et al. 1988, Jacobs 1995, Lytton et al. 1993).
1 1 log T = C. T T ref where: T Tref C H R 1) 2) 3) = log e. H R 1 1 T T ref (10)

= the experimental temperature (K) = the reference temperature (K) = a constant (K) = activation energy (J/mol) = ideal gas constant, 8.314 J/(mol.K)

In literature, different values were reported for the constant C. C=10920 K, Francken et al. (1988). C=13060 K, Lytton et al. (1993). C=7680 K, Jacobs (1995).

2.3 . Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation

Another formula for the calculation of the shift factor is the Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation (Williams et al. 1955):

log f fict log f = log T = where: ffict f

C1 .(T Tref ) C 2 + T Tref

(11)

= the frequency where the master curve should be read (Hz) = loading frequency (Hz)

C1,C2 = empirical constants and other variables as previously defined. According to Sayegh [1967] C1= 9.5 and C2=95. It has also been reported by Lytton et al. [1993] that C1=19 and C2= 92.

3. Constructing Master Curve Using Sigmoidal Model

It is quite common to use the generalized power law to describe the frequency dependant behaviour of bituminous materials at low and moderate temperatures. If higher temperatures data is included, polynomial fitting functions are also used (Pellinen and Witczak, 2002). It will be shown later that extrapolation of polynomial fits can result in some problems. This will mean that if it is desired to include wide range of frequencies, testing at temperatures higher and lower than the reference temperature will be needed. In this report a sigmoidal model similar to the one described by Pellinen and Witczak, 2002 will be presented. It will be shown how the master curve can be constructed fitting a sigmoidal function using non-linear least square regression techniques. The shifting will be done using an experimental approach by solving shift factors simultaneously with the parameters of the model without the need to assume any functional form for the shift factor equation. The model is described as follows: log( Smix ) = log( Smin ) + [(log( Smax ) log( Smin )].S
and

(12)

10 + log f fict S = 1 exp[( ) ]

(13)

where:

Smix =Mix stiffness (MPa) Smin =Minimum mix stiffness (MPa) Smax =Maximum mix stiffness (MPa) ffict = Reduced frequency (Hz) , =shape parameters

The parameter and are related to the curvature of the S-shaped function and the horizontal distance from the turning point to the origin, respectively. Smin and Smax are the minimum and maximum stiffness values (Figure 2).

Smax (increase )

log Smix

(increase )

Smin

log ffict
Figure 2. Parameters in the Sigmoidal Model

The justification of using a sigmoidal model for fitting the data is based on physical observations. The upper part of the sigmoidal model approaches asymptotically to the maximum stiffness of the mix, which is dependent on the limiting binder stiffness of the mix. At high temperatures the role of the aggregate skeleton plays a more dominant role than the viscous binder. The modulus starts to reach a limiting equilibrium value which depends on the gradation of the aggregates (Pellinen and Witczak, 2002).

10

4. Application of the Sigmoidal Model to Construct the Stiffness Master Curve for Mastic Asphalt
The proposed model has been applied to construct the master curve for the mastic asphalt mix, which was used for resurfacing the Moerdijk Bridge in the Netherlands in June 2000. The testing program has been carried out at the Road and Railway Research Laboratory (RRRL) of Delft University of Technology.
4.1. Mix composition

The mastic asphalt mix consists of stone 2/8 and 2/6 in the ratio 1:1, river sand and fine sand in the ratio 2:3, weak limestone filler and SBS modified bitumen with a pen of 90. The mix composition is shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1 MIX COMPOSITION

Component Aggregate Filler Air Bitumen

Percentage by volume 63 17.5 1.5 18

4.2. Determination of the mix stiffness at different temperatures and frequencies

The mix stiffness at different temperatures and frequencies has been determined using the UTM beam fatigue testing machine. The test conditions are: Type of test Frequencies Temperatures Strain amplitudes Loading wave : displacement controlled : 0.5, 1, 2, 5 and 10 Hz : 5, 12.5, 20, 27.5, 35 and 42.5 C : 80 m/m : sine wave

Stiffness measurement: after 100 pulses

11

The mix stiffness at different temperatures and frequencies is shown in Figure 3.

