CHAPTER

21



Thermal Properties and Processes




1* Why does the mercury level first decrease slightly when a thermometer is placed in warm water?
The glass bulb warms and expands first, before the mercury warms and expands.

2 A large sheet of metal has a hole cut in the middle of it. When the sheet is heated, the area of the hole will
(a) not change.
(b) always increase.
(c) always decrease.
(d) increase if the hole is not in the exact center of the sheet.
(e) decrease only if the hole is in the exact center of the sheet.
(b)

3 A steel ruler has a length of 30 cm at 20

C. What is its length at 100

C?
Apply Equ. 21-2.

L = (11

10
6
)(30)(80) cm = 0.0264 cm;
L = 30.0264 cm


4 A bridge 100 m long is built of steel. If it is built as a single, continuous structure, how much will its length change
from the coldest winter days (30

C) to the hottest summer days (40

C)?
Apply Equ. 21-2.

L = (11

10
6
)(100)(70) m = 0.077 m = 7.7 cm


5* (a) Define a coefficient of area expansion. (b) Calculate it for a square and a circle, and show that it is 2
times the coefficient of linear expansion.
(a)

=
T
A/A

. (b) For a square,

A = L
2
(1 +

T)
2

L
2
= L
2
(2

T +

T
2
) = A(2

T +

T
2
); in the limit

0,

A/A = 2

T, and

= 2

. For the circle, proceed in same way except that now A =

R
2
; again,

= 2

.

6 The density of aluminum is 2.70

10
3
kg/m
3
at 0

C. What is the density of aluminum at 200

C?
Apply Equs. 21-4 and 21-5.

= m/V;

= m/(V +

V) =

/(1 +

T)

= 3

= 72

10
-6
K
1

= 2.70

10
3
/[1+(72

10
6
)(200)] = 2.66

10
3
kg/m
3


Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


7 A copper collar is to fit tightly about a steel shaft whose diameter is 6.0000 cm at 20

C. The inside diameter of the

copper collar at that temperature is 5.9800 cm. To what temperature must the copper collar be raised so that it will just
slip on the steel shaft, assuming the steel shaft remains at 20

C?

T = 0.02 cm; use Equ. 21-2 and solve for

T = 0.02/(5.98

17

10
6
) = 197 C
o
; T = 217
o
C


8 Repeat Problem 7 when the temperature of both the steel shaft and copper collar are raised simultaneously.
Now R
Fe
= R
Cu
, and both expand
Solve for

T and T = (20 +

T)
o
C
6.0000(1 + 11

10
6

T) = 5.9800(1 + 17

10
6

T)
)
10
11 (6.00 )
10
17 (5.98
0.02
6 6

= T
= 561 C
o
;
T = 581
o
C


9* A container is filled to the brim with 1.4 L of mercury at 20

C. When the temperature of container and mercury is

raised to 60

C, 7.5 mL of mercury spill over the brim of the container. Determine the linear expansion coefficient of
the container.
1. Express problem statement in terms of V and

V
2. Apply Equ. 21-4 and solve for
Hg

c

3. Solve for
c
and apply Equ. 21-5
V
Hg
= V
c
= 1.4 L;

V
Hg

V
c
= 7.5

10
3
L
Hg

c
= [7.5

10
3
/(1.4

40)] K
1
= 1.34

10
4
K
1

c
= (1.8

1.34)

10
4
K
1
= 0.46

10
4
K
1

= 15

10
6
K
1


10 A hole is drilled in an aluminum plate with a steel drill bit whose diameter at 20
o
C is 6.245 cm. In the
process of drilling, the temperature of the drill bit and of the aluminum plate rise to 168

C. What is the diameter

of the hole in the aluminum plate when it has cooled to room temperature?
1. Find diameter of the hole (steel drill bit) at 168
o
C
2. Find diameter of the hole in the plate at 20
o
C
d
Fe
= 6.245(1 + 11

10
6

148) cm = 6.255 cm
d
Al
= 6.255(1

24

10
6

148) cm = 6.233 cm

Note that the diameter of the hole in the plate at 20
o
C is less than the diameter of the drill bit at 20
o
C.

