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Paraschivoiu
Wind Turbine
Wind Turbine
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Cover Page: Cyclone Design
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Foreword v
Foreword
This book is intended to be a good reference for anyone interested in the design of
Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine for electricity generation and other applications such as pumping
water, irrigation, grinding and drying grain, and heating water to name a few.
The book is divided into ten chapters that are presented in a logical manner. The content is
easy to follow and each chapter has its own conclusions. The innovative nature of this book is
in its comprehensive review of state of the art in Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT),
correlation of existing knowledge base and the more recent developments in understanding the
physics of flow associated with the Darrieus type vertical-axis wind turbine. The principal
theories and aerodynamic models for performance calculations are presented with experimental
data, not only from laboratory measurements but also from real prototypes.
The first chapter presents an introductory topic on the wind characteristics, a brief descrip-
tion of the components of both major categories of wind machines: Horizontal-Axis Wind
Turbine (HAWT) and Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) and an overview of the wind energy
development in the world.
The state of the art of vertical-axis wind turbine including Savonius and Giromill rotors are
described in Chapter 2.
The scope of Chapter 3 encompasses the mathematical formulation of the equations for the
various Darrieus rotor configurations as well as geometries including: catenary, parabolic,
troposkien and modified troposkien blade and also a practical Sandia type shape.
The aerodynamic performance prediction models are presented in Chapter 4 for: single
streamtube, multiple streamtube, vortex and local-circulation models. The aerodynamic loads:
normal and tangential components and performance, as well as, rotor torque and power coeffi-
cient are calculated and the comparisons of different prediction models are shown.
The unsteady aerodynamics of Darrieus type VAWTs is dealt with in detail in Chapter 5. A
CFD model based on the streamfunction-vorticity formulation of the Navier-Stokes equations is
presented to study and highlight unsteady effects that may influence design and performance.
The real essence of the book is in Chapter 6 that provides a practical design model for the
Darrieus type VAWTs based on the double-multiple streamtube model, originally developed by
the author. Several variants of the software program CARDAAV, for use in performance
calculations, are described. Other important aspects such as rotor geometries, conventional and
natural laminar flow airfoils, dynamic-stall effects, secondary effects and stochastic wind model
are also addressed here.
The subsequent chapters present aerodynamic load and performance data from water
channel and wind tunnel experiments, the state of the art of innovative aerodynamic devices as
applied to VAWTs and the future trends in the design of Darrieus type wind turbine.
Ion Paraschivoiu
Table of Contents vii
Table
of
Contents
Foreword ........................................................................................................................................ v
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xiii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. xxiii
List of
Figures
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Components - Upwind rotor and downwind HAWT rotor [Ref. 1.1] ........................ 2
Figure 1.2 VAWT of Darrieus type [Ref. 1.1] .............................................................................. 3
Figure 1.3 Types of vertical-axis wind turbines - a) Fixed bladed Darrieus or
articulating blade Giromill; b) Savonius rotor ............................................................ 4
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The Madaras concept for generating electricity using the Magnus
effect [2.1] .................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 2.2 Savonius rotor - Calculation scheme ........................................................................ 17
Figure 2.3 Pressure distribution vs azimuthal angle ................................................................... 18
Figure 2.4 Starting torque for a rotation ..................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.5 Normalized power coefficient vs bucket tip-speed ratio .......................................... 20
Figure 2.6 Two-bucket Savonius rotor ........................................................................................ 21
Figure 2.7 Three-bucket Savonius rotor ...................................................................................... 21
Figure 2.8 The static torque coefficient as a function of angular position for a
two-bucket Savonius rotor, [2.17] ............................................................................. 23
Figure 2.9 The static torque coefficient as a function of angular position for a
three-bucket Savonius rotor, [2.17] ........................................................................... 23
Figure 2.10 A comparison of the power coefficients for two- and three-bucket Savonius
rotors with a gap width ratio of 0.15 at Re/m of 8.64 × 105 ................................................ 24
Figure 2.11 Normalized turbine power for 1-meter, two-bucket Savonius rotors as a
function of normalized rotational speed for Re/m of 4.32 × 105 ....................................... 25
Figure 2.12 Translating drag device .............................................................................................. 26
Figure 2.13 Translating airfoil ....................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2.14 Power from a translating airfoil vs lift-drag ratio ..................................................... 27
Figure 2.15 Translating airfoil with relative wind ........................................................................ 28
Figure 2.16 Coordinate system and vortex sheet location for analysis of the Giromill .............. 29
Figure 2.17 Streamlines and velocity profile at X = 3, a = 1/3. The velocity profile is
given along the lines x/R = -0.05 and +2.0 ............................................................... 31
Figure 2.18 Vortex shedding of cross-wind axis actuator ............................................................. 33
Figure 2.19 Vortex system of single bladed cross-wind axis actuator ......................................... 20
Figure 2.20 Relative velocity and aerodynamic forces for typical blade element ....................... 34
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Darrieus vertical-axis wind turbine (DOE/SANDIA 34-m) ..................................... 38
Figure 3.2 Catenary shape ........................................................................................................... 43
Figure 3.3 Troposkien shape ....................................................................................................... 46
Figure 3.4 Length of Troposkien blade vs b and W .................................................................... 50
Figure 3.5 Tensions ratio vs blade length ................................................................................... 52
Figure 3.6 Sandia shape ............................................................................................................... 55
Figure 3.7 Darrieus rotor geometries .......................................................................................... 61
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Curved blade vertical-axis wind turbine with three blades ...................................... 67
Figure 4.2 NACA 0012 Airfoil - Normal force and chordwise thrust coefficients .................. 69
Figure 4.3 Comparison of theory and experiment - a) Power coefficient; b) Rotor
drag coefficient .......................................................................................................... 72
Figure 4.4 Effect of rotor solidity Nc/R ...................................................................................... 74
Figure 4.5 Effect of blade airfoil Cdo ........................................................................................................................ 75
Figure 4.6 Upstream and plan view of typical streamtube ......................................................... 77
Figure 4.7 Blade element forces .................................................................................................. 78
Figure 4.8 Relative velocity vector ............................................................................................. 79
Figure 4.9 Comparison of DART and single streamtube models with Sandia test data
(2m diameter rotor) .................................................................................................... 81
Figure 4.10 Variation of streamtube velocities through the rotor (view looking upstream
through the rotor) ....................................................................................................... 82
Figure 4.11 The effect of solidity on CP (Re = 3.0 × 106) ........................................................... 83
Figure 4.12 Contribution of equatorial band to CP .............................................................................................. 84
