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Entry into Confined Spaces 1.Oxygen Deficiency 2. Toxic Contamination 3. Flammable Environment4.Possibility of Electrocutions through electric equipments5.Possibility of Toxic gas generation during the work 6.Lack of
Hazards Of Pressure Vessels 1.Leakage or Bursting of Pressure Vessels 2.Design defects 3.Failure of Relief Systems 4.Lack of hydraulic testing. 5. Lack of Proper Instrumentation or Instrumentation Failure 6.Lack of N.D.Tests 7.Corrosion of Vessels. 8. Lack of routine inspections 9. Attempt of Pneumatic testing
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ALUMINIUM
Extracting aluminium from bauxite
Aluminium is too high in the electrochemical series (reactivity series) to extract it from its ore using carbon reduction. The temperatures needed are too high to be economic. Instead, it is extracted by electrolysis. The ore is first converted into pure aluminium oxide by the Bayer Process, and this is then electrolysed in solution in molten cryolite - another aluminium compound. The aluminium oxide has too high a melting point to electrolyse on its own. Purifiying the aluminium oxide - the Bayer Process Reaction with sodium hydroxide solution Crushed bauxite is treated with moderately concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. The concentration, temperature and pressure used depend on the source of the bauxite and exactly what form of aluminium oxide it contains. Temperatures are typically from 140C to 240C; pressures can be up to about 35 atmospheres. High pressures are necessary to keep the water in the sodium hydroxide solution liquid at temperatures above 100C. The higher the temperature, the higher the pressure needed. Aluminium ore The usual aluminium ore is bauxite. Bauxite is essentially an impure aluminium oxide. The major impurities include iron oxides, silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide.
With hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, aluminium oxide reacts to give a solution of sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate.
The impurities in the bauxite remain as solids. For example, the other metal oxides present tend not to react with the sodium hydroxide solution and so remain unchanged. Some of the silicon dioxide reacts, but goes on to form a sodium aluminosilicate which precipitates out. All of these solids are separated from the sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate solution by filtration. They form a "red mud" which is just stored in huge lagoons (mud lakes). Precipitation of aluminium hydroxide The sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate solution is cooled, and "seeded" with some previously produced aluminium hydroxide. This provides something for the new aluminium hydroxide to precipitate around.
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Formation of pure aluminium oxide Aluminium oxide (sometimes known as alumina) is made by heating the aluminium hydroxide to a temperature of about 1100 - 1200C.
The electrolysis cell The diagram shows a very simplified version of an electrolysis cell.
Conversion of the aluminium oxide into aluminium by electrolysis The aluminium oxide is electrolysed in solution in molten cryolite, Na3AlF6. Cryolite is another aluminium ore, but is rare and expensive, and most is now made chemically. The electrode reactions This is the simplification: Aluminium is released at the cathode. Aluminium ions are reduced by gaining 3 electrons.
Although the carbon lining of the cell is labelled as the cathode, the effective cathode is mainly the molten aluminium that forms on the bottom of the cell. Molten aluminium is syphoned out of the cell from time to time, and new aluminium oxide added at the top. The cell operates at a low voltage of about 5 - 6 volts, but at huge currents of 100,000 amps or more. The heating effect of these large currents keeps the cell at a temperature of about 1000C. Economic considerations
However, at the temperature of the cell, the carbon anodes burn in this oxygen to give carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Continual replacement of the anodes is a major expense.
The high cost of the process because of the huge amounts of electricity it uses. This is so high because to produce 1 mole of aluminium which only weighs 27 g you need 3 moles of electrons. You are having to add a lot of electrons (because of the high charge on the ion) to produce a small mass of aluminium (because of its low relative atomic mass). Energy and material costs in constantly replacing
the anodes. Energy and material costs in producing the cryolite, some of which gets lost during the electrolysis. Transport of the finished aluminium. Environmental problems in mining and transporting the bauxite
Loss of landscape due to the size of the chemical plant needed, and in the production and transport of the electricity. Noise. Atmospheric pollution from the various stages of extraction. For example: carbon dioxide from the burning of the anodes (greenhouse effect); carbon monoxide (poisonous); fluorine (and fluorine compounds) lost from the cryolite during the electrolysis process (poisonous). Pollution caused by power generation (varying depending on how the electricity is generated.) Disposal of red mud into unsightly lagoons.