11 Len sells trees that double in price when they are over 2.00 m high. To make a standard, he cuts an aluminum rod
2.00 m in length, as measured by a steel measuring tape. That day, the temperature of both the rod and the tape is
25

C. What will the tape indicate the length of the rod to be when both the tape and the rod are at (a) 0

C and (b)
50

C?
1. Apply Equ. 21-2 to the rod and tape

2. Solve for L
rod
in terms of L
tape

3. Use numerical values for
Fe
and
Al
.
(a) Use negative sign
(b) Use positive sign
L
rod
= 2.00(1 25
Al
) m; L
tape
= 2.00(1 25
Fe
) m
Tape reading =
Fe
Al

t
t
25 1
25 1
2
m
Tape reading at 0
o
C = 1.999 m
Tape reading at 50
o
C = 2.001 m


12 A rookie crew was left to put in the final 1 km of rail for a stretch of railroad track. When they finished, the
temperature was 20

C, and they headed to town for some refreshments with their coworkers. After an hour or two,
one of the old-timers noticed that the temperature had gone up to 25

C, so he said, "I hope you left some gaps to allow

Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


for expansion." By the look on their faces, he knew that they had not, and they all rushed back to the work site. The
rail had buckled into an isosceles triangle. How high was the buckle?
1. In the figure, L is the length at 20
o
C, L

the length at 25
o
C,
and h the height of the buckle.

2. h = 1/2(L

2
- L
2
)
1/2

3. L
2
= L
2
(1 +

T)
2

L
2
(1 + 2

T)
4. h = 1/2L(2

T)
1/2


h = (500)(2

11

10
-6

5)
1/2
m = 5.24 m


13* A car has a 60-L steel gas tank filled to the top with gasoline when the temperature is 10

C. The coefficient of
volume expansion of gasoline is

= 0.900

10
3
K
1
. Taking the expansion of the steel tank into account, how much
gasoline spills out of the tank when the car is parked in the sun and its temperature rises to 25

C?
Spill =

V
gas

V
tank
= V

T(
gas

tank
) Spill = (60)(15)(9

10
4

11

10
6
) L = 0.78 L


14 A thermometer has an ordinary glass bulb and thin glass tube filled with 1 mL of mercury. A temperature change
of 1 C

changes the level of mercury in the thin tube by 3.0 mm. Find the inside diameter of the thin glass tube.
1. Net volume change,

V =

V
Hg

V
glass
= A

L,
where A is the area of the capillary.
2.

V = V
0
T(
Hg

glass
); solve for A

3. Find d from
4
2
/
d
= A

Note: 1 mL = 10
6
m
3


m 10
1 5
m
10
3
10
27
10
8 1
10 2 8 2
3
6 4 6

. =
) . (
A =
-
mm 255 0 m
10
1 5 4
8
. = / . d =

15 A mercury thermometer consists of a 0.4-mm capillary tube connected to a glass bulb. The mercury
rises 7.5 cm as the temperature of the thermometer increases from 35

C to 43

C. Find the volume of the

thermometer bulb.
1. See Problem 14. V
0
= A

L/[(
Hg

glass
)

T]
mL 7.7 =
m
10
53 1 8 4
10
4
10
5 7
3
4
2
4 2
0

.
) x ( .
=
V




0


16 A grandfather's clock is calibrated at a temperature of 20

C. (a) On a hot day, when the temperature is 30

C,
does the clock run fast or slow? (b) How much does it gain or lose in a 24-h period? Assume that the pendulum is a
thin brass rod of negligible mass with a heavy bob attached to the end.
(a) T
p
= 2

(L/g)
1/2
is the period of a pendulum; thus as temperature T increases, so does L and T
p
, and the clock
runs slow.
(b) dT
p
/dT = (dT
p
/dL)(dL/dT)

T
p
/T
p
= 1/2
T

h) )(24
10
(9.5 = Loss
5

dT
p
/dL = 1/2T
p
/L; dL/dT =

L.

T
p
/T
p
= 1/2(19

10
6
)(10) = 9.5

10
5

T = 24

60

60

9.5

10
5
s = 8.21 s lost in 24 h.


17* A steel tube has an outside diameter of 3.000 cm at room temperature (20

C). A brass tube has an inside diameter

of 2.997 cm at the same temperature. To what temperature must the ends of the tubes be heated if the
Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


steel tube is to be inserted into the brass tube?
r
s
(1 +
s
T) = r
b
(1 +
b
T);
r r
r r
= T
s s b b
b s

T = T
0
+

T
K 125 = K
000 3
10
11 997 2
10
19
997 2 000 3
6 6

. .
. .
= T

T = (20 + 125)
o
C = 145
o
C



18 What is the tensile stress in the copper collar of Problem 7 when its temperature returns to 20

C?
Strain =

L/L; Stress = Y(

L/L) Stress = (11

10
10
)(0.02/5.98) N/m
2
= 3.68

10
8
N/m
2


19 Mountaineers say that you cannot hard boil an egg on the top of Mount Rainier. This is true because
(a) the air is too cold to boil water.
(b) the air pressure is too low for stoves to burn.
(c) boiling water is not hot enough to hard boil the egg.
(d) the oxygen content of the air is too low.
(e) eggs always break in their backpacks.
(c) (Actually, it can be hard boiled, but it does take quite a bit longer than at sea level.)

