Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sheila Brownlee
CONSULTANT: Dr Andy Norris PRODUCER: Peter Wilde WRITER/DIRECTOR: Michael Cain PRINT AUTHOR: Sheila Brownlee
Diagrams and charts on pages 18, 19, 20, 25 and 27 supplied courtesy of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
WARNING Any unauthorised copying, hiring, lending, exhibition, diffusion, sale, public performance or other exploitation of this video is strictly prohibited and may result in prosecution. COPYRIGHT Videotel 2006 This workbook and accompanying video/DVD training package is intended to reflect the best available techniques and practices at the time of production, they are intended purely as comment. No responsibility is accepted by Videotel, or by any firm, corporation or organisation who or which has been in any way concerned, with the production or authorised translation, supply or sale of this video for accuracy of any information given hereon or for any omission here from.
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CONTENTS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 INTRODUCTION WHAT RADAR DOES TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK TRIAL MANOEUVRE CHECKING INFORMATION GROUND AND SEA STABILISATION TARGET ACQUISITION AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS) SYSTEM INTEGRATION 4 5 7 13 15 16 18 23 26 27 29 32 33 34
10 IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 11 SAFETY FIRST 12 GLOSSARY AND ACRONYMS 13 FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES 14 ANSWERS
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INTRODUCTION
New International Maritime Organization (IMO) performance standards come into force for radar equipment on new ships constructed after 1 July 2008. Under these standards, all radar equipment must be capable of displaying Automatic Identification System (AIS) information, and the term ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aid) will be replaced with target tracking device. There is a wide range of target tracking devices now available on the market, and personnel will need to be given equipment-specific familiarisation training when boarding.
This book accompanies the Target Tracking Devices video. It is aimed at navigation officers as a way of reinforcing target tracking learning for cadets, and as a reminder for junior and senior officers about the issues involved in target tracking for collision avoidance and what they should be finding out when they join a new ship.
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RADAR
Maritime radar enables the ship to pinpoint other vessels and find its own position in relation to landmarks. Beamed pulses of radio waves are sent out, and the returning echoes amplified, processed and displayed, allowing the operator to see vessels which may not be visible to the naked eye, either because of fog or mist, or because they are unlit at night. However, some targets do not return a strong enough echo to be displayed, and some are obscured by unwanted clutter' from waves and rain. Today, mariners have a number of tracking devices available to them, which use radar, VHF (Very High Frequency) and/or satellite navigation systems. Radar and other tracking devices must be used with care.
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QUESTION
1A
Performance standards state that radar tracking devices must identify a vessels motion trend within: A. 1 minute? B. 2 minutes? C. 3 minutes?
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All north up displays are stabilised using an input from the ships gyro compass. When the ship turns, the heading line moves to the new course and north stays at the top of the screen. Bearings taken are true bearings. With unstabilised displays, the ships head remains at the top of the screen and the radar picture rotates. Bearings taken are relative bearings. They should not be used in collision avoidance assessments. Using the bearing and range, a target tracking device monitors targets, works out their past relative track and from this predicts their Closest Point of Approach (CPA) and Time to Closest Point of Approach (TCPA). It also calculates each targets course and speed, using vector analysis. This uses the input of own ships course and speed from the ships gyro and speed log or other device such as Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). If these inputs contain errors, the results will be wrong.
With relative motion, own ship stays at one position on screen and other objects move past. With true motion, own ship tracks across screen. The screen needs an occasional reset, which may be automatic or manual.
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Relative vectors predict the movement of targets in relation to own ship. They show risk of collision very clearly. The prediction depends on the fact that neither your own ship nor the target alters course or speed. True vectors predict the true motion of targets and your own ship. They make it easier to assess the overall traffic situation, but more difficult to assess the risk of collision. They depend upon accurate inputs of own ships course and speed.
Note: The accuracy of relative vectors depends mainly on the accuracy of heading only, i.e. the gyro. The accuracy of true vectors is dependent on the accuracy of the gyro and log.