Loss of landscape due to mining, processing and transporting the bauxite. Noise and air pollution (greenhouse effect, acid rain) involved in these operations
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Recycling Saving of raw materials and particularly electrical energy by not having to extract the aluminium from the bauxite. Recycling aluminium uses only about 5% of the energy used to extract it from bauxite. Avoiding the environmental problems in the extraction of aluminium from the bauxite. Not having to find space to dump the unwanted aluminium if it wasn't recycled. (Offsetting these to a minor extent) Energy and pollution costs in collecting and transporting the recycled aluminium.
Uses of aluminium
Aluminium is usually alloyed with other elements such as silicon, copper or magnesium. Pure aluminium isn't very strong, and alloying it adds to it strength. Aluminium is especially useful because it
has a low density; is strong when alloyed; is a good conductor of electricity; has a good appearance; resists corrosion because of the strong thin layer of aluminium oxide on its surface. This layer can be strengthened further by anodising the aluminium. Anodising essentially involves etching the aluminium with sodium hydroxide solution to remove the existing oxide layer, and then making the aluminium article the anode in an electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid. The oxygen given off at the anode reacts with the aluminium surface, to build up a film of oxide up to about 0.02 mm thick.
As well as increasing the corrosion resistance of the aluminium, this film is porous at this stage and will also take up dyes. (It is further treated to make it completely non-porous afterwards.) That means that you can make aluminium articles with the colour built into the surface. Some uses include: aluminium is used for aircraft other transport such as ships' superstructures, container vehicle bodies, tube trains (metro trains) overhead power cables (with a steel core to strengthen them) saucepans firefighter suits because light, strong, resists corrosion light, strong, resists corrosion light, resists corrosion, good conductor of electricity light, resists corrosion, good appearance, good conductor of heat High reflective nature
Checkpoint C
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CRUDE OIL
Fractional distillation of crude oil is the first step in the production of many of the materials we have come to rely on in modern life. All our fossil fuels, virtually all our plastics, detergents and commercial alcohols are made from products of this process.
Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil In order to separate the different length chains in the crude mix, it is heated to a very high temperature. The temperature is set so that all those fractions with a Carbon chain length of 20 and below are evaporated from the crude mix. The temperature cannot be set higher than this as there is a risk that the lighter fractions will ignite. The remaining liquid, which is composed of only the heavier fractions, passes to a second location where it is heated to a similar temperature, but at lower pressure. This has the effect of making the heavy Hydrocarbon fractions more likely to evaporate.
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Here are some common products that are made from oil: Gasoline Plastics Food additives (canned food) Diesel fuel Synthetic rubber Medicine Heating oil Synthetic fibers Synthetic fibers (such as polyester, Jet fuel Fertilizers/pesticides nylon, acrylic) Bunker fuel Dyes Make-up Page | Paint Detergent Candles Fertilizers/pesticides Photographic film 7 The Impact Of The Petroleum Industry On The Environment ACCIDENTS: Oil rig accidents, broken pipelines, oil THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT: (see notes on the tanker wrecks etc. all have terrible effects on the plant atmosphere below) and animal life of the locality as we see from the horrible TV pictures of seabirds coated in oil, and toxic oil slicks covering the beaches and sands. There ACID RAIN: Fossil fuels contain compounds of the is also the risk to humans from fires and explosions on element sulphur When the fuel is burned the sulphur rigs or at oil refinery installations and fuel storage compounds also burn to form sulphur dioxide. This is depots etc.Thick oil smothers animals such as birds an acidic gas and dissolves in rainwater, it then reacts and sea otters. It clogs the feeding and breathing with water and oxygen to form a very dilute solution mechanisms of filter-feeders. It can also poison of sulphuric acid. animals who swallow it. Over the long term, oil can sulphur + oxygen ==>sulphur dioxide cause cancer in marine life, destroy the skin and gill S(in fuel molecules) + O2(g) ==> SO2(g) tissues of fishes, upset their equilibrium, and disrupt Sulphur dioxide is a harmful gas and lung irritant and the chemical receptors in lobsters and fish that are contributed to 5000 extra deaths in the great 'London necessary for attracting mates. Smog' in the 1950's as well as being a major acid-rain RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS: gas. It reacts with oxygen (in air) and water (rain) and gets oxidised to form very dilute sulphuric acid - acid rain and the overall change is represented by the OTHER POLLUTANTS: High equation below. temperature combustion also SO2(g-air) + O2(g-air) + 2H2O(l-rain) ==> 2H2SO4(aq-rain) produces other pollutants including ... The formation of acid rain has several bad effects on Nitrogen oxides collectively denoted by NOx: NO is the environment