10000 T=5 T=12.5 Mix stiffness 1000 T=20 T=27.5 T=35 T=42.5 100 0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10 100

Figure 3: Mix stiffness at different frequencies and temperatures (after Bosch, 2001)

4.3. Application of the sigmoidal model

A reference temperature of 20oC was chosen. By fitting the experimental data to the sigmoidal model, all the model parameters and the constants of the Arrhenius or the Williams Landel Ferry equations can be obtained. This can be done by minimising the sum of the square of the errors using the Solver Function in the Excel spreadsheet.
4.3.1. Fitting the experimental data using the Arrhenius equation

In the Arrhenius equation the shift factor T is defined as

T = exp

H 1 1 .( ) R T Tref

(14)

The frequency where the master curve should be read ffict is defined as: f fict = T . f where: f T Tref :loading frequency (Hz) :the experimental temperature [K] :the reference temperature [K] (15)

12

H R

:activation energy (J/mol) :ideal gas constant=8.314 J/(mol.K)

As explained before, the sigmoidal model parameters and the activation energy H can be obtained at the same time by minimising the sum of the square of the errors of the experimental and model values using the Solver Function in the Excel spreadsheet. The parameters obtained are shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2 THE MODEL PARAMETERS

H(J/mol) 195.48

10.9131

7.1114

log Smax 4.0058

log Smin 2.2634

Figure 4 shows the good fit of the sigmoidal model using the Arrhenius equation for the shift factor to the experimentally determined mix stiffness.

4.5 4 3.5
log Smix

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
reduced frequency (Hz)

Figure 4. Stiffness Master Curve at T= 20oC using the sigmoidal model and the Arrhenius equation

4.3.2. Fitting the experimental data using the Williams-Landel-Ferry equation

In the Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation the shift factor T is defined as: log f fict log f = log T = C1 .(T Tref ) C 2 + T Tref (16)

13

The frequency where the master curve should be read ffict is defined as: f fict = T . f where: ffict f = the frequency where the master curve should be read (Hz) = loading frequency (Hz) (17)

and other variables as explained before. As explained before, the sigmoidal model parameters and the empirical parameters of the WLF equation can be obtained at the same time by minimising the sum of the square of the errors of the experimental and model values using the Solver Function in the Excel spreadsheet. The parameters obtained are shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3 THE MODEL PARAMETERS

C1 12.0141

C2 101.8896

10.9503

7.0682

log Smax 3.9992

log Smin 2.2472

Figure 5 shows the good fit of the sigmoidal model using the WLF equation for the shift factor to the experimentally determined mix stiffness.

4.5 4 3.5
log Smix

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
reduced frequency (Hz)

Figure 5: Stiffness Master Curve at T= 20oC using the sigmoidal model and the WilliamsLandel-Ferry equation

A comparison between the Arrhenius equation and the Williams-Landel-Ferry is shown in Figure 6.

14

100000

10000
log Smix
Model Arrhenius

1000

Model WLF Data

1.00E-04

1.00E-02

100 1.00E+00

1.00E+02

1.00E+04

1.00E+06

reduced frequency (Hz)

Figure 6: Comparison between the Arrhenius and the WLF equations by fitting the sigmoidal model for the stiffness master curve at T= 20oC

From the good fit of the sigmoidal model to the experimental data using both the Arrhenius and the WLF equations for the shift factor (Figure 6), it may be concluded that either of the two equations can be used to estimate the shift factor.
4.3.3. Comparing the polynomial model and the Sigmoidal model

Using the Williams-Landel-Ferry equation for estimating the shift factor, the polynomial and the sigmoidal models are compared. For the polynomial model a third degree polynomial is assumed to describe the relationship between the mix stiffness and the reduced frequency in the form: log( Smix ) = a0 + a1 log( f ) + a2 (log( f )) 2 + a3 (log( f ))3 where : ai = regression coefficients The polynomial model parameters and the WLF constants are shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4 THE MODEL PARAMETERS

(18)

C1
27.5134

C2
99.6777

a0
2.9856

a1
0.38469

a2
0.01829

a3
-0.01436

In Figure 7 the master curve for the mix stiffness at 20oC using the polynomial and the sigmoidal model is shown.

15

4.5 4 3.5 3
log

polynomial data sigmoidal

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

10000 100000

frequency (Hz)

Figure 7: Stiffness Master Curve at T= 20oC using the sigmoidal model and the polynomial model

From Figure 7 it can be seen that the two models fit quite well the experimental data in the range of the experimental data, but when we move outside that range the polynomial model may not be correct, as it is known that the stiffness of an asphaltic mix increases with the increase of frequency till a threshold value (Smax) and it does not decrease after reaching a maximum value as suggested by the polynomial model. Furthermore, the stiffness decreases with the decrease of frequency till a threshold value (Smin) and it does not increase after reaching a minimum value as suggested by the polynomial model. In other words, the polynomial model does not describe the observed behaviour of mix stiffness outside the range of the data. However, if it is desired to increase the frequency range in which the polynomial relationship is valid more tests at temperatures higher and lower than the reference temperature will be needed.
4.3.4. Constructing the master curve using the sigmoidal model and data obtained for 3 temperatures

The sigmoidal model will again be used to construct the master curve at a reference temperature of 20oC, but this time using data obtained from only three temperatures namely 5, 20 and 35oC.

16

In Figure 8 the good agreement between the master curves constructed from data obtained for 3 and 6 temperatures using the sigmoidal model is shown.