RANGE SCALES
The new IMO performance standards state that there should be at least three display range scales 3, 6 and 12 nm though many target tracking devices will have many more than that. The range scale selected should be indicated at all times.
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Selecting true vectors helps the operator to gain a more complete picture of what is going on. On the other hand, the possibility of a collision is not represented as clearly. It is only by increasing the timescale that we can see the tracks coming together.
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TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AND ARPAS WILL ALWAYS PROVIDE SIX KEY PIECES OF INFORMATION ON TRACKED TARGETS
1A 2 3 4 5 6
Predicted Closest Point of Approach (CPA) Predicted Time to Closest Point of Approach (TCPA) Bearing Range True track Speed
Some manufacturers also provide Bow Crossing Time and Distance and/or Relative Course and Relative Speed. If an ARPA is ground stabilised, the information displayed on targets could be COG (Course Over Ground) and SOG (Speed Over Ground) as opposed to heading and speed, but CPA is not affected.
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TYPES OF INTERFACE
Most pieces of equipment are operated using a computer mouse and joystick, though some systems have a tracker ball instead of the joystick. Some devices have a touch-screen function, but this is not ideal as targets can be located extremely close together and finger tips may be too large for the purpose. There are many adjustable controls for contrast, brilliance, focus, tuning, clutter, pulse length, and so on.
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What are the three required display range scales for ARPAs: A. 6, 12 and 24 nm? B. 12, 18 and 36 nm? C. 3, 6 and 12 nm? History is indicated on displays by: A. a vector? B. dots or synthetic afterglow? The prediction for CPA is based on the past history of tracked targets. True or false? Which of the following pieces of information is not provided by ARPAs on tracked targets: A. CPA? B. TCPA? C. vessel length? D. bearing? E. range? F. true track? G. speed? ECDIS is recognised by IMO as an aid for collision avoidance. True or false?
3 4
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TRIAL MANOEUVRE
Another facility designed to help officers navigate through traffic is the trial manoeuvre or simulation facility. This enables the operator to try out a planned alteration of course and see what its effect will be on all the tracked targets, before actually performing the change.
It is an IMO requirement for all target tracking devices on vessels over 10,000 gt to include a trial manoeuvre facility.
EXAMPLE
Using the example from the video of a target approaching from the starboard side on a collision course, we can see that a large change of course of 25 to starboard will ensure that the target will pass clear ahead. When the other ship is well clear, the prediction facility can be used to determine when to resume own ships course.
1A 2A
Any action taken to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, be positive, made in ample time and with due regard to the observance of good seamanship Any alteration of course and/or speed to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, be large enough to be readily apparent to another vessel observing visually or by radar; a succession of small alterations of course and/or speed shall be avoided
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TRIAL MANOEUVRE
DISABLING THE TRIAL FUNCTION
After the trial has been completed, the trial function should be disabled in order to avoid possible confusion between trial and reality, though equipment defaults back to normal mode if no adjustments are made by the operator after a certain period of time. The screen will have a T or Trial to indicate that it is in trial manoeuvre mode. Some manufacturers equipment offer additional graphics such as symbols to show PCPs (Potential Collision Points) in true vectors and CPAs in relative vectors.
QUESTION
1A
The IMO requires there to be a trial manoeuvre facility included in all target tracking devices on: A. ships over 500 gt? B. ships over 10,000 gt? C. no ships: it is just an optional extra?
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CHECKING INFORMATION
Target trackers comprise of an impressive array of features and alarms, which can lull the operator into a false sense of security. The truth is that target tracking devices are only one source of information and cannot make a decision for you. They are only as good as the data fed into them from other systems, and can create a false picture.
For example, how accurate are the speed or the gyro readings, particularly when displaying true vectors? If the operator is in doubt about speed input, using relative vectors will give a more accurate determination of risk of collision.
Target tracking devices should be used with care, cross checked with information from other instruments and backed up with the visual evidence of what can be seen from the ship.