e.g. formed in car engines and changes to NO2, which is the low pH causes plant damage, particularly trees, acidic, contributing further to acid rain (above), and kills certain life forms and so damages eco cycles and are also involved in the chemistry of 'photochemical food chains in rivers or lakes harming wildlife like smog' - which produces chemicals harmful to trout, respiration, irritating to eyes and contributes to acid increases the 'weathering' corrosion rates of building rain. Many of the reactions are initiated by sunlight. stone (particularly limestone). nitrogen monoxide is formed in high temperature Carbon monoxide CO, which is toxic, and also combustion situations e.g. car engines, power station involved in the chemistry of 'photochemical smog'. furnace burning coal, oil or natural gas. This is formed by inefficient combustion nitrogen + oxygen ==> nitrogen monoxide Unburned hydrocarbons, CxHy, which can be N2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2NO(g) carcinogenic and are also involved in photochemical and in air the nitrogen monoxide rapidly combines smog chemistry. with the oxygen in air But catalytic converters* can significantly reduced nitrogen monoxide + oxygen ==> nitrogen these three unwanted emissions (see above for CO and dioxide (acidic gas) NO removal, and CxHy gets oxidised to CO2 and 2NO(g) + O2(g) ==> 2NO2(g) H2O). * e.g. using platinum-rhodium transition metal The nitrogen dioxide is oxidised to nitric acid by the catalysts, these are dispersed on ceramic bed to give a reaction with oxygen from air when it dissolves in big surface area for the best reaction rate. rainwater. The overall process is summarised in the There are other indirect pollution problems to do equation below. with burning fossil fuels: 4NO2(g-air) + O2(g-air) + 2H2O(l-rain) ==> 4HNO3(aq-rain) Lead compounds are added to petrol to improve engine performance. This produces lead compound emissions into the environment. Lead compounds are nerve toxins so it is fortunate they are being phased out in many countries.
The Haber Process combines nitrogen from the air with hydrogen derived mainly from natural gas (methane) into ammonia. The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia is exothermic.
A flow scheme for the Haber Process looks like this: Page | 8
Hydrogen gas is obtained by reacting methane with steam over a nickel catalyst. This is called steam reforming: CH4 + H2O CO + 3 H2 Nitrogen gas is obtained via fractional distillation of liquid air According to Le Chateliers Principle, a lower temperature and a higher pressure would increase the yield of ammonia. However, too low a temperature would slow the rate of the reaction and high pressures are costly as materials must be strengthened to withstand the pressure to resist to risk of explosion. Thus a compromise is reached, where the temperature is not too low nor too high and the pressure also not too high but high enough to shift the equilibrium position to the right. Under these conditions, the conversion rate to ammonia is 15%. However it occurs quickly and unreacted gases are recycled to improve efficiency.
Separating the ammonia: When the gases leave the reactor they are hot and at a very high pressure. Ammonia is easily liquefied under pressure as long as it isn't too hot, and so the temperature of the mixture is lowered enough for the ammonia to turn to a liquid. The nitrogen and hydrogen remain as gases even under these high pressures, and can be recycled.
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SULPHURIC ACID
THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID - THE CONTACT PROCESS
The process can be divided into three stages: 1. Preparation and purification of sulphur dioxide 2. Catalytic oxidation (using vanadium pentoxide catalyst) of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide 3. Conversion of sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid Stage1: Making the sulphur dioxide This can either be made by burning sulphur in an excess of air:
Purification of air and SO2 (using an electrostatic precipitator) is necessary to avoid catalyst poisoning. The gas is then washed with water and dried by sulphuric acid. To conserve energy, the mixture is heated by exhaust gases from the catalytic converter by heat exchangers. Stage 2: Catalytic oxidation Sulphur dioxide and oxygen then react in the manner as follows: 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g) : H = 197 kJ mol1 To increase the reaction rate, high temperatures (450 C), medium pressures (1-2 atm), and vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) are used to ensure a 96% conversion. Stage3: Conversion of sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid Hot sulfur trioxide passes through the heat exchanger and is dissolved in concentrated H2SO4 in the absorption tower to form oleum: H2SO4(l) + SO3(g) H2S2O7(l) Note that directly dissolving SO3 in water is impractical due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction. Acidic vapour or mists are formed instead of a liquid. Oleum is reacted with water to form concentrated H2SO4. The average percentage yield of this reaction is around 30%. H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2 H2SO4(l)
In the vulcanization of rubber Raw rubber is soft, but many commercial applications of rubber require it to be hard and resistant to wear and tear caused through friction. For e.g., the rubber of automobile and aeroplane tyres is very hard. Vulcanization is the process where raw rubber is boiled with sulphur to make it hard. It is named after Vulcan, the Roman god of "fire".