20 Which gases in Figure 21-6 cannot be liquefied by applying pressure at 20

C?
Gases for which T
c
< 293 K. These are He, A, Ne, H
2
, O
2
, NO.

21* The phase diagram in Figure 21-14 can be interpreted to yield information on how the boiling and melting
points of water change with altitude. (a) Explain how this information can be obtained. (b) How might this
information affect cooking procedures in the mountains?
(a) With increasing altitude P decreases; from curve OF, T of liquid-gas interphase diminishes, so the boiling
temperature decreases. Likewise, from curve OH, the melting temperature increases with increasing altitude.
(b) Boiling at a lower temperature means that the cooking time will have to be increased.

22 For the phase diagram given in Figure 21-14, state what changes (if any) occur for each line segmentAB, BC,
CD, and DEin (a) volume and (b) phase. (c) For what type of substance would OH be replaced by OG? (d) What
is the significance of point F?
(a) and (b). AB: solid sublimates to vapor; volume increases. BC: vapor condenses to liquid; volume decreases. CD:
liquid freezes; volume increases. DE: solid changes to liquid; volume decreases.
(c) For most materials, the density increases on solidification; for these materials, the phase diagram would have
the shape OG.
(d) F is the critical point.

23 (a) Calculate the volume of 1 mol of steam at 100

C and a pressure of 1 atm, assuming that it is an ideal gas.

(b) Find the temperature at which the steam will occupy the volume found in part (a) if it obeys the van der Waals
equation with a = 0.55 Pa

m
6
/ mol
2
and b = 30 cm
3
/mol.
(a) V = nRT/P


(b) Use Equ. 21-6; substitute numerical values
V = 1

8.314

373/101.3

10
3
m
3
= 0.0306 m
3

= 30.6 L
Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


314 8
)
10
30
10
(30.6
) 10
(30.6
55 0
10
01 1
6 3
2
3
5
.
.
+ .
= T

1
]
1

T = 374 K

24 From Figure 21-4, find (a) the temperature at which water boils on a mountain where the atmospheric pressure is
70 kPa, (b) the temperature at which water will boil in a container in which the pressure has been reduced to 0.5 atm,
and (c) the pressure at which water will boil at 115

C.
(a) At 70 kPa, the boiling point is at T = 90
o
C; (b) at 0.5 atm, T
boil
= 82
o
C; (c) for T
boil
= 115
o
C, P = 170 kPa.

25* The van der Waals constants for helium are a = 0.03412 L
2

atm

/ mol
2
and b = 0.0237 L/mol. Use these data to
find the volume in cubic centimeters occupied by one helium atom and to estimate the radius of the atom.
In Equ. 21-6, b = volume of 1 mol of molecules
For He, 1 molecule = 1 atom
V = (4/3)

r
3
; solve for r
(0.0237 L/mol)(1 mol/6.022

10
23
atoms)(10
3
cm
3
/1 L)
= 3.94

10
23
cm
3
/atom.
r = (3

3.94

10
23
/4

)
1/3
= 2.11

10
8
cm = 0.211 nm


26 (a) For a van der Waals gas, show that the critical temperature is 8a/27Rb and the critical pressure is a/27b
2
.
(b) Rewrite the van der Waals equation of state in terms of the reduced variable V
r
= V/V
c
, P
r
= P/P
c
, and
T
r
= T/T
c
.
(a) At the critical point, dP/dV = 0 and d
2
P/dV
2
= 0. From Equ. 21-6, dP/dV =

nRT/(V

nb)
2
+ 2an
2
/V
3
= 0 (1)
and d
2
P/dV
2
= 2nRT/(V

nb)
3

6an
2
/V
4
= 0 (2). From (1), 2an
2
/V
3
= nRT/(V

nb)
2
(1a); from (2),
6an
2
/V
4
= 2nRT/(V

nb)
3
(2a). Dividing (1a) by (2a) gives 1/2(V

nb) = V/3; V
c
= 3nb (3). Now substitute V
c

from (3) into (1a): RT/4nb
2
= 2a/27nb
3
; T
c
= 8a/27Rb. Now substitute T
c
and V
c
into Equ. 21 6: P
c
= a/27b
2
.
(b) Using the results from (a) in Equ. 21-6 one obtains (P
r
+ 3/V
r
3
)(3V
r

1) = 8T
r
.