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GROUND STABILISATION
Ground stabilisation can be done in coastal waters by selecting a fixed radar conspicuous target or through input from GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) such as: the Global Positioning System (GPS); the Russian Global Navigation Satellite System GLONASS; or when it is fully operational the European system, Galileo. Ground stabilised true vectors are ideal for navigating around fixed objects, such as land, buoyed channels etc. This is especially useful when the vectors are overlaid on to ECDIS or other map functions. The down side of ground stabilisation is that all tracking is based on own ships track over ground. Targets will show their ground tracks, not their headings and aspect, and this can be misleading for collision avoidance purposes. However, it should be noted that relative vectors are identical in both ground and sea stabilised modes, so that relative vectors can be viewed with confidence in every mode. In the example from the video (below), tidal flow is read by a target tracking device as part of an approaching targets course and speed. Although it looks as if the target will pass down the starboard side, the two ships are crossing on a near collision course.
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QUESTIONS
1 2
Ground stabilised true vectors are ideal for navigating around fixed objects. True or false? Sea stabilisation shows own ship and all targets referenced to the sea, using input from satellite navigation systems. True or false?
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TARGET ACQUISITION
The ARPA process starts with the acquisition of a target. This is done either manually, by using a screen marker controlled by a joystick, or automatically, where the computer is set to acquire targets which enter specified boundaries.
When a target is acquired, the computer starts collecting information about it. There are two prerequisites for effective tracking, neither of which can be relied upon:
1. A CLEAR RADAR SIGNAL Heavy rain, waves or even storm clouds can block and distort radar signals. A target can
be lost when it manoeuvres, because its radar return will fade.
2. THE COMPUTER HAS TO UNDERSTAND THE DATA IT IS RECEIVING There are various instances when target tracking devices become confused by the incoming information. If two targets pass close by each other, the ARPA can swap tracks, lose one track altogether or give two tracks to the same target. The alarm will warn the operator if it loses a target, but may not if it has confused two tracks.
The operator will need to be vigilant to ensure that tracking is working well.
MANUAL ACQUISITION
Manual acquisition is recommended for restricted coastal waters or in bad weather conditions.
Pressing the acquire button will enter the target into the computer memory and pressing cancel will delete it, after the risk of collision has passed. It must be appreciated that using manual acquisition requires more radar display observation time by the operator.
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TARGET ACQUISITION
AUTOMATIC ACQUISITION
The automatic acquisition facility is best used in open waters and good weather conditions, when it can help to ensure that no target is missed in zones specified by the operator. Note however that, because of its limitations, it will never constitute maintaining a safe lookout. Any target deleted in this area
Automatic acquisition should always be used with care because small targets can still be missed. It can also collect clutter, noise and interference, which will cause alarms to go off unnecessarily. This can happen almost continually, which is why there are only a few occasions when it will be of any real use. As the target tracking system has a finite number of targets that it can plot and monitor, a further risk is that, if you use the automatic acquisition option, this finite number can be reached and some targets which might be important will not be acquired. Manual deletion of unimportant targets is an essential part of automatic acquisition.
will be acquired and will also activate an alarm
The facility for auto acquisition of targets is required for all ships or craft of more than 10,000 gt.
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TARGET ACQUISITION
With zonal automatic acquisition, targets are only acquired when they enter specific detection zones.
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TARGET ACQUISITION
OPERATIONAL WARNINGS
GUARD ZONE VIOLATION
When a target enters a zone, the target tracking device should warn the operator with an alarm which may be visual and/or audible. However, it should be possible to de-activate this capability if required. Most operators set up the equipment with two zones: one which is pre-set, and another which can be customised as required. It is unwise to rely too heavily on a guard zone. Vessels, especially high speed ones, may miss the zone and still be on a collision course. Similarly, a target may not be acquired at all if it is hidden behind another vessel, or if it has a poor radar return.
LOST TARGET
If a tracked target fails to return an echo, the ARPA continues to search for it. If no target is detected after five out of ten scans, the target lost warning is activated.