Practice Questions
Yeast is added to a sugar source e.g. sugarcane, molasses, grapes etc with various nutrients and the correct temperature and pH and in the absence of oxygen. Sugar is first broken down into glucose and fructose by the enzyme sucrase. Eventually glucose molecules are respired anaerobically to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide gas by the enzyme zymase.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
The ethanol content rises as high as 12% before the yeast cells are killed. Yeast is killed by ethanol concentrations in excess of about 15%, and that limits the purity of the ethanol that can be produced. The ethanol is separated from the mixture by fractional distillation to give 96% pure ethanol. For theoretical reasons, it is impossible to remove the last 4% of water by fractional distillation.
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Uses of ethanol
As a solvent: Ethanol is widely used as a solvent. It is relatively safe, and can be used to dissolve many organic compounds which are insoluble in water. It is used, for example, in many perfumes and cosmetics. Industrial methylated spirits (meths): Ethanol is usually sold as industrial methylated spirits which is ethanol with a small quantity of methanol added and possibly some colour. Methanol is poisonous, and so the industrial methylated spirits is unfit to drink. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. As a fuel (gasohol) 10 - 20% ethanol Alcoholic beverages Antiseptic use Base chemical for petro-chemical industry Manufacture pharmaceutical drugs
CHLORINE
sodium ions, chloride ions, hydrogen ions (from the water), hydroxide ions (from the water).
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Note: Strictly speaking, this is a simplification. The H+(aq)ions could be better shown as hydroxonium ions, H3O+. That would need two water molecules on the lefthand side of the equilibrium. The simplification is fine for this topic.
At the cathode: Sodium ions and hydrogen ions (from the water) are attracted to the negative cathode. It is much easier for a hydrogen ion to pick up an electron than for a sodium ion. So this reaction happens:
Two chloride ions each give up an electron to the anode, and the atoms produced combine to give chlorine gas. The chlorine is, however, contaminated with small amounts of oxygen because of a reaction involving hydroxide ions giving up electrons as well.
As the hydrogen ions are converted into hydrogen gas, the water equilibrium tips to the right to replace them.
The net effect of this is that there is a build up of sodium ions and these newly-produced hydroxide ions around the cathode. In other words, sodium hydroxide solution is being formed around the cathode.
The need to keep all the products separate If chlorine comes into contact with hydrogen, it produces a mixture which will explode violently on exposure to sunlight or heat. Hydrogen chloride gas would be produced. Obviously, the two gases need to be kept apart. However, chlorine also reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to produce a mixture of sodium chloride and sodium chlorate (I) - also known as sodium hypochlorite. This mixture is commonly sold as bleach. Therefore, if you are trying to manufacture chlorine and sodium hydroxide rather than bleach, you have to keep the chlorine and sodium hydroxide apart as well. The diaphragm and membrane cells are designed so that all the products are kept separate.
Note: This is a simplification of a real cell. For example, in a real diaphragm cell, the electrodes are not a single block of metal. If you are interested, you can find pictures and Page | descriptions of real 13 electrodes by doing a Google search on diaphragm cell and looking for manufacturers' websites.
The diaphragm: The diaphragm is made of a porous mixture of asbestos and polymers. The solution can seep through it from the anode compartment into the cathode side. Notice that there is a higher level of liquid on the anode side. That makes sure that the flow of liquid is always from left to right - preventing any of the sodium hydroxide solution formed finding its way back to where chlorine is being produced. Production of the hydrogen
Production of the chlorine: Chlorine is produced at the titanium anode according to the equation:
The chlorine is purified by liquifying it under pressure. The oxygen stays as a gas when it is compressed at ordinary temperatures.
Production of the sodium hydroxide: A dilute solution of sodium hydroxide solution is also produced at the cathode The hydrogen is produced at the steel (see above for the explanation of what happens at the cathode). It is highly contaminated with unchanged sodium cathode: chloride solution. The sodium hydroxide solution leaving the cell is concentrated by evaporation. During this process, most of the sodium chloride crystallises out as solid salt. The salt can be separated, dissolved in water, and passed through the cell again. Even after concentration, the sodium hydroxide will still contain a small percentage of sodium chloride.