27 A copper bar 2 m long has a circular cross section of radius 1 cm. One end is kept at 100

C and the other end is

kept at 0

C. The surface of the bar is insulated so that there is negligible heat loss through it. Find (a) the thermal
resistance of the bar, (b) the thermal current I, (c) the temperature gradient

T /

x, and (d) the temperature of the bar

25 cm from the hot end.
(a) R =

x/kA
(b) I =

T/R
(c) Substitute numerical values
(d) T = T
0
+ (dT/dx)

x
R = (2 m)/[(401W/m
.
K)(

10
4
m
2
)] = 15.9 K/W
I = 100/15.9 W = 6.3 W

T/

x = 100/2 K/m = 50 K/m

T = 0
o
C + 1.75

50
o
C = 87.5
o
C


28 A 20

30-ft slab of insulation has an R factor of 11. How much heat (in Btu per hour) is conducted through the
slab if the temperature on one side is 68

F and that on the other side is 30

F?
I =

T/R = A

T/R
f
I = (38)(600)/11 Btu/h = 2073 Btu/h


29* Two metal cubes with 3-cm edges, one copper (Cu) and one aluminum (Al), are arranged as shown in Figure 21-
15. Find (a) the thermal resistance of each cube, (b) the thermal resistance of the two-cube system, (c) the thermal
current I, and (d) the temperature at the interface of the two cubes.
Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


(a) Use Equ. 21-10; substitute numerical values
(b) R = R
Cu
+ R
Al

(c) I =

T/R
(d) I
Cu
= I
Al
= I;

T
Cu
= I
Cu
R
Cu

R
Cu
= 1/(0.03

401) = 0.0831 K/W; R

Al
= 0.141 K/W
R = 0.224 K/W
I = 80/0.224 W = 358 W

T
Cu
= 358

0.0831 K = 29.7 K; T = 100

29.7
= 70.3
o
C


30 The cubes in Problem 29 are rearranged in parallel as shown in Figure 21-16. Find (a) the thermal current
carried by each cube from one side to the other, (b) the total thermal current, and (c) the equivalent thermal
resistance of the two-cube system.
(a) Apply Equ. 21-9 to each cube
(b) I = I
Cu
+ I
Al

(c) R
equ
=

T/I
I
Cu
= 80/0.0831 W = 963 W; I
Al
= 80/0.141 W = 567 W
I = 1530 W
R = 80/1530 K/W = 0.0523 K/W


31 A spherical shell of thermal conductivity k has inside radius r
1
and outside radius r
2
(Figure 21-17). The inside of
the shell is held at a temperature T
1
, and the outside at temperature T
2
. In this problem, you are to show that the
thermal current through the shell is given by

)
T T
(
r r
r kr
= I
1 2
1 2
2 1
4

Consider a spherical element of the shell of radius r and thickness dr. (a) Why must the thermal current through each
such element be the same? (b) Write the thermal current I through such a shell element in terms of the area A = 4

r
2
,
the thickness dr, and the temperature difference dT across the element. (c) Solve for dT in terms of dr and integrate
from r = r
1
to r = r
2.
(d) Show that when r
1
and r
2
are much larger than r
2
- r
1
, Equation 21-22 is the same as Equation
21-7.
(a) From conservation of energy, the thermal current through each shell must be the same.
(b) I =

kA(dT/dr) =

kr
2
(dT/dr); note the minus sign - the heat current is directed opposite to temperature
gradient.
(c) dT =

(I/4

k)(dr/r
2
);
)
T T
(
r r
r kr
= I ;
r

r
k
I
=
T T
;
r
dr
k
I
= dT
r
r
T
T
2
1
1 2
1 2
2 1
2 1
1 2
2
4 1 1
4 4
2
1

,
_

(d) For r
2

r
1
<< r
1
, r
1

r
2
= r; let r
2

r
1
=

r. Now I = 4

kr
2
(

T/

r) = kA(

T/

r); Q.E.D.