Figure 4.13 Effect of wind shear on rotor performance ............................................................... 85
Figure 4.14 Vortex system for a single blade element .................................................................. 86
Figure 4.15 Velocity induced at a point by a vortex filament ...................................................... 86
Figure 4.16 Fixed-wake geometry ................................................................................................. 88
Figure 4.17 Rotor aerodynamic torque, Sandia 17-m-diameter research turbine, two
blades, NACA 0015 section, 61-cm chord, 50.6 rpm, X = 2.18 ............................... 89
Figure 4.18 Fixed-wake theory and test results, Sandia 17-m-diameter research turbine,
two blades, NACA 0015 section, 61-cm chord, 50.6 rpm ........................................ 89
Figure 4.19 Schematic of a typical Darrieus turbine .................................................................... 90
Figure 4.20 Numerical representation of the Darrieus rotor ........................................................ 92
Figure 4.21 Vortex system for a single blade element [Ref. 4.14] ............................................... 93
Figure 4.22 Normal force coefficient variation. - Two-dimensional VDART-TURBO,
c/R = 0.135; VDART2, c/R = 0.15 [Ref. 4.14]; Experiment [Ref. 4.14] ......... 94
Figure 4.23 Normal force coefficient variation, c/R = 0.135. - Three-dimensional
VDART-TURBO; VDART3 [Ref. 4.14] ............................................................... 95
Figure 4.24 Tangential force coefficient variation. - Two-dimensional VDART-TURBO,
c/R = 0.135; VDART2, c/R = 0.15 [Ref. 4.14] ...................................................... 95
Figure 4.25 Tangential force coefficient variation c/R = 0.135. - Three-dimensional
VDART-TURBO; VDART3 [Ref. 4.14] ............................................................... 95
List of Figures xv
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Airfoil in Darrieus motion ....................................................................................... 102
Figure 5.2 Dynamic-stall events on the Vertol VR-7 airfoil [5.1] ........................................... 104
Figure 5.3 Non-inertial frame of reference ............................................................................... 106
Figure 5.4 Computational domain ............................................................................................. 107
Figure 5.5 Algorithm ................................................................................................................. 113
Figure 5.6 Wake definition ........................................................................................................ 116
Figure 5.7 Computation of the eddy viscosity .......................................................................... 117
Figure 5.8 Stations on the structured zone ................................................................................ 119
Figure 5.9 Flat plate shape ........................................................................................................ 121
Figure 5.10 Computational mesh for flat plate ........................................................................... 121
Figure 5.11 Pressure distribution over flat plate ......................................................................... 122
Figure 5.12 Boundary layer velocity profile – Cebeci-Simth .................................................... 122
Figure 5.13 Boundary layer velocity profile – Johnson-King .................................................... 122
Figure 5.14 Non-inertial frame - Pitching motion ..................................................................... 123
Figure 5.15 Computational mesh – NACA 0015 pitching airfoil .............................................. 124
Figure 5.16 Transitional function – Pitching motion .................................................................. 124
Figure 5.17 Lift coefficient – Cebeci-Smith model .................................................................... 125
Figure 5.18 Drag coefficient – Cebeci-Smith model .................................................................. 125
Figure 5.19 Lift coefficient – Johnson-King model .................................................................... 126
Figure 5.20 Drag coefficient – Johnson-King model .................................................................. 126
Figure 5.21 Computational mesh #2 – Darrieus motion ............................................................. 127
Figure 5.22 Evolution of the relative velocity and angle of attack for Darrieus motion ........... 128
Figure 5.23 Darrieus motion simulation ..................................................................................... 128
Figure 5.24 Evolution of the effective Reynolds number ........................................................... 129
Figure 5.25 Computed streamlines – Cebeci-Smith model ........................................................ 131
Figure 5.26 Evolution of the vorticity field – Cebeci-Smith model ........................................... 132
Figure 5.27 Computed streamlines – Johnson-King model ........................................................ 133
Figure 5.28 Evolution of the vorticity field – Johnson-King model .......................................... 134
Figure 5.29 Dynamic-stall regions – Cebeci-Smith model ........................................................ 135
Figure 5.30 Dynamic-stall regions – Johnson-King model ........................................................ 135
Figure 5.31 Dynamic-stall regions – Laminar case .................................................................... 135
Figure 5.32 Evolution of the normal force – Laminar case ........................................................ 136
Figure 5.33 Evolution of the normal force – Cebeci-Smith model ............................................ 136
Figure 5.34 Evolution of the normal force – Johnson-King model ............................................ 137
Figure 5.35 Evolution of the tangential force – Laminar case ................................................... 137
xvi List of Figures
Figure 5.36 Evolution of the tangential force – Cebeci-Smith model ....................................... 138
Figure 5.37 Evolution of the tangential force – Johnson-King model ....................................... 138
Figure 5.38 Evolution of the pitching moment ........................................................................... 139
Figure 5.39 Wake convection ...................................................................................................... 139
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 A pair of actuator disks in tandem ........................................................................... 147
Figure 6.2 Double actuator disks streamlines pattern ............................................................... 149
Figure 6.3 Control volumes 1 and 2 .......................................................................................... 149
Figure 6.4 Control volumes 3, 4 and 5 ...................................................................................... 150
Figure 6.5 Relative velocity and angle of attack ...................................................................... 153
Figure 6.6 Force coefficients of a blade element airfoil ........................................................... 154
Figure 6.7 Elemental forces on a blade element ....................................................................... 155
Figure 6.8 Elemental forces on a blade element airfoil (in a horizontal plane) ...................... 155
Figure 6.9 Definition of rotor geometry for a Darrieus wind turbine. Two actuator
disks in tandem ......................................................................................................... 159
Figure 6.10 Angles, forces and velocity vectors at the equator ................................................. 160
Figure 6.11 Comparison between normal force coefficients calculated by the multiple
streamtube theory, and the present model. Sandia 5-m, 162.5 rpm ........................ 165
Figure 6.12 Variation of the normal force coefficients with azimuthal angle q, for each
blade, in the upwind and downwind zones ............................................................. 166
Figure 6.13 Variation of the normal force coefficients with azimuthal angle q, for two
blades, at three tip-speed ratios ............................................................................... 166
Figure 6.14 Comparison between tangential force coefficients calculated by the multiple
streamtube theory and the present model ................................................................ 167
Figure 6.15 Variation of the tangential force coefficients with the azimuthal angle q, for
each blade, in the upwind and downwind zones ..................................................... 167
Figure 6.16 Variation of the tangential force coefficients with the azimuthal angle q, for
the two blades, at the three tip-speed ratios ............................................................ 168
Figure 6.17 Power coefficient as a function of the equatorial tip-speed ratio.
Comparison between analytical model results and field test data [6.17]
for the Sandia 5-m, two-blade rotor ........................................................................ 169
Figure 6.18 Power coefficient as a function of the equatorial tip-speed ratio.