Chlorine bleaching of wood pulp and dioxin emissions to the environment Presence of dioxin, at parts per trillion (ppt) levels, in paper and paper based products and chlorinated organics in pulp mill effluents led to decreased chlorine demand. In the U.S., chlorine consumption in the pulp and paper industry, decreased from 15% in 1987 to 7% in 1998. The U.S. Environmental protection agency promulgated "Cluster Rules" in late 1998, mandating the use of elemental chlorine-free bleaching. These rules, which went into effect in April 2001, lowered the chlorine utilization in the North American pulp and paper bleaching operations in favor of sodium chlorate, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen. Mercury emissions Between 1930 and 1960, several tons of mercury waste was dumped in Minamata Bay in Japan. Thousands of people living around the bay developed methyl mercury poisoning through the consumption of contaminated fish. The victims suffered from severe neurological damage, which later became known as Minamata Disease. Thousands were afflicted and more than 900 died.
Ozone layer depletion Because of their contribution to the ozone layer depletion, production of chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFC's), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and 1,1,1trichloroethane was banned in 1997 following the Montreal Accord. Polyvinyl chloride plastic There are two major environmental issues with PVC, which include their lack of biodegradability and generation of dioxins when they are incinerated for energy recovery and for controlled waste recycling. Hydrochloric acid formation during the thermal decomposition of PVC is another issue that environmentalists are strongly invoking for the substitution of chlorine-free products for PVC. Asbestos Asbestos is used as a separator material in diaphragm cells. However, asbestos is a toxic material, causing lung cancer, asbestosis, and mesothelioma. As a result, in 2007, a bill was adopted to ban most uses of asbestos in the United States. Chlor-Alkali plants were exempt because few cost effective alternatives exist for this technology.
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Practice Question
What is the ratio of moles of NaCl used to moles of Cl2 produced? Use this ratio to determine mass of NaCl in kg required to produce 2.5 x 1010 kg of Cl2
WATER
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or H2O cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Water can change states among liquid, vapour, and ice at various places in the water cycle.
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4. Purifies water, replenishes the land with freshwater, and transports minerals to different parts of the globe. 5. Helps to reshape the geological features of the Earth, through such processes as erosion and sedimentation 6. Through the process of evaporation, takes up energy from the surroundings and cools the environment 7. Through the process of condensation, releases energy to its surroundings, warming the environment.
from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking water) but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements of medical, pharmacology, chemical and industrial applications.
Please note that desalination can also be considered a process of water purification via the use of reverse osmosis
Flocculation Water from raw water reservoirs (natural sources) is collected in large tanks/basins for a sufficient time period to permit large particulate matter to settle down at the bottom. This material is removed and then the water is treated with flocculants such aluminium sulphate which form a floc that precipitates and carriers with it microorganisms on the surface. Suspended organic matter settle onto the bottom of the tanks/basins. In this ways most substances that impart turbidity to water get coagulated. Sedimentation The water, after coagulation, is left in settling basin further for sufficient period to allow sedimentation of remaining materials. Sedimentation however considerably reduces microbial population of the water aside from removing most of the suspended particles.
Filtration After sedimentation, water is subjected to sand filters to remove flocks of living organisms. The process of filtration is highly critical and important as it can remove protozoan cysts and also about 98-99% of bacteria from water. The water may also be filtered through activated charcoal to remove potentially toxic organic compounds and organic compounds that impart undesirable colour and/or taste to the water. Disinfection Page | Disinfection is the final step is municipal water purification and it ensures that no pathogenic microorganisms 16 are carried through water. For water supplies of small towns and localities sodium or calcium hypochlorite (NaOCl or CaOCl2 respectively) may be used to disinfect water, but for larger cities, however, chloroamine (as opposed to chlorine) is now the method for disinfection.
Importance of Dissolved Oxygen
All aquatic life depend on the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) present. This allows all aquatic life to conduct their metabolic processes essential to life. High levels of DO (above 90%) indicate healthy water bodies. DO can also be related indirectly to biological oxygen demand (BOD), the higher the DO, the lower the BOD. Once DO levels begin to drop, this usually indicates some form of pollution is present in the water body.
Sources of water pollution Pollutant Nitrates Source Manmade fertilisers Effect on environment Drinking water that gets contaminated with nitrates can prove fatal especially to infants that drink formula milk as it restricts the amount of oxygen that reaches the brain causing the blue baby syndrome as well as eutrophication. Eutrophication Lead affects the nervous system and can ultimately lead to death. Mercury stunts physical development of organisms Acts as a poison Hazardous effects on nervous systems and physical development Accumulate up the food chain and cause impairment of physical development of aquatic life Similar to pesticides Respiratory problems, covers wide area in fine dust
Manmade fertilisers and detergents Use of lead pipes causes dissolved lead ions to form in the water, improper disposal of mercury from industrial processes Improper disposal after used in making fabrics mining waste and tailings, landfills, or hazardous waste dumps. Run off from backyards, farms and golf courses From underground storage tanks Industrial processes e.g. cement manufacture
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2.