32 A group of anthropologists is staying in the high Arctic for a month, and they need accommodation. They are
directed to a small company, Inuit Igloos. "How thick do you want the walls?" asks Inuk, the head igloo maker. After
some conferring, they reply that it should be 20

C inside when the temperature is

20

C outside. After looking the

anthropologists over and poking them a bit, Inuk estimates that they would give off 38 MJ of heat per day. If the inside
radius of the hemispherical igloo is to be 2 m, and the thermal conductivity of the compacted snow is 0.209 W / m

K,
how thick should the walls be? (As an approximation, assume that the inner surface area of the igloo is equal to the
outer surface area.)
1. Use Equ. 21-7; Change MJ/day to J/s
2. Solve for the thickness t.
440 W = (0.209 W/m
.
K)(2

2
2
m
2
)(40 K)/t
t = 0.478 m = 47.8 cm


Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


33* For a boiler at a power station, heat must be transferred to boiling water at the rate of 3 GW. The boiling water
passes through copper pipes having a wall thickness of 4.0 mm and a surface area of 0.12 m
2
per meter length of pipe.
Find the total length of pipe (actually there are many pipes in parallel) that must pass through the furnace if the steam
temperature is 225

C and the external temperature of the pipes is 600

C.
1. From Equ. 21-7, A = I

x/k

T
2. L = A/(0.12 m)
A = (3

10
9
)(4

10
3
)/[(401)(375)] m
2
= 79.8 m
2

L = 665 m


34 A steam pipe of length L is insulated with a layer of material of thermal conductivity k. Find the rate of heat
transfer if the temperature outside the insulation is t
1
, the temperature inside is t
2
, the outside radius of the insulation is
r
1
, and the inside radius is r
2
.
Proceed as in Problem 31. Consider an element with a cylindrical area of length L, radius r, and thickness dr. The heat
current is I = -2

kLr(dT/dr). Thus, dT = -[I/(2

kL)]dr/r. Integrate from T

1
to T
2
and from r
1
to r
2
and solve for the
heat current I. I = 2

kL(T
1

T
2
)/ln(r
1
/r
2
).
Note: If we use the above result in Problem 33 (take 0.12 m
2
to be the outside area per meter of pipe) then
r
1
= 1.91 cm and r
2
= 1.51 cm. Solving for L one obtains L = 746 m.

35 Brine at -16

C circulating through copper pipes with walls 1.5 mm thick is used to keep a cold room at 0

C. The
diameter of each pipe is very large compared to the thickness of its walls. By what fraction is the transfer of heat
reduced when the pipes are coated with a 5-mm layer of ice?
1. Use R
tot
= R
Cu
+ R
ice
; R =

x/kA. Also I =

T/R
2. Substitute numerical values.
I
tot
/I
Cu
= R
Cu
/R = [1 + (

x
ice
k
Cu
)/(

x
Cu
k
ice
)]
1

I
tot
/I
Cu
= 4.43

10
4
; I reduced by a factor of 2260.


36 If the absolute temperature of an object is tripled, the rate at which it radiates thermal energy
(a) triples.
(b) increases by a factor of 9.
(c) increases by a factor of 27.
(d) increases by a factor of 81.
(e) depends on whether the absolute temperature is above or below zero.
(d) The energy radiated is proportional to T
4
.

37* Calculate
max
for a human blackbody radiator, assuming the surface temperature of the skin to be 33

C.
Use Equ. 21-21 and substitute numerical values.
max
= (2.898

10
3
)/(273 + 33) m = 9.47

m


38 The heating wires of a 1-kW electric heater are red hot at a temperature of 900

C. Assuming that 100% of the

heat output is due to radiation and that the wires act as blackbody radiators, what is the effective area of the radiating
surface? (Assume a room temperature of 20

C.)
From Equ. 21-20, A = P
net
/[e

(T
4

T
0
4
)] A = 10
3
/[1

5.67

10
8
(1173
4
- 293
4
)] m
2

= 9.35

10
3
m
2


39 A blackened, solid copper sphere of radius 4.0 cm hangs in a vacuum in an enclosure whose walls have a
temperature of 20

C. If the sphere is initially at 0

C, find the rate at which its temperature changes, assuming that heat
is transferred by radiation only.
Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


1. dQ/dt = mc(dT/dt) = P
net
. Find P
net


2. Solve for dT/dt; m = (4/3)

r
3
, c = 0.386 kJ/kg
.
K
P
net
=

16

10
4

5.67

10
8
(293
4

273
4
) W
=

2.07 W
dT/dt =

2.07

3/(4

8.96

10
3

64

10
6

386) K/s
=

2.23

10
3
K/s


40 The surface temperature of the filament of an incandescent lamp is 1300

C. If the electric power input is doubled,

what will the temperature become? Hint: Show that you can neglect the temperature of the
surroundings.
1. P
net
= e