Comparison between analytical model results and field test data [6.17]
for the Sandia-5-m, three-blade rotor ...................................................................... 169
Figure 6.19 Upwind and downwind velocity ratios as functions of tip-speed ratio .................. 170
Figure 6.20 Variation of the angle of attack at the equator with the blade position .................. 171
Figure 6.21 Blade element normal force coefficients at the equator as a function
of the azimuthal angle q ........................................................................................... 171
Figure 6.22 Blade element tangential force coefficients at the equator as function
of the azimuthal angle, q ......................................................................................... 172
Figure 6.23 Upwind and downwind normal force coefficients distribution on the rotor
blades ........................................................................................................................ 172
Figure 6.24 Upwind and downwind tangential force coefficients distribution
on the rotor blades .................................................................................................... 173
Figure 6.25 Rotor torque as a function of the azimuthal angle. Comparison between
analytical results and experimental data ................................................................. 174
Figure 6.26 Upwind, downwind and total rotor power coefficients as functions of tip-speed
ratio ........................................................................................................................... 175
Figure 6.27 Power coefficient vs tip-speed ratio. Comparison between present model
results and field test data ......................................................................................... 176
Figure 6.28 Darrieus rotor power as a function of the wind velocity at the equator ................. 176
Figure 6.29 A typical Darrieus rotor performance characteristic CP as a function of
the tip-speed ratio XEQ ............................................................................................................................ 177
Figure 6.30 Power coefficient vs tip-speed ratio ........................................................................ 178
Figure 6.31 Performance coefficient vs advance ratio ............................................................... 179
Figure 6.32 Power coefficient vs tip-speed ratio for three types of airfoil ................................ 179
Figure 6.33 Tower wake-velocity deficit .................................................................................... 181
Figure 6.34 Measurement of the distribution of mean velocities and relative turbulence
intensities in the wake of a rotating cylinder .......................................................... 181
Figure 6.35 Power coefficient as a function of the tip-speed ratio. Comparison between
experimental data and results predicted by CARDAA, CARDAAV, and
VDART3 codes ........................................................................................................ 185
Figure 6.36 Open spoiler effects on the performance of the Magdalen Islands rotor ............... 186
Figure 6.37 Aerodynamic power as a function of wind speed at the equator. Comparison
between experimental data and results predicted by CARDAAV code,
including secondary effects ..................................................................................... 186
Figure 6.38 Induced velocity variation with blade position ....................................................... 187
Figure 6.39 Blade tangential force coefficient as a function of blade position ......................... 187
Figure 6.40 Average side-force coefficient as a function of tip-speed ratio .............................. 188
Figure 6.41 Simplified physical model of the flowfield in a horizontal slice of the rotor ........ 189
Figure 6.42 Reduction of the streamtube in the undisturbed part of the rotor vs the
tip-speed ratio ........................................................................................................... 192
Figure 6.43 Curve streamlines through the rotor, calculation and experiments ........................ 194
Figure 6.44 Variation of the angle of attack at the equator with the blade position .................. 195
Figure 6.45 Performance comparison between theoretical results and experimental data
for the Sandia 17-m turbine ..................................................................................... 196
Figure 6.46 Contribution of vertical slices to the power coefficient versus tip-speed
ratio ........................................................................................................................... 197
Figure 6.47 Performance comparison of theoretical results and experimental data for
the Sandia 5-m turbine ............................................................................................. 197
Figure 6.48 Normal force coefficient as a function of the azimuthal angle .............................. 198
Figure 6.49 Tangential force coefficient as a function of the azimuthal angle .......................... 198
Figure 6.50 Schematic diagram of the vortex shedding for X = 2.14 ........................................ 204
Figure 6.51 Gormont’s model adaptations: Magdalen Islands rotor at 29.4 rpm ...................... 205
Figure 6.52 Gormont’s model adaptations: Sandia 17-m at 42.2 rpm ....................................... 206
Figure 6.53 Gormont’s model adaptations: Sandia 34-m at 28.0 rpm ....................................... 206
Figure 6.54 VAWT: Angles, forces and velocities at the equator (MIT model) ........................ 208
Figure 6.55 Maximum lift and moment coefficients vs rate of change of angle of attack ........ 211
xviii List of Figures
Figure 6.56 Normal force coefficient vs angle of attack at the equator for Sandia 17-m,
38.7 rpm (experimental data and MIT model) ........................................................ 212
Figure 6.57 Normal force coefficient vs angle of attack at the equator for Sandia 17-m,
38.7 rpm (experimental data and Gormont’s model) .............................................. 212
Figure 6.58 Rotor power vs wind speed at the equator for Sandia 17-m, 42.2 rpm.
Dynamic-stall effects ............................................................................................... 213
Figure 6.59 Rotor power vs wind speed at the equator for Sandia 17-m, 46.6 rpm .................. 214
Figure 6.60 Rotor power vs wind speed at the equator for Sandia 17-m, 50.6 rpm .................. 214
Figure 6.61 The indicial functions as they vary with time ......................................................... 216
Figure 6.62 Typical curve of the position of the flow separation point function of a .............. 218
Figure 6.63 Critical normal force coefficient CNI for the onset of leading-edge
separation function of the Mach number ................................................................. 219
Figure 6.64 Dynamic-stall vortex lift contribution ..................................................................... 220
Figure 6.65 Normal force coefficient vs angle of attack ............................................................ 221
Figure 6.66 Aerodynamic torque vs azimuthal angle at low tip-speed ratio ............................. 221
Figure 6.67 Power output vs wind velocity ................................................................................ 222
Figure 6.68 Blade shape geometry for 34-m wind turbine ......................................................... 223
Figure 6.69 Rotor power vs wind speed at equator .................................................................... 224
Figure 6.70 Power coefficient vs tip-speed ratio ........................................................................ 224
Figure 6.71 Performance coefficient vs advance ratio ............................................................... 225
Figure 6.72 Rotor power vs wind speed at equator .................................................................... 225
Figure 6.73 Schematic of three-dimensional wind simulation for Darrieus rotor with
5 × 5 grids ................................................................................................................ 231
Figure 6.74 Sectional normal force coefficient versus azimuthal angle at the rotor
equator, XEQ = 4.60 and turbulence intensity = (27 percent, 25 percent) .............. 233
Figure 6.75 Sectional normal force coefficient versus azimuthal angle at the rotor
equator, XEQ = 2.49 and turbulence intensity = (27 percent, 25 percent).
Comparison between CARDAAS-1D & 3D, CARDAAV (0 percent
turbulence), and experimental data ......................................................................... 234
Figure 6.76 Sectional tangential force coefficient versus azimuthal angle at the rotor
equator, XEQ = 2, and three turbulence intensity levels. Comparison
between CARDAAS-1D & 3D, CARDAAV (0 percent turbulence) and
experimental data ..................................................................................................... 235
Figure 6.77 Rotor torque distribution, standard deviation, minimum and maximum
values at XEQ = 2.87 and turbulence intensity = (27 percent, 25 percent).