THE ATMOSPHERE
Ozone: The atmosphere surrounding the Earth
contains a small amount of ozone (O3), a gas with molecules consisting of three oxygen atoms bound together, instead of the two which form the normal oxygen molecule (O2) that makes up 21% of the air we breathe. The average concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is about 300 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) that is, there are about 3 molecules of ozone for every ten million air molecules. Most of it (~90%) is contained in the stratosphere about 15 - 30 km above the Earth's surface where it is present at levels of several parts per million by volume (ppmv). If all the ozone in the atmosphere were compressed to atmospheric pressure, it would form a band ~3 mm thick. Even though it is present in such small quantities, it plays a vital role in supporting life on Earth. The natural ozone levels in the atmosphere allow most harmful solar radiation to be absorbed before it can reach the Earth's surface; ozone absorbs a significant portion of the ultraviolet light known as the UV-B, which has been linked to various types of skin cancer, cataracts and damage to the human immune
system; UV-B is also known to be harmful to some crops and some forms of marine life. Any changes in the amount of radiation that penetrates to the Earth's surface as a result of the thinning of the ozone layer can have potentially serious implications for human health and ecological systems, and also for global climate.
Ozone in the Stratosphere Ozone and oxygen molecules in the stratosphere absorb ultraviolet light from the sun, providing a shield that prevents this radiation from passing to the earth's surface. While both oxygen and ozone together absorb 95 to 99.9% of the sun's ultraviolet radiation, only ozone effectively absorbs the most energetic ultraviolet light, known as UV-C and UV-B, which causes biological damage. The protective role of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere is so vital that scientists believe life on land probably would not have evolved - and could not exist today - without it.
0.3 parts per million. But even in such small doses, this molecule can do a lot of damage.
About 90% of the ozone in the earth's atmosphere lies in the region called the stratosphere between 16 and 48 kilometers (10 and 30 miles) above the earth's surface. Ozone forms a kind of layer in the And just to confuse things even further, ozone in stratosphere, where it is more concentrated than the troposphere is one of the greenhouse gases. As anywhere else, but even there it is relatively scarce. discussed in the Greenhouse Effect section, the Its concentrations in the ozone layer are typically only naturally occurring greenhouse gases (including Page | ozone) are what make earth habitable for life as we 1 to 10 parts of ozone per 1 million parts of air, know it. But scientists are very concerned about the compared with about 210,000 parts of oxygen per 1 19 million parts of air. warming effects of increased greenhouse gases caused by human activity. So, in the troposphere, accelerated ozone levels deal us a double whammy - as a key ingredient in smog and as a powerful greenhouse gas.
Here is the exact flow of events, as carbon flows from one layer to another as shown in the diagram above. 1. In the process of photosynthesis, atmospheric carbon is absorbed by plants. 2. This carbon is transferred form plants to the animals feeding on them, and further moves up the food chain. 3. Respiration, digestion and metabolism plants and animals result in some transfer of carbon back to the atmosphere. 4. Some carbon also moves to the lithosphere when these living organisms die or when wood and leaves decay or when animals excrete. Some of these living beings buried millions of years ago have been converted to fossil fuels. 5. Mining and burning of fossil fuels cause this carbon to move from the lithosphere to the atmosphere. 6. Some of this atmospheric carbon gets dissolved in the oceans and thus completes the cycle. Question: Explain the importance of maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT: The burning of
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oil and other fossil fuels is contributing to the 'Greenhouse Effect' or global warming. The Earth's land-water surfaces absorbs the Sun's radiation in the form of infra-red (main heating effect) and visible/ultraviolet sunlight. Carbon dioxide and other gases including methane, water vapour and CFC's absorb the re-radiated lower frequency infrared energy from the Earth's surface and so warming the atmosphere, rather like a greenhouse allows the sunlight in but not out. The effects are predicted to be dramatic e.g. rising sea levels as polar ice melts causing flooding in low lying land, more energy in the global weather system leads to more frequent violent weather patterns etc. GLOBAL WARMING is the increase in the average temperature of Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG: air pollution produced by the action of light on oxygen, nitrogen oxides, and unburned fuel from automobile exhaust to form ozone and other pollutants. The reduction of fossil fuel burning is the only way to reduce photochemical smog e.g. using photovoltaic cells to harness solar energy to produce electricity. Using solar power indirectly in this way to run electric cars is potentially a good partial solution to the problem