A(T
4

T
0
4
) = e

AT
4
[1

(T
0
/T)
4
]
2. T

P
1/4

(273/1573)
4
= 9

10
4
<< 1; neglect (T
0
/T)
4
.
T = 1573

2
1/4
K = 1871 K = 1598
o
C


41* Liquid helium is stored at its boiling point (4.2 K) in a spherical can that is separated by a vacuum space from a
surrounding shield that is maintained at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K). If the can is 30 cm in diameter and is
blackened on the outside so that it acts as a blackbody, how much helium boils away per hour?
1. dm/dt = P
net
/L = e

d
2
T
4
/L. Here L is the latent
heat of boiling and T
0
can be neglected (see
Problesm 40)
dm/dt = (5.67

10
8

0.3
2

77
4
/21

10
3
) kg/s
= 2.68

10
5
kg/s = 9.66

10
2
kg/h = 96.6 g/h.


42 In a cool room, a metal or marble table top feels much colder to the touch than a wood surface does even though
they are at the same temperature. Why?
The thermal conductivity of metal and marble is much greater than that of wood; consequently, heat transfer
from the hand is more rapid.

43 True or false:
(a) During a phase change, the temperature of a substance remains constant.
(b) The rate of conduction of thermal energy is proportional to the temperature gradient.
(c) The rate at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the square of its absolute temperature.
(d) All materials expand when they are heated.
(e) The vapor pressure of a liquid depends on the temperature.
(a) True. (b) True. (c) False. (d) False; water contracts on heating between 0
o
C and 4
o
C. (e) True.

44 Conduction is a method of heat transfer that
(a) can proceed in a vacuum.
(b) involves the transfer of mass.
(c) is dominant in solids.
(d) depends on the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
(c)

45* The earth loses heat by
(a) conduction.
(b) convection.
(c) radiation.
(d) all of the above.
Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


(c)

46 Which heat-transfer mechanisms are most important in the warming effect of a fire in a fireplace?
Radiation and convection.

47 Which heat-transfer mechanism is important in the transfer of energy from the sun to the earth?
Radiation is the only mechanism.

48 Two cylinders made of materials A and B have the same lengths; their diameters are related by d
A
= 2d
B
. When
the same temperature difference is maintained between the ends of the cylinders they conduct heat at the same rate.
Their thermal conductivities are related by
(a) k
A
= k
B
/4
(b) k
A
= k
B
/2
(c) k
A
= k
B

(d) k
A
= 2k
B

(e) k
A
= 4k
B

(e) From Equ. 21-7, kd
2
must be constant.

49* A steel tape is placed around the earth at the equator when the temperature is 0

C. What will the clearance

between the tape and the ground (assumed to be uniform) be if the temperature of the tape rises to 30

C? Neglect
the expansion of the earth.
From Equ. 21-2,

R = R

R = 6.38

10
6

11

10
6

30 m
= 2.1

10
3
m = 2.1 km


50 Use the result of Problem 31 (Equation 21-22) to calculate the wall thickness of the hemispherical igloo of Problem
32 without assuming that the inner surface area equals the outer surface area.
Set r
2
= r
1
+

r; from Problem 32 (igloo is a

hemisphere)
T
kr
I
T
kr
= r

1
2
1
2
2

For r
1
= 2 m,

T = 40 K, I = 440 W, k = 0.209 W/m

.
K,

one obtains

r = 0.63 m = 63 cm.


51 Show that change in the density of an isotropic material due to an increase in temperature

T is given by
T. - =


dT = d ; = V
V
M
=
dT
dV

dV
d
=
dT
d
;
V
M
=
2



;

T
52 The solar constant is the power received from the sun per unit area perpendicular to the sun's rays at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun. Its value at the upper atmosphere of the earth is about 1.35 kW/m
2
. Calculate the
effective temperature of the sun if it radiates like a blackbody. (The radius of the sun is 6.96

10
8
m.)
1. Determine the total power radiated.
R = 1.5

10
11
m is the sunearth distance.
2. Use Equ. 21-17; A = 4

R
S
2
, where
R
S
= 6.96

10
8
m
P = (1.35 kW/m
2
)(4

sR
2
) = (1.35 kW/m
2
)4

(1.5

10
11
m)
2
= 38.2

10
22
kW = 3.82

10
26
W
T = [3.82

10
26
/(5.67

10
8

4.84

10
17
)]
1/4

= 5769 K


53* Lou has patented a cooking timer, which he is marketing as "Nature's Way: Taking You Back To Simpler Times."
Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