Comparison between CARDAAS-D and experimental data .................................. 236
Figure 6.78 Performance comparison between theoretical results and experimental data
for the Sandia 17-m wind turbine ............................................................................ 237
Figure 6.79 Normal force coefficient F +N as a function of the azimuthal angle q ..................... 238
Figure 6.80 RMS vibratory rotor tower stresses for the stiff cable configuration,
CARDAA aerodynamic model [Ref. 6.80] ............................................................. 239
Figure 6.81 Structural capabilities using three aerodynamic models for studying
Darrieus rotor ........................................................................................................... 240
Figure 6.82 Velocity field near blade tip ..................................................................................... 242
Figure 6.83 Upwind and downwind interference factors vs rotor height for a 6-m
List of Tables xxiii
List of
Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Average Power Output (kW) ............................................................................................ 5
Table 1.2 Europe’s Wind Power ....................................................................................................... 9
Table 1.3 Cost of Wind Electricity Evolution ................................................................................ 11
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Velocity Along the x-Axis for a = 1/3, X = 3 ................................................................. 32
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Power Performance Data Available from Field Tests .................................................... 40
Table 3.2 Power Output Performance Data Available From Wind Tunnel Tests .......................... 41
Table 3.3 Typical Relative Costs of VAWT Subsystems ................................................................ 41
Table 3.4 Geometrical Parameters for Two-Bladed Darrieus Rotors of Different Blade Shapes ..... 57
Table 3.5 Dimensionless Coordinates and Meridian Angle d (Radians) ....................................... 58
Table 3.6 Dimensionless Coordinates of the Magdalen Islands Darrieus Rotor .......................... 59
Table 3.7 Coordinates in Meters for an Ideal Troposkien and for the Magdalen-Islands
Darrieus Rotor (M.I.D.R.) .............................................................................................. 60
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Darrieus Motion Parameters ......................................................................................... 129
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Predicted and measured performances ......................................................................... 175
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Darrieus Rotor Tests in the Vought Systems Division Low Speed Wind Tunnel ....... 292
Table 7.2 Power Output Performance Data Available From Wind Tunnel Tests ........................ 295
Table 7.3 Sandia 17-m Turbine Rotor Configurations ................................................................. 309
Table 7.4 Aerodynamic Torques in Nm, 50.6 rpm ....................................................................... 324
Table 7.5 Fourier Coefficients of Torque, 50.6 rpm (Coefficients normalized
with mean torque) ......................................................................................................... 325
xxiv List of Tables
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Ohio State University Wind Tunnel Tests .................................................................... 330
Table 8.2 34 Meter Wind Turbine Blade Data ............................................................................. 334
Table 8.3 Performance Comparison Between Cam-bered and Symmetrical Blade Section
of the Sandia 5-Meter Research Turbine ...................................................................... 349
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Rotor Mass and Rotor Size ........................................................................................... 361
Table 9.2 Advantages of Two or Three Blades ............................................................................ 364
Table 9.3 Darrieus Wind Turbine Design Alternatives ................................................................ 375
Table 9.4 Darrieus Wind Turbine Improvements ......................................................................... 376
Table 9.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of HAWTs and VAWTs ............................................. 378
Table 9.6 VAWT Aspect Ratios .................................................................................................... 379
Table 9.7 Area Required for Wind Plants ..................................................................................... 381
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Survey on Energy Research Priority ............................................................................ 388
Table 10.2 Environmental Aspects versus Type of Wind Turbine ................................................. 389
Table 10.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2). The Leading Greenhouse Gas ................................................. 395
Table 10.4 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). The Leading Precursor of Acid Rain ....................................... 395
Table 10.5 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Another Acid Rain Precursor and the Leading
Component of Smog ..................................................................................................... 395
Wind Energy 1
Wind Energy
1.1 WIND DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
WIND is the movement of the air between high pressure and low pressure regions in the
atmosphere, caused by the uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. When the air above
hot surfaces is heated, it rises, creating a low pressure zone. The air surrounding higher pres-
sure zones flows toward the low pressure area, creating wind. For this reason, sometimes wind
energy is called “indirect solar energy.”
Wind varies with time in intensity and direction, and the potential of a wind site is
generally evaluated as a function of the annual average wind speed. Wind speeds can be
calculated for other periods to determine hourly, daily or monthly averages. Winds vary with
altitude and wind speed is also affected by ground features such as hills. The variation of wind
speed with altitude is due to friction between air movement and the earth’s surface (the
atmospheric boundary-layer). All weather offices report the wind speed at a standard height of
10 meters above ground. Wind near the ground gathers speed to climb a hill, then slows (and
sometimes becomes very turbulent) on the far side of the hill. The wind speed strength and
direction are measured by anemometers.
(HAWT) and Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT). Horizontal-axis wind turbines capture
kinetic wind energy with a propeller type rotor and their rotational axis is parallel to the direc-
tion of the wind (Fig. 1.1). Vertical-axis wind turbines use straight or curved bladed (Darrieus
type) rotors with rotating axes perpendicular to the wind stream. They can capture wind from
any direction (Fig. 1.2). The most popular wind turbine systems are of the “propeller type,” but
the VAWTs have not yet benefited from the years of development undergone by HAWTs. These
two kinds of wind machine are compared in Chapter 9.
Figure 1.1 Components - Upwind rotor and downwind HAWT rotor [Ref. 1.1]
Both HAWTs and VAWTs have about the same ideal efficiency but the horizontal-axis wind tur-
bine is more common. It has the entire rotor, gearbox and generator at the top of the tower, and
must be turned to face the wind direction. The VAWT accepts wind from any direction, and its
heavy machinery is at ground level. This is more convenient for maintenance, particularly on
large units or when operating in potential icing conditions.
Both types of wind turbines have the same general components:
- a rotor to convert wind energy into mechanical power,
- a tower to support the rotor,
- a gearbox to adjust the rotational speed of the rotor shaft for the electric generator or
pump,
- a control system to monitor operation of the wind turbine in automatic mode, including
starting and stopping,
- a foundation (sometimes aided by guy wires) to prevent the turbine from blowing over
in high winds.
Wind Energy 3
Upper Bearing
Upper Hub
Central Column
Cables
Rotor
Height
Rotor
Diameter Lower Hub
Lower Bearing
The size of a wind turbine is measured in terms of swept area, or surface area swept by the
rotating blades. The swept area of the rotor is calculated from the diameter of the rotor by:
S = 0.785 D2 for HAWTs or by S = 1.000 D2 for typical VAWTs with an aspect ratio (height/
diameter) of 1.5.
The control system of wind turbines is connected to an anemometer that continuously
measures wind speed. When wind speed is high enough to overcome friction in the drive train,
the control system allows the turbine to rotate, producing limited power. This is the “cut-in”
wind speed, usually about 4 or 5 m/s. Wind turbines normally have a “rated wind speed,”
corresponding to maximum output power. Typically, the rated wind speed is about 10-12 m/s.
If wind speed exceeds rated wind speed, the control system prevents further power increases
until “cut-out” wind speed is reached, at approximatively 25 m/s.
VAWTs are generally classified according to aerodynamic and mechanical characteristics,
or the lifting surfaces, or the movement of the blades of the rotor, about a vertical-axis along a
path in a horizontal plane. Today, there are four classes of VAWTs (Fig. 1.3):
a) the articulating straight-blade Giromill;
b) the Savonius rotor, a mostly drag-driven device;
c) the variable-geometry Musgrove, which permits reefing of the blades; and,
d) the fixed-blade Darrieus rotor.
Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) have been studied by various researchers using modern
analysis techniques. Common examples of these vertical-axis wind turbines are the Savonius
and Darrieus turbines. In 1968, South and Rangi, from the National Research Council of
Canada, reintroduced the Darrieus rotor concept. Since then, many analytical models predicting
the aerodynamic performance of this type of wind turbine have been formulated.
State of the Art of Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines 15
The earliest practical wind machines were the “Panemones” (examples: Persian vertical-
axis windmill in Sist a n, A.D. 1300 and Chinese vertical-axis windmill, A.D. 1219). These ma-
chines were of vertical-axis type driven by drag forces with a multi-bladed rotor operating at
very low tip-speed ratios (much less than unity), which explains their poor efficiency. In spite
of the simple design, the panemones need large amounts of material, are not able to withstand
high wind loads and thus have not proven cost-effective.