The equations for incomplete combustion below show the formation of carbon-soot and 'deadly' carbon monoxide when there is a lack of oxygen for complete combustion. As mentioned already, soot is obviously a 'dirty' pollutant coating any surface (including your lungs!) that the soot particles settle on and they contain unburned carcinogenic hydrocarbons AND carbon monoxide is involved in the chemistry of photochemical smogs - so all in all, inefficient combustion of fossil-hydrocarbon fuels is very undesirable! Carbon monoxide is unfortunately emitted by all car exhausts, though catalytic converters help reduce this by converting nitrogen monoxide (another pollutant) and carbon monoxide into harmless nitrogen and
When fossil fuels burn efficiently in an excess of air/oxygen the only products are carbon dioxide and water e.g. o methane + oxygen ==> water + carbon dioxide o CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ==> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) If there is not enough oxygen present to completely burn the fuel to carbon dioxide and water other products may form causing pollution and fuel inefficiency. o This is referred to as incomplete combustion. The most common partially burned products are likely to be carbon C (soot) and deadly carbon monoxide CO. Carbon-soot, a fine black powder-dust is potentially harmful and readily formed in fires i.e. its classically produced by smoky yellow flames. The soot, like any fine solid 'dust' is harmful when absorbed on the sensitive tissue of the linings of the nose, throat and lungs. Soot deposits cause coughing and sore throat and are ejected from your body through sneezing, coughing, and nose blowing. Coarse particles (10 microns) are inhaled into your windpipe and settle there, causing irritation and more coughing. Soot is also a 'carrier' of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) on it which are carcinogenic. Even very low concentrations of carbon monoxide can be fatal. Why? Oxygen is carried around the body by a complicated protein molecule in red blood cells called haemoglobin. The bonding between oxygen and haemoglobin is quite weak to allow easy oxygen transfer for cell respiration. Unfortunately, the bonding between carbon monoxide and haemoglobin is stronger, so oxygen is replaced by carbon monoxide and blocks normal cell respiration. The consequences are reduced blood oxygen concentration leading to unconsciousness and
carbon dioxide.
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) ==> N2(g) + 2CO2(g) Transition metals like platinum and rhodium are used in the catalytic converter. Nitrogen monoxide, NO, is formed by the combination of nitrogen and oxygen at high temperature in automobile engines (cars, lorries, buses etc. - its all the same!) N2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2NO(g) Nitrogen monoxide readily forms nitrogen dioxide by combining with oxygen in air on exit from the engine exhaust. 2NO(g) + O2(g) ==> 2NO2(g)
o NO2 has a brown color; it makes our smoggy skies brownish-yellow. Nitrogen dioxide is a lung and eye irritant, and, along with nitrogen Page | monoxide, it is involved in the complex chemistry of photochemical smogs which can 21 also produce ozone and other harmful chemicals in the air.NOX compounds can lead to chronic lung damage.They can exacerbate asthma. They increase the susceptibility of the very young and the very old to respiratory infections.
NOX contributes to the nitrification (overfertilization) of bays and wetlands, leading to algal blooms, and can lead to fish kills.
The majority of Earth's atmosphere (approximately 78%) is nitrogen,[1] making it the largest pool of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen is unavailable for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle. The atmospheric concentrations of the oxides of nitrogen may be altered via the following processes:
Nitrogen monoxide, NO, is formed by the combination of nitrogen and oxygen at high temperature in automobile engines (cars, lorries, buses etc. - its all the same!) N2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2NO(g)
Nitrogen monoxide readily forms nitrogen dioxide by combining with oxygen in air on exit from the engine exhaust.