4.5 4 3.5
model 3 temp. data model 6 temp

logSmix

3 2.5 2 0.0001 0.01 1 100

10000

1000000

reduced frequency [Hz]

Figure 8: Stiffness Master Curve at T= 20oC using data obtained for 3 and 6 temperatures using the sigmoidal model

To be able to catch the upper part of the master curve (obtained from a low temperature data) and the lower part of the master curve (obtained from a high temperature data) at least two tests are essential: one at a rather high temperature and the other at a rather low temperature. The third test may be executed at a medium temperature.
4.3.5. Constructing the master curve using the polynomial model and data obtained for 3 temperatures

The third degree polynomial model will again be used to construct the master curve at a reference temperature of 20oC, but this time using data obtained from only three temperatures namely 5, 20 and 35oC. In Figure 9 the master curves constructed from data obtained for 3 and 6 temperatures using the polynomial model are shown.

17

4.5 4
log Smix

3.5 3 2.5 2 0.0001 0.01 1 100

model 3 temps. model 6 temps data

10000

1000000

reduced frequency [Hz]

Figure 9: Stiffness Master Curve at T= 20o C using data obtained for 3 and 6 temperatures using the polynomial model

From Figure 9 it can be noticed that the two models are almost identical in the range of the data, but outside this range the difference is evident.

18

5. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the material presented in this report, the following conclusions can been drawn:

A sigmoidal model can best describe the master curve of mix stiffness of asphaltic mixes. This model also can explain the physical behaviour of asphaltic mixes The parameters for the equations for the shift factor need not be assumed, as they can be obtained together with the parameters of the sigmoidal model using the SOLVER function in the spreadsheet program EXCEL.

The Arrhenius type and the Williams-Landel-Ferry equations for the shift factor give quite comparable results. The polynomial model may give some problems if it is intended to estimate values of the mix stiffness outside the range of data. At least for the mix which has been tested in this program (mastic asphalt), the sigmoidal model can be described adequately based on the results obtained from tests executed at only three temperatures. To catch the lower and the upper part of the curve, at least two tests are essential: one at a rather high temperature and the other at a rather low temperature; the third test may be executed at a medium temperature (e.g. room temperature).

19

6. REFRENCES
1 Jong, D.L. de, Peutz, M.G.F, Korswagen, A.R., Computer Program BISAR,

Layered Systems Under Normal and Tangential Surface Loads, Koninklijke/Shell Laboratorium, Amsterdam, Shell Research B.V., 1979. 2 3 Huang, Y.H., Pavement Analysis and Design, Prentice- Hall, Inc. New Jersey, pp 347-350, 1993. Hopman, P.C., VEROAD: A Linear Visco-elastic Multilayer Program for the Calculation of Stresses, Strains and Displacements in Road Constructions. Part I: A Visco-elastic Halfspace, Delft University of Technology, December 1993, ISSN0169-9288-7-93-500-6, 1993. 4 2000. 5 Germann, F.P., and Lytton, R.L., "Methodology for Predicting the Reflection Cracking Life of Asphalt Concrete Overlays," Report No. TTI-2-8-75-207-5, Texas Transportation Institute of the Texas A&M University, College Station, 1977. 6 Francken, L. and Clauwaert, C., "Characterization and Structural Assessment of Bound Materials for Flexible Road Structures," Proceedings 6th International Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, 1987; University of Michigan, pp 130-144, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 1988. 7 8 Jacobs, M.M.J. Crack Growth in Asphaltic Mixes, PhD. Thesis, Delft Lytton, R.L., Uzan, J., Fernando, E.M., Roque, R., Hiltunen, D. and Stoffels, University of Technology, Netherlands, 1995. S.M., "Development and Validation of Performance Prediction Models and Specifications for Asphalt Binders and Paving Mixes," SHRP Report A-357, SHRP/NRC, Washington DC, USA, 1993. 9 Williams, M.L., Landel, R.F. and Ferry, J.D., "The Temperature Dependence of Relaxation Mechanism in Amorphous Polymers and other Glass Forming Liquids," Journal of ACS, Volume 77, pp 3701, 1955. Epps A., Harvey, J.T., Kim, Y.R., and Roque, R. Structural Requirements of Bituminous Paving Mixtures, Millennium papers, Transportation Research Record,

20

10

Sayegh, G., Viscoelastic Properties of Bituminous Mixtures, Proceedings of

the 2nd International Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, University of Michigan, pp. 743-755, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, (1967). 11 Pellinen, T.K., and Witczak M.W., Stress Dependent Master Curve Construction for Dynamic (Complex) Modulus Annual Meeting Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA, March 2002. 12 Bosch, A., Material Characterisation of Mastic Asphalt Surfacings on Orthotropic Steel Bridges, M.Sc. Thesis, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands, 2001.

21