Figure 2.1 The Madaras concept for generating electricity using the Magnus effect [2.1]
16 Chapter 2
The Magnus effect would propel the cars around the track and drive generators connected
to the car axles. The Madaras concept for generating electricity using Magnus effect did not
succeed because of mechanical complexity: the need to reverse direction of the cylinder at each
end of the oval track, poor aerodynamic design (low “tip speed” with low aerodynamic effi-
ciency), mechanical losses (high track loads and overturning moments), lower wind speeds near
the ground and electrical losses.
Subscripts
u = uncorrected for blockage
• = freestream conditions
State of the Art of Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines 17
Another vertical-axis machine based on the low lift-to-drag ratio is the Savonius rotor
named after its Finnish inventor [2.1-2.3]. The Savonius rotor has an “S-shaped” cross-section
and appears as a vertical cylinder sliced in half from top to bottom. It operates as a cup
anemometer with the addition that wind is allowed to pass between the bent sheets (or buckets).
The Savonius rotor has been studied using wind tunnel tests by several researchers since the
1920s [2.4-2.12]. Generally speaking, Savonius rotors can reach maximum power coefficient of
30%. Moreover, it is not efficient with respect to weight/unit power output since it would
require as much as 30 times the surface to output the same power as a conventional wind
turbine. For this reason, the Savonius machine is only useful and economical for small power
requirements such as water pumping, driving a small electrical generator, providing ventilation,
and providing water agitation to keep stock ponds ice-free during winter. It is also commonly
used as an ocean current meter. The technology required to design and manufacture a Savonius
rotor is very simple and is recommended for applications in developing countries or in isolated
areas without electrical power. A simple Savonius rotor can be manufactured by cutting an oil
barrel in half, inverting one of the halves, and welding the two pieces together in a S-shaped
cross-section.
A significant step in the development of larger and more efficient commercial Darrieus VAWT’s
was the installation and operation of 34-m Sandia-DOE VAWT in 1987, rated at 625 kW. The
Sandia 34-m turbine (Fig. 3.1) was the first curved-blade Darrieus turbine rotor originally
designed to incorporate step tapered blades using varying blade-section airfoils and a blade
airfoil section specifically designed for VAWTs. The equator and transition sections of that ro-
tor use the SAND 0018/50 airfoil section while the root sections are NACA 0021, [3.19-3.20].
The test beds are designed so that configurations can be quickly and easily changed to
investigate the basic physics of wind turbines. For example, the Sandia 34-m test bed is
equipped with a variable speed drive system to permit, among other things, performance tests
of new blade airfoils and blade shapes over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. Test beds are
normally operated on a limited basis and only for specific tests.
The Canadians manufactured the first large-scale Darrieus turbine rated at 230 kW with an
estimated average output of 100 kW on Magdalen-Islands in May 1977. An unexpected self-
start with no brakes destroyed this prototype, and a similar VAWT was installed in 1978, [3.21].
Performance test data for this turbine operating at 29.4 rpm [3.22], are believed to be the first
field data gathered on large scale Darrieus turbines that clearly show the performance in the post
stall regime (at low tip-speed ratios). A complete data set for operation at 36.6 rpm could not
be obtained because high wind operation was limited to about 15 m/s. The performance data
obtained from this turbine were an important element in the design of the Indal 6400-500 kW
turbine since the effects of dynamic stall were not included in performance prediction models,
and peak power output was seriously underestimated by the models.
Under Sandia technical guidance and DOE support funding, Alcoa constructed four 17-m,
100-kW units, two of which were grid-connected. One of these was tested successfully for over
10,000 h in storm winds exceeding 120 mph, [3.23-3.25]. The performance testing of the Sandia
National Laboratories 2, 5, 17 and 34-m research turbines resulted in the most rigorous and
exhaustive set of performance data and comparisons to theoretical predictions. SNL routinely
presented test and predicted data in non-dimensional form, to facilitate comparison with other
data, including those for HAWTs.
The greatest power output measured for any Darrieus wind turbine constructed to date has
been from the Lavalin Eole (64 m) Research Turbine [3.26]. Built in 1986 in Cap Chat, Quebec,
Canada, Eole is a two-bladed NACA 0018 rotor at fixed rotational speeds of 10 and 11.35 rpm
respectively. The maximum power output is in excess of 1.3 MW at 14.7 m/s and corresponds
to 11.35 rpm. The Eole wind turbine was designed to operate in a variable speed mode up to a
rotor speed of 16.3 rpm with the maximum power reaching about 3.6 MW at 17 m/s and then
being held constant by decreasing rotor speed at higher wind speeds [3.27]. However, fatigue
life predictions showed that the turbine should be limited to 13.25 rpm with a nominal cut-out
of 15 m/s (about 2 MW maximum power output) in order to operate successfully for the five
year duration of the energy purchase agreement.
FloWind was a leader in delivering wind generated electricity to U.S. utilities, and
designed, manufactured and operated wind turbines from 1982 to 1997. They developed a
VAWT FloWind 19-m using a two-bladed NACA 0015 operating at 51.8 rpm and producing
250 kW at a wind speed of about 20 m/s, [3.28-3.29]. Drawing upon this experience, FloWind
developed a new generation advanced vertical-axis wind turbine, with an extended height-
to-diameter (EHD) ratio. This class of advanced VAWT maximizes production from any given
wind area. In this case, an optimal balance between aerodynamic efficiency, wake loss and
swept area is achieved by varying rotor height and diameter. For example, the three bladed
FloWind EHD 17-m wind turbine, using a laminar airfoil SNLA 0021/50, can produce 175 kW
at 51.8 rpm operating in a wind of 16 m/s, [3.30].
The power performance data available for Darrieus wind turbines from field tests in several
countries is summarised in Table 3.1. Table 3.2 shows a few Darrieus wind turbines for which
power output data are available from wind tunnel tests. In both cases, both the predicted power
and the aerodynamic model used for calculation are indicated.