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TARGET ACQUISITION
QUESTIONS
1 2
Manual acquisition is recommended for restricted coastal waters or in bad weather conditions. True or false? How many targets should radars fitted on ships over 10,000 gt from 2008 be able to track: A. 10? B. 20? C. 40? In a guard zone, the arc and depth are pre-set by the manufacturer. True or false?
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Identifies vessels Assists in situational awareness Simplifies safety-related information exchange between vessels and between vessels and the shore
AIS is mandatory on all SOLAS vessels over 300 gt and they must have Class A AIS equipment onboard. Class B standard has been agreed for other vessels.
Static parameters such as MMSI (Maritime Mobile Service Identification) number, vessels name, call sign, IMO number, type, length, cargo, position of aerials, draught and route plan Dynamic data including position, heading and SOG
The MMSI number is used by AIS receivers to link the static data from targets sent every six minutes, with the dynamic data sent several times in a minute. When a target is first picked up by AIS it will probably be showing only MMSI number and dynamic data.
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LIMITATIONS OF AIS
AIS is a useful tool for providing additional information for collision avoidance. However, it has some limitations. It cannot help with some of the main causes of collisions, i.e. driving too fast in conditions of poor visibility, not keeping a proper lookout, making small reductions in speed or minor alterations of course when the ship should slow right down or make a drastic alteration of course.
Note: Most ships do not yet have a graphical display or integrated radar display, but an AIS text screen not much larger than a mobile phone, called a MKD (Minimum Keyboard Display). This makes it an ineffective tool for identifying other ships, and most of the advantages of AIS do not apply to navigators on these ships. The situation will very slowly improve from 2008 as new installations will need to have radar/AIS integration.
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Ground based Obtained directly from compass of target ship (when available) Immediate (when compass available) as soon as gyro starts to change. Otherwise will be apparent when ground track changes Good, if static data is transmitted GPS systems Sensors on other vessels Programming on other vessels Only if fitted with AIS Not significantly weather dependent No Unlikely Unlikely Unlikely Typically 20 40 miles depending on aerial heights and environmental factors A possibility
Can be misleading All necessary equipment on own ship Requires compass and log
Reliability of detecting other vessels in the vicinity Target swap Interference and false echoes Reduced coverage due to own-ship obstructions Reduced coverage due to land mass obstructions (thefjord effect) Range
Dependent on echo strength and weather conditions Possible A possibility Can occur depending on aerial position Line of sight only Typically 10 20 miles, depending on aerial heights and environmental factors Unlikely
QUESTIONS
1 2A
AIS is mandatory on all SOLAS vessels over 300 gt. True or false? AIS uses: A. radar and GNSS? B. radar and VHF frequencies? C. VHF frequencies and GNSS?
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SYSTEM INTEGRATION
Information from ARPA and AIS comes from very different technologies. Often the target data differs slightly, and AIS information is faster to update. The differences in the data are brought together in the equipment through target association whereby the information from different sources combine to create a single picture on the screen. To do this, the computer, aided by user-set parameters, has to make assumptions about targets with very similar positions, tracks and speed, and it then decides whether they are in fact the same vessel. There are inherent risks in this process, so the operator needs to be alert to possible anomalies. Targets which are visible on one system but not on another clearly need investigating.
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Types of warnings and mode information displayed Minimum performance standards for managing clutter, weather effects and echoes How automatic tracking identifies acquisition areas Screen dimensions and visibility according to vessel size What information must be available The minimum number of targets that can be tracked Trial manoeuvre facilities
DIFFERENCES IN THE PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS SIZES/ CATEGORIES OF SHIP/ CRAFT TO WHICH SOLAS APPLIES
Size of ship/craft Minimum operational display area diameter Minimum display area Auto acquisition of targets Minimum acquired radar target capacity Minimum activated AIS target capacity Minimum sleeping AIS target capacity Trial manoeuvre <500 gt 180mm 195x195mm _ 20 20 100 _ <500 gt to <10 000gt and HSC<10 000 gt 250mm 270x270mm _ 30 30 150 _ All ships/ craft >10 000g t 320mm 340x340mm Yes 40 40 200 Yes
DETECTION PERFORMANCE
The standards state that all available means for the detection of targets should be used and should cover detection in clear conditions, at close range and in clutter conditions.