o o
Nitrogen oxides dissolve in rainwater to form an acidic solution of nitric acid which contributes to acid rain. The conversion of nitrogen oxides to non-toxic products in the catalytic convertors of cars. 2NO(g) + 2CO(g) ==> N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
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generate electricity which produce smoke. Dust Cyclones: These are used to remove particulate matter from a gas or air stream, without using filters, using vortex separation instead. Mixtures of fluids and solids are separated by using gravity and rotational effects. There is large scale use of cyclones in oil refineries as well as the cement industry wherein they form a part of the kiln preheaters. Air Pollution Control Systems To Reduce NOx (Nitrogen Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxide) Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR): This is a technique used for reducing NOx that is used in most diesel and gasoline engines. A part of the exhaust of an engine is recirculated back into its cylinders. When the incoming air is intermixed with the recirculated exhaust gas, it results in diluting the mixture with inert gas, reducing the adiabatic flame temperature and also lowering the excessive oxygen in diesel engines. The peak combustion temperature is also lowered because the specific heat capacity of the mix is increased by the exhaust gas. Since high temperatures cause Nox to form much faster, EGR helps in limiting NOx from being generated. Nox is produced when a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen is subjected to high temperatures. Catalytic Converter: This is a device that is used to diminish the toxicity of emissions that are produced by internal combustion engines. First introduced in 1975 in the US in order to comply with the tightening regulations by the Environmental Protection Agency, catalytic converters are still used most commonly in the exhaust systems of motor vehicles. Some of the other places they are use in are: trains, mining equipment, forklifts, generator sets, and other machines equipped with engines. Air Pollution Control Systems To Decrease Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC):
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Gas Flare: Also called a flare stack, this is a chimney that is erected on oil rigs or oil wells, as well as landfills, chemical plants, and refineries. When flammable gas or unusable waste gas plus liquids are discharged by pressure relief valves, this device is used to burn them off. This device is also used in landfills to burn and/or vent the waste gas that is produced by the decomposing materials. Biofilters: This is a technique for pollution control which uses living matter to trap and biologically degrade pollutants. In air pollution control, the pollutants in the air are subjected to microbiotic oxidation. In other words, when it is applied in the filtration and purification of air, microorganisms, such as fungi and bacteria that are embedded in a biofilm, are used to degrade the air pollutant.
Solid Waste
What is Solid Waste?
Solid waste is defined as any garbage, refuse, sludge from waste treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other materials, including solid, liquid, semisolid, contained gaseous resulting from industrials, commercials, mining and agricultural operations from community activities. Types of waste Non Hazardous waste: refuse, garbage, sludge, municipal trash. Hazardous waste: solvents acid, heavy metals, pesticides, and chemical sludges Radioactive: high and low-level radioactive waste Mixed waste: Radioactive organic liquids, radioactive heavy metals. Waste treatment Incineration: Solidification: solid waste are melted or evaporated Characteristics of wastes Corrosive: these are wastes that include acids or bases that are capable of corroding mental containers, e.g. tanks Ignitability: this is waste that can create fires under certain condition, e.g. waste oils and solvents Reactive: these are unstable in nature; they cause explosions, toxic fumes when heated. Toxicity: waste which are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorb
Waste disposal Landfills: waste is placed into or onto the land in disposal facilities. Underground injection wells: waste are
to produce a sand like residue. Heat treatment: Heat applied at moderate temperature, is used in treating volatile solvents. Chemical treatment: is the application of chemical treatment in the treatment of corrosive solid. Impacts of solid waste on Terrestrial environment Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation Uncollected waste can obstruct the storm water runoff resulting in flood Low birth weight Cancer Congenital malformations Neurological disease Nausea and vomiting Increase in hospitalization of diabetic residents living near hazard waste sites. Mercury toxicity from eating fish with high levels of mercury
injected under pressure into a steel and concrete-encased shafts placed deep in the earth. Waste piles: is accumulations of insoluble solid, non flowing hazard waste. Piles serves as temporary or final disposal.) land treatment: is a process in which solid waste, such as sludge from wastes is applied onto or incorporated into the soil surface. Waste are disposed in flowing rivers in less developed countries.
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Effects of Solid Waste on Animals and Aquatics life Increase in mercury level in fish due to disposal of mercury in the rivers. Plastic found in oceans ingested by birds Resulted in high algal population in rivers and sea. Degrades water and soil quality Waste breaks down in landfills to form methane, a potent greenhouse gas Change in climate and destruction of ozone layer due to waste biodegradable Littering, due to waste pollutions, illegal dumping, Leaching: is a process by which solid waste enter soil and ground water and contaminating them. Proper management of solid waste Involving public in plans for waste treatment and disposal Provide the public accurate, useful information about the whole projects, including the risks and maintain formal communication with public Educate people on different ways of handling waste. Waste Minimization is a process of reducing waste produce by individuals, communities and companies, which reduces the impact of chemical wastes on the environment to the greatest extent. Household level of proper segregation of waste, recycling and reuse. Process and product substitution e.g. use paper bag instead of plastic bags.
Helpful Tips on Managing Solid Waste in the Home 1. Use sheets of used writing paper to make a message pad 2. Choose cloth diapers over disposable ones