Aerodynamic Performance
Prediction Models "
Nomenclature
a = velocity interference factor (Eq. 4.37)
c = chord length of blade, m
CDD = disk drag coefficient
CN = normal force coefficient
CP = average coefficient of power
CPe = elemental coefficient of power (Eq. 4.72)
CT = tangential force coefficient
c/R = chord-to-radius ratio
D = wind turbine drag, N
FN = normal force on turbine blade, N
FN* = dimensionless normal force on turbine blade
FT = tangential force on turbine blade, N
FT* = dimensionless tangential force on turbine blade
h = height of streamtube, m
2H = rotor height, m
L = lift force, N
N = number of blades
Nc/R = rotor solidity (Eq. 4.15)
NLEV = number of vertically spaced blade divisions (see Fig. 4.20)
NSTA = number of angular blade positions (Eq. 4.58 and Fig. 4.20)
q = local relative dynamic pressure, N/m2
r = local turbine radius, m
R = radius of turbine at equator, m
S = frontal area of turbine (or disk area), m2
t = time, s
TB = total torque, N◊◊ m (Eq. 4.20)
Te = elemental blade torque, N◊◊ m (Eq. 4.70)
Te* = dimensionless blade torque (Eq. 4.71)
TS = single blade torque, N◊◊ m (Eq. 4.19)
V = fluid velocity, m/s
vd = velocity through wind turbine disk, m/s
Vd = disturbance velocity, m/s
Vr = relative fluid velocity, m/s
Vt = tip-speed, m/s
VT = tangential blade velocity at equator, m/s
Vw = wake convection velocity, m/s
66 Chapter 4
V∞ = freestream velocity, m/s
W = relative velocity, m/s
w( y) = downwash velocity, m/s
X = tip-speed ratio
z = height with respect to equator, m
a = angle of attack, deg
d = blade slope angle (or meridian angle), deg
g = vorticity, m2/s
gS = shed vorticity, m2/s
gt = trailing vorticity, m2/s
gw = wake vorticity, m2/s
G = circulation, m2/s
h = r/R
q = azimuthal angle of turbine blade, deg
r = fluid density, kg/m3
w = angular velocity, rad-1
z = z/H
Subscripts
EQ = equator
• = freestream value
Superscripts
(-) = mean value
(*) = dimensionless value
Hence
V∞ 1
= 1 + CDD (4.4)
VD 4
For structural design purposes, a more convenient drag coefficient CD is based on the ambient
dynamic pressure, where
2
D V CDD
CD = = CDD D =
1 V∞ 1 + 1 C
2
ρ V∞2 S (4.5)
2 4
DD
For a given wind turbine geometry and rotational speed w, the aerodynamic performance,
turbine power and rotor drag are calculated using the blade element theory. In general,
the curved shape of the vertical-axis wind rotor is that of a skipping rope, spinning about a
vertical-axis and assuming the gravity forces to be negligible. For a ratio of rotor height to
rotor diameter of unity, the shape can be approximated by a parabola and the blade shape is
given by the expression:
2
r z
= 1− (4.6)
R H
which in nondimensional form is h = 1 - z 2, with h = r/R and z = z/H, where r is the local
rotor radius and z is the height above the equatorial plane. By differentiating the relation (4.6)
we can obtain the local blade slope given by angle d (Fig. 4.1).
1
δ = tan −1 (4.7)
2ζ
Figure 4.1 Curved blade vertical-axis wind turbine with three blades
Unsteady Aerodynamics − CFD Models 101
Unsteady Aerodynamics
CFD Models #
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The environment-friendly nature of wind energy and recent advances in wind turbine
technology have made this renewable energy source a promising alternative for the future.
Although the horizontal-axis wind turbine is the most common device of its type, the Darrieus
vertical-axis model has proven one of the most efficient systems of wind energy conversion. Its
many advantages include its independence of wind direction and its simplicity. Some of the
most complex and least understood phenomena in the field of Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) are associated with the description of the flow past rotating blades (Fig. 5.1). A major
aspect of the unsteady aerodynamics of the Darrieus rotor is dynamic stall, which occurs at low
tip-speed ratios. Its effects have a significant influence on the overall system design. According
to many experimental tests, the feature of dynamic stall that distinguishes it from static stall is
the shedding of significant concentrated vorticity from the leading-edge region. This vortex
disturbance subsequently sweeps over the airfoil surface causing pressure changes and resulting
in significant increases in airfoil lift and large nose-down pitching that exceeds static values.
Nomenclature
A = cross-section of the body surrounded by Bs , nondimensionalized by c 2, (Fig. 5.4)
A+ = constant in the law of the wall coordinate (A+ = 26 (CSM), A+ = 17 (JKM), (Eq. 5.48)
B• = external boundary of B, (Fig. 5.4)
Bs = internal boundary of B, (Fig. 5.4)
B = computational domain
CM = pitching moment coefficient
CN = normal force coefficient
Cp = pressure coefficient
CT = tangential force coefficient
c = airfoil chord, m
e = finite
element
domain
(e1, e2, e3) = (e1 , e2 , e3 ) , unit vectors along x, y and z directions
FKleb = Klebanoff intermittence function
g = function defined as τ −1 2
m , (Eq. 5.59)
k = turbulent kinetic energy
k* = wc/(2u∞), reduced frequency
n Pe , nψe , nωe = number of nodes associated to finite element
P = perturbation pressure, nondimensionalized by u∞2 , (Eq. 5.59)
p = pressure, nondimensionalized by ρ u∞ 2
Subscripts
e = edge of boundary layer
eq = equilibrium value
i = inner layer
m = value at t = tmax
o = outer layer
t = turbulent
w = wall
• = freestream value
Superscripts
k = iteration level
(¯) = mean value
(·) = first total time derivative
( )¢ = fluctuating value
Double-Multiple Streamtube - A Practical Design Model 151
Ta =
1
2
(
ρ V∞2 − VΩ2 a ) (6.16)
Substituting the value of VW from equation (6.15) and the value of a from equation (6.6) one
obtaines
Ta = 2 ρV ′(V∞ − V ) A (6.17)
Substituting the results obtained in equation (6.6) and knowing that T1 = D1 results in
D1 = 2 ρA(V∞ − V )V (6.18)
Taking into account (6.6) and (6.11), and substituting (6.17) in (6.5).
D1
CD1 =
1 (6.19)
ρV∞2 A
2
one obtains
V V
CD1 = 4 1 − (6.20)
V∞ V∞
as the drag coefficient of the upstream actuator disk.
[
V ′′ = V ′ ± V ′ 2 + 4V (V − V ′ − V∞ ) + V∞ (2V ′ + V∞ ) ]
12
(6.21)
Knowing that T2 = D2 and combining equations (6.17) and (6.7) one obtains
D2 = ρAV ′ (2V − V∞ − V ′′) (6.22)
defining the drag coefficient CD 2 as
D2
CD2 =
1 (6.23)
ρV∞2 A
2
and combining it with equation (6.21) results in
V ′ 2
12
V′ V V′ V′ V V V′
CD2 = 2 2 − + + 2 + 4 − − 1 + 1 − 1 (6.24)
V∞ V∞ V∞ V∞ V∞ V∞ V∞ V∞
as the drag coefficient of the down-stream actuator disk.
We thus obtain the drag coefficient for each actuator disk. Note that the drag coefficient of
the upstream actuator disk, CD1 , is a function of only V/V• and that of the down-stream, CD 2 ,
is a function of V/V• and V ¢/V•.
The overall drag of the wind turbine is the summation of the drag of the upwind and
downwind actuator disks. Thus, in coefficient form:
CD = CD1 + CD2 (6.25)
There are some theoretical limitations to the values of CD1 and V/V•. One can invert
equation (6.20) and obtain the velocity ratio V/V• as a function of the drag coefficient CD1
V 1 1
= + 1 − CD1 (6.26)
V∞ 2 2
The maximum theoretical value of CD1 is 1.0 at V/V• = 0.5.
Horizontal Plane
d
r V cos q cos d
W
q a
wr 90o - q V
d
V sin q V cos q
Airfoil Characteristics
We assume that two dimensional airfoil characteristics can be used for the local blade
element lift and drag coefficients. Care must be taken to use airfoil characteristics appropriate
to the wind turbine blade Reynolds number. It is convenient for further calculations to resolve
the respective drag and lift coefficients into a normal force coefficient CN and a thrust force
coefficient CT as shown in Figure 6.6.