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All new radar displays must be capable of displaying AIS targets from: A. 1 July 2002? B. 1 July 2005? C. 1 July 2008? Vessels capable of up to 70 knots must be able to handle craft with relative speeds of up to: A. 100 knots? B. 140 knots ? C. 160 knots?
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SAFETY FIRST
Even when target tracking equipment is being used correctly and the watch keeper is being alert to all possibilities, there is always the chance that something can go wrong.
The following are the most common causes of problems:
There is a tendency to reduce the safe passing distance in busy shipping lanes, but this is a risky procedure.
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SAFETY FIRST
IMO performance standards stipulate that measurements from own ship (e.g. range rings, target range and bearing, cursor, tracking data) should be made in relation to the Consistent Common Reference Point (CCRP). When the picture is centred, the position of the CCRP should be at the centre of the bearing scale.
RAPID MANOEUVRING
Watch keepers often forget that target tracking devices can be confused by rapid manoeuvres. The risk can be minimised by manoeuvring in bold discrete stages as required by ColRegs rather than in a continuous series of incremental manoeuvres. Bear in mind the fact that the picture may not be accurate for up to three minutes after a rapid manoeuvre.
What you see on the screen may not correspond to reality. Always check the situation using binoculars or with the naked eye.
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SAFETY FIRST
QUESTIONS
1 2A
It is advisable to check settings to see whether the previous watch keeper has altered the mode, vectors or scale. True or false? The CCRP should be: A. at the centre of the bearing scale? B. offset? If the speed through water input is incorrect, the true vector calculations will self-adjust. True or false? After a manoeuvre, the radar picture may not be accurate for up to: A. 1 minute? B. 2 minutes? C. 3 minutes?
3 4
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The IMO resolution MSC 192(79), Performance Standards for radar equipment for new ships constructed after 1 July 2008.
This covers the operational requirements for the radar system, ergonomic criteria, design and installation, interfacing and back-up and fallback arrangements.
The IMO resolution MSC 191(79), Performance Standards for the presentation of navigationrelated information on shipborne navigational displays for new ships constructed after 2008.
This covers general requirements (such as readability, colours, symbols and alarms), operational displays and physical requirements. Also relevant are:
Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 (ColRegs) SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life At Sea) STCW (Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping) ISGOTT (International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals)
PUBLICATIONS
Radar and ARPA Manual by Alan Bole, Bill Dineley and Alan Wall, second edition 2005. ICS (International Chamber of Shipping) Bridge Procedures Guide. Automatic Identification Systems (AIS), code no. 926 (Videotel training course).
RELEVANT WEBSITES
International Maritime Organization: www.imo.org The UK Maritime & Coastguard Agency: www.mcga.gov.uk United States Coast Guard: www.uscg.mil Transportation Safety Board of Canada: www.tsb.gc.ca Transport Canada: www.tc.gc.ca Australian Maritime Safety Authority: www.amsa.gov.au Nautical Institute: www.nautinst.org Videotel: www.videotel.co.uk
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ANSWERS
PAGE 6 PAGE 12 QUESTION 1 QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2 QUESTION 3 QUESTION 4 QUESTION 5 QUESTION 1 QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2 QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2 QUESTION 3 QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2 QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2 QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2 QUESTION 3 QUESTION 4 A. 1 minute C. 3, 6 and 12 nm B. dots or synthetic afterglow TRUE. C. vessel length FALSE. Only radar is recognised by IMO for collision avoidance B. ships over 10,000 gt TRUE. FALSE. The data is from gyro heading and single not from satellite navigation systems TRUE. C. 40 FALSE. Their arc and depth are defined by the operator TRUE. C. VHF frequencies and GNSS C. 1 July 2008 B. 140 knots TRUE. A. at the centre of the bearing scale FALSE. The calculations will be incorrect C. 3 minutes
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NOTES
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