The timer consists of a 28-cm copper rod having a 5.0-cm diameter. Just as the lower end is placed in boiling water, an
ice cube is placed on the top of the rod. When the ice melts completely, the cooking time is up. A special ice cube tray
makes cubes of various sizes to correspond to the boiling time required. What is the cooking time when a 30-g ice cube
at 5.0

C is used?
1. Find t
1
, time to raise the ice cube from

5
o
C
to 0
o
C.
t
1
=

Q/[kA(

T/

x)];

Q = mc

(5 K)

2. t
2
, time to melt ice = mL

x/kA

T

3. The total time = t
1
+ t
2

Q = (0.03 kg)(2.05

10
3
J/kg
.
K)(5 K) = 307.5 J

t
1
= 307.5/[401

25

10
4
/4)

(102.5/0.28)] s
= 1.07 s
t
2
=
s 35.6 = s
100 ) 4
10
25 ( 401
28 0
10
5 333 03 0
4
3

/
. . .

,
_

t
tot
= 36.7 s


54 To determine the R value of insulating material that comes in sheets of
2
1
s-in thickness, you construct a cubical
box of 12 in per side and place a thermometer and a 100-W heater inside the box. After thermal equilibrium has been
attained, the temperature inside the box is 90

C when the external temperature is 20

C. Determine the R value of this

material.
1. I = kA(

T/

x); R
f
=

x/k = A

T/I
2. Convert to U.S. customary units
R
f
= 6(0.3048 m)
2
(70 K)/(100 W) = 0.39 K
.
m
2
/W
R
f
= 2.2 h
.
ft
2
.
F
o
/Btu


55 A 2-cm-thick copper sheet is pressed against a sheet of aluminum. What should be the thickness of the aluminum
sheet so that the temperature of the copperaluminum interface is (T
1
+ T
2
)/2, where T
1
and T
2
are the temperatures
at the copperair and aluminumair interfaces?

T
Cu
=

T
Al
= 1/2(T
1

T
2
) = (I/A)(t
Cu
/k
Cu
)
= (I/A)(t
Al
/k
Al
)
t
Al
= t
Cu
(k
Al
/k
Cu
) = (2 cm)(237/401) = 1.18 cm


56 At a temperature of 20

C, a steel bar of radius 2.2 cm and length 60 cm is jammed horizontally perpendicular

between two vertical concrete walls. With a blowtorch, the temperature of the bar is raised to 60

C. Find the force

exerted by the bar on each wall.

L = L

T; F = AY

L/L = AY

T F =

(2.2

10
2
)
2
(2.0

10
11
)(11

10
6
)(40) N
= 1.34

10
5
N


57* (a) From the definition of

, the coefficient of volume expansion (at constant pressure), show that

= 1/T for an
ideal gas. (b) The experimentally determined value of

for N
2
gas at 0

C is 0.003673 K
1
. Compare this value with
the theoretical value

= 1/T, assuming that N

2
is an ideal gas.
(a) For an ideal gas, V = nRT/P;

= (1/V)(dV/dT) = (P/nRT)(nR/P) = 1/T. (b) 1/273 = 0.003663 is within 0.3 %

of the experimental value.

58 One way to construct a device with two points whose separation remains the same in spite of temperature
changes is to bolt together one end of two rods having different coefficients of linear expansion as in the arrangement
shown in Figure 21-18. (a) Show that the distance L will not change with temperature if the lengths L
A
and L
B
are
Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes


chosen such that L
A
/L
B
=
B
/
A
. (b) If material B is steel, material A is brass, and L
A
= 250 cm at 0

C, what is the
value of L?
(a) We want L = (L
B

L
A
) = (L
B
+
B
L
B
T)

(L
A
+
A
L
A
T). Therefore,
B
L
B
=
A
L
A
or L
A
/L
B
=
B
/
A
.
(b) From (a) L
B
= L
Steel
= (250 cm)(19/11) = 432 cm, and L = 182 cm.

59 On the average, the temperature of the earth's crust increases 1.0 C

for every 30 m of depth. The average

thermal conductivity of the earth's crust is 0.74 J/m

K. What is the heat loss of the earth per second due to

conduction from the core? How does this heat loss compare with the average power received from the sun? (The
solar constant is about 1.35 kW/m
2
.)
1. Heat current/m
2
= I/m
2
= k(

T/

x)

2. dQ/dt = kA(

T/

x)
I/m
2
= 0.74/30 W/m
2
= 0.0247 W/m
2
< 0.002% of the solar
constant.
dQ/dt = 4

(6.38

10
6
)
2

0.0247 W = 1.26

10
10
kW


60 A copper-bottomed saucepan containing 0.8 L of boiling water boils dry in 10 min. Assuming that all the heat flows
through the flat copper bottom, which has a diameter of 15 cm and a thickness of 3.0 mm, calculate the temperature of
the outside of the copper bottom while some water is still in the pan.
1. I =

Q/

t = kA(

T/

x);

Q = mL
v
; solve for

T
2. m = 0.8 kg, L
v
= 2257 kJ/kg, A = .0225

/4 m
2
,

x = 3

10
3
m, k = 401 W/m
.
K.