154 Chapter 6
CL
CL cos a
CD sin a
CL sin a
CD
a
W CD cos a
Normal blade force coefficient data should be corrected by subtracting the centrifugal for-
ces induced in the experiment. This correction is given by Strickland et al [7.2]:
ρ t bt 2
∆ FN+ = −1.34 B λ (7.3)
ρ f c bf
where rB/rf is the blade density to fluid density ratio, t/c is the thickness to chord ratio, and
lbt/lbf is the total blade length to the blade length immersed in the fluid ratio. The numerical
coefficient is equal to twice the airfoil cross sectional area divided by the thickness chord
product. This correction is insignificant at the lower tip-speed ratios producing a downward
shift in the FN+ curve of only 0.48 at a tip-speed of 2.5. At a tip-speed ratio of 7.5, the shift is
equal to about 4.29.
Figure 7.4 Blade force data for a two-dimensional rotor (Re = 40,000, N = 2, l = 7.5, tow
tank data, --- quasi-steady model, - dynamic model)
The blade force measurements on two dimensional rotor, having two blades (N = 2), are
compared with analytical prediction and results at a tip-speed ratio of 7.5 are shown in Fig. 7.4.
At this tip-speed ratio, only the dynamic effects are present; dynamic stall does not occur. As
can be noted from this figure, these dynamic effects produce a significant downward shift in the
FN+ curve and an amplification in the FT+ curve. It is apparent that these effects should be
included in the analytical model.
The agreement between the VDART2 model and this experiment is reasonably good in
light of the uncertainties. The hump seen in the experimental curve near 1080 deg + 270 deg
may be partially due to misalignment errors in the blade mounting. Errors on the order of 1 deg
Figure 7.5 Blade force data for a two-dimensional rotor (Re = 40,000, N = 2, l = 2.5, tow
tank data, --- quasi-steady model, - dynamic model)
in the blade angle of attack could cause this level of deviation from the analysis. A slight phase
shift is also apparent between analysis and experiment. The exact cause of this shift is unknown,
but may be partially due to the time step size used in the analytical model. Since calculations
are spread over a particular time step which represents about 15 deg of rotor rotation, the shift
due to this cause could potentially reach 15 deg.
Results at a tip-speed ratio of 2.5 illustrated in Fig. 7.5 show the dominant effects due to
dynamic stall. It is apparent from Fig. 7.5 that some sort of correction to the quasi-steady
analysis is required to adequately predict the experimental results. Strict application of the
+
method yielded values of FT which were on the order of 3.5. The modified Boeing-Vertol
dynamic-stall model [7.9] (by adopting the time delay coefficients) does appear to yield
improvement in prediction of normal and tangential forces, but the results are not totally
satisfying.
At a moderate tip-speed ratio of 5.0 each of the dynamic effects (added mass, pitching
circulation and dynamic stall) are important. The effects of dynamic stall are strongly related
to the chord to radius ratio, c/R, as are other dynamic effects which are strongest for large c/R
values. The two-dimensional experiment conducted by Strickland represents a rather large c/R
value equal to 0.15, as opposed to about 0.05 for most full-scale rotors. Thus this experimental
configuration represents a rather severe test with regard to dynamic effects.
Wake Structure
Results from the two-dimensional tow tank experiment, as well as results from the wake
measurements behind a three-dimensional Darrieus turbine made by Vermeulen [7.10], will be
compared with analytical results. The test conditions at Texas Tech University [7.2] are very
different for the two sets of experiments representing a two-dimensional low turbulence level
flow, while the measurements made by Vermeulen represent a three-dimensional high turbu-
lence level atmospheric flow.
For two-dimensional rotors, velocity profiles were taken at one and two rotor diameters
down-stream of the rotors used in the tow tank test series. These experimental data were
compared with the VDART computer code, and also with the simple momentum model [7.11].
The simple momentum model can be used to estimate the fully developed wake by multiplying
the velocity defect computed for the "actuator" disk by a factor of two. The wake behind a
Darrieus turbine reaches a fully developed condition within about one rotor diameter down-
stream of its vertical-axis.
The level of agreement between both numerical and the experimental data is reasonably
good so long as the perturbation velocities are small [7.2]. However, the momentum model is
unable to predict a reasonable wake velocity profile for cases where the perturbation velocity
approaches 1.0. It is well known that the momentum model breaks down for these cases.
The vortex model predicts reasonable results for the average streamwise velocity perturba-
tions at the higher tip-speed ratios and for larger rotor solidities. This numerical model is also
capable of predicting both instantaneous streamwise and lateral perturbation velocities as
illustrated in Figs 7.6 and 7.7.
Innovative Aerodynamic Devices for Darrieus Rotor 333
In 1984, Klimas [8.6] from Sandia National Laboratories has performed the first tests of
NLF blades on the Sandia 5-m research wind turbine. The test results on SAND 0015/47 and
the SAND 0018/50 airfoils were compared to results for the NACA 0015 bladed version of
5-m turbine. The following conclusions were reached:
a) NLF blade sections reduce the peak power output while maintaining the performance at
lower wind speeds (Figs 8.5 and 8.6).
b) The power coefficient was nearly constant over a wide range of tip-speed ratios and the cut-
in tip-speed ratio was the same. The unfavourable result (cut-in tip-speed ratio) for SAND
0018/50 can be explained by low Reynolds number effect and an excessive flow separation.
Figure 8.5 Performance of the Sandia 5-m turbine with NACA 0015 and SAND 0015/47
airfoil sections
334 Chapter 8
Figure 8.6 Power coefficient versus tip-speed ratio for the Sandia 5 meter diameter test tur-
bine with SAND 0015/47 and NACA 0015 blade sections
Further testing was carried out by Sandia using the 17-m research turbine with two blades
having chords of 0.61 m, [8.7,8.8]. The blade sections near the root used the NACA 0015 airfoil
and the SAND 0018/50 airfoil was used in the centre portion. Figure 8.7 shows the test results
for this configuration and for the same turbine equipped with blades having the NACA 0015
airfoil only. The stall regulation effect at 50.6 rpm is clearly shown.
The Sandia 34-m turbine [8.9] was the first curved blade Darrieus turbine rotor originally
designed to incorporate step tapered blades using varying blade section airfoil and a blade
airfoil section specifically designed for VAWTs. The equator and transition sections of that
rotor use the SAND 0018/50 airfoil section while the root sections are NACA 0021. The blade
sections were fabricated of multiple aluminium alloy extrusions joined along the span and the
blade design details are presented in Table 8.2.
The five blade sections per blade were joined together using external joints. The chord
changes abruptly at the joints (hence the term step tapered blade) along with a slope
discontinuity. Aerodynamic smoothing coumpound was used to cover recessed bolt heads, to
fair portions of the external blade-to-blade joints into the blades and to protect surface mounted
transducers and their associated wiring and completion units. The blades were painted.