T = mL
v
x/kA

T = 4

0.8

2257

10
3

10
3
/401

0.0225

600
= 1.3 K; T
out
= 100
o
C +

T = 101.3
o
C.


61* A hot-water tank of cylindrical shape has an inside diameter of 0.55 m and inside height of 1.2 m. The tank is
enclosed with a 5-cm-thick insulating layer of glass wool whose thermal conductivity is 0.035 W/m

K. The metallic
interior and exterior walls of the container have thermal conductivities that are much greater than that of the glass
wool. How much power must be supplied to this tank to maintain the water temperature at 75

C when the external

temperature is 1

C?
We will do this problem twice. First, we shall disregard the fact that the surrounding insulation is cylindrical. We shall
then repeat the problem, using the result of Problem 34.
(a) 1. Find the total area
2. Use Equ. 21-7
(b) 1. Find I through top and bottom surfaces: I
1

2. Find I
c
through cylindrical surface (see
Problem 34)
3. Find the total heat loss I = I
1
+ I
c

A
tot
= [2

/4)(0.55)
2
+

0.55

1.2] m
2
= 2.55 m
2

I = (0.035)(2.55)(74/0.05) W = 132 W
I
1
= (0.035)[(

/2)(0.55)
2
](74/0.05) W = 24.6 W
I
c
= 2

(0.035)(1.2)(74)/ln(0.65/0.55) W = 97.4 W

I = (24.6 + 97.4) W = 122 W


62 The diameter of a rod is given by d = d
o
(1 + ax), where a is a constant and x is the distance from one end. If the
thermal conductivity of the material is k what is the thermal resistance of the rod if its length is L?
I =

kA(dT/dx); ) + ax (
d
) / A = (
2
2
0
1 4
;
aL) (
kd
p
I L
=
T T
;
+ ax
dx

kd
I
dT = -
L T
T
1
4
) 1 (
4
2
0
1 2
2
0
2
0
2
1

R =
+aL) (
kd
4L
=
I
T
1
2
0

Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes




63 A solid disk of radius R and mass M is spinning in a frictionless environment with angular velocity
1
at
temperature T
1
. The temperature of the disk is then changed to T
2
. Express the angular velocity
2
, rotational kinetic
energy E
2
, and angular momentum L
2
in terms of their values at the temperature T
1
and the linear expansion
coefficient

of the disk.
Let

T = T
2
- T
1.
1. No torque: L
2
= L
1
. 2. I
2
= MR
2
2
= MR
1
2
(1 +

T)
2
= I
1
(1 + 2

T +

T
2
) = I
1
(1 + 2

T),
neglecting the higher order term. I
11
= I
22
,
2
=
1
(I
1
/I
2
) =
1
(1

T). E
2
= L
2
2
/2I
2
= L
1
2
/2I
2
; E
1
= L
1
2
/2I
1
;
E
2
= E
1
(I
1
/I
2
) = E
1
(1

T).

64 A small pond has a layer of ice 1 cm thick floating on its surface. (a) If the air temperature is 10

C, find the rate

in centimeters per hour at which ice is added to the bottom of the layer. The density of ice is 0.917 g/cm
3
. (b) How
long does it take for a 20-cm layer to be built up?
(a) To freeze m kg of water, Q = mL
f
. To determine the rate of freezing, dQ/dt = L
f
(dm/dt) = L
f
A(dx/dt). But we
also have dQ/dt = kA

T/x, where x is thickness of the ice.

dx/dt = (k/L
f
)

T/x
(b) t
L
T k
) = x x ( dt;
L
T k
= x dx
f
i f
t
f
x
x
f
i

2 2
0
2
1


dx/dt = (0.592/333.5

10
3

917)(10/0.01) m/s
= 1.94

m/s = 6.97 mm/h

t = [(333.5

10
3

917)/(2

0.592

10)](0.04

10
4
) s
= 1.03

10
6
s

12 days


65* A body initially at a temperature T
i
cools by convection and radiation in a room where the temperature is T
0
. The
body obeys Newton's law of cooling, which can be written
),
T
hA(T = dQ/dt