Blade Section Length of Section Airfoil Section Airfoil Chord No. of Extrusions
Equatorial, curved 19.1 m, 1 per blade SAND 0018/50 0.91 m 2
Transition, curved 7.5 m, 2 per blade SAND 0018/50 1.07 m 2
Root, Straight 9.2 m, 2 per blade NACA 0021 1.22 m 3
90
DOE/SANDIA
80 17-m VAWT
50.6 rpm
70
60
50
Power, P (kW)
40
30
20 Rotor
NACA 0015
Hybrid
10
-10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Wind speed, VEQ (mph)
Figure 8.7 Sandia 17 meter research turbine measured performance operating with the SAND
0018/50 airfoil section
The first rotor power test results [8.10, 8.11] compared with the predicted performance
using the double-multiple streamtube approach and a modified Gormont dynamic-stall model
except for the NLF sections of the blade. The discrepancy between test data and predictions
may be explained by several factors, as well as: the use in calculation of 2-D experimental CL
and CD obtained in quiet (low turbulence) and in linear flow wind tunnel are questionable. The
Sandia SNLA 0021/50 airfoil produces an earlier transition and no laminar separation with a
larger drag than expected by 2-D experiment [8.12].
The paint of the blades had flaked at the leading edge of the NLF blade sections, which
created forward facing steps near the leading edge with a height of approximately 0.25 mm.
These were believed to be very significant boundary layer trips which could be expected to
destroy the laminar flow over the blade and result in higher drag and lower lift than predicted.
To correct the problem, the paint was removed from the leading edges for a distance of at least
one cm or until an area was reached where the paint adhered well. The bare metal was then faired
smoothly into the remaining painted surface with emery paper. Power output performance
subsequently improved greatly in high wind and modestly in low wind, as shown in Fig. 8.8
(Berg, Klimas and Stephenson [8.11]). The improvement in low wind was due to a decrease in
CD0 while the improvement at high winds was due to a decrease in CD0 and an increase in CLmax.
300
DOE/SANDIA 34-m
250 Test bed performance
Power, P (kW)
200
150
CARDAA: 28.0 rpm
100 Measured: 28.3 rpm
L. E. peeling
Measured: 28.3 rpm
50 L. E. sanded
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Equatorial wind speed, VEQ (mph)
Figure 8.8 Sandia 34 meter turbine performance before and after clean up of paint flaking
The number of blades and the choice of blade chord can also be influenced by the choice
of blade construction. The largest available single aluminium alloy extrusion is approximately
0.76 m, so for machines exceeding 25 m in diameter combined multiple extrusions or an
increased number of blades may be possible. The Adecon SL55 has four blades, partly because
of the availability of extrusions from earlier machines.
Table 9.2 shows the advantages and disadvantages of two vs three blades. This is an
example of the laws of structural- and aerodynamics combined with overall economics. The
rotor with the lowest solidity will usually capture the most energy for the least installed mass
adds cost. However, structural considerations favour blades with larger chord since the elastic
module (controlling stress for a given bending moment) increases with the square of the chord.
The logical outcome of this would lead to a one-bladed machine which confronts the designer
with rotor balance problems.
The additional complexity of erecting a three-bladed rotor has also favoured the two-bladed
rotor. The only circumstances which might lead to a cost-effective three-bladed rotor is the
demonstration that the former has considerably more favorable structural dynamics than the
latter.
In 1978, Ljungstrom [9.26] proposed a series of rotors incorporating double blades con-
nected by a number of spacers. The advantage of this concept is that its combined in-plane
stiffness and strength is many times greater than a single blade and survival wind stability can
be achieved with relatively small blades. Disadvantages are that the second blade does not
contribute to the performance as if it were a single blade; the parasitic loss at the intersections
of the blades and the spacers can be considerable; and the blades could be costly to manufacture.
The cost effectiveness of wind turbines is depending on maximizing energy capture while
minimizing the cost of all components, including the drive train, Kadlec [9.27, 9.28]. This
meant minimizing the peak low-speed torque by avoiding airfoils with high lift coefficients and
led to the development of a family of airfoils at Ohio State University based on laminar flow
over the leading section of the blade and earlier stalling [9.29]. These airfoils were tested on the
DOE 100 kW rotor and were included in the Sandia/DOE 34-m Test Bed [9.30]. While several
studies have confirmed the potential improvements to be obtained by using the laminar flow, or
“tailored” airfoils [9.31], test results have been mixed. The maximum power appears to have
been successfully attenuated except in the presence of insect accumulation, when attenuation
was diminished.
The performance of HAWTs has increased considerably over the past decade and, they can
reach a power coefficient of 0.49 and, in a 8.04 m/s mean (Rayleigh) wind speed, for an annual
electrical production of 1500 kWh/m2. This resulted from improved airfoils, variable speed or
multi-speed operation and more efficient drive trains.
These levels of performance cannot currently be matched by the Darrieus rotor although the
gap is not great. The aerodynamic efficiency of the Darrieus wind turbine may be improved by
using blade airfoils that reduce drag. These might be improvements on the attempt at laminar
flow blades designed at Ohio State University [9.29] and used on the Sandia 34-m Test Bed (see
Chapter 8).
and has been incorporated into the Sandia/DOE 34-m Test Bed. However, production of a
continuous taper or even a series of steps greatly increases the rotor cost.
An innovation for the Darrieus rotor was obtained by changing the chord and/or airfoil
section along the blade span. This was done only in a stepwise manner on the 34-m Test Bed.
This change depends largely on manufacturing technology (see Section 8.1).
Another new idea was to offset the blade (discussed in Section 8.5). This is equivalent to
changing the pitch of the blade, and was investigated on one of the earlier Sandia test machines
[9.31]. The concept showed some promise and deserves more thoroughly exploration.
The disadvantage of nearly all Darrieus configurations is their inability to twist the rotor
blades, so as to tune the lift and drag to the angle of attack. In addition, it is difficult to
incorporate pitchable tips or ailerons to control peak power output. These are aspects which the
Darrieus design must overcome by alternative concepts or by lower capital cost.
The rapid growth of cable TV installations and satellite dishes, at least in Canada and the
USA, may obviate further research in this area.
Visual Impact
Visual impact refers to the effect on landscape of turbine disposition, size, number and
design type. FloWind Corporation painted the blades of its 17-m and 19-m turbines in
California in response to requests or orders from the authorities that granted the installation
permits. The blades were painted dull grey or light brown so as to eliminate “blade flashing”
resulting from light reflection and to better blend the turbines into the background colors of the
surrounding terrain.
movements. The impact of HAWTs and VAWTs in these areas is very similar. Disturbance of
habitat due to the turbine pads, turbine foundations, transmission lines, transformers and
substations, wind farm structures (other than the turbines), fences and access roads should be
about the same for a wind farm constructed using HAWTs or Darrieus VAWTs. Turbine struc-
tures and power transmission lines do not affect birds of prey and migratory patterns. Land
disturbance and human activity reduce the habitat and availability of prey.
This book will be of great interest to students in Mechanical and Aero nautical
Engineering field, professional engineers, university professors and researchers in
universities, government and industry. It will also be of interest to all researchers
involved in theoretical, computational and experimental methods used in wind tur-
bine design and wind energy development.
ISBN : 978-2-553-00931-0
9 782553 009310
www.polymtl.ca/pub
Excerpt of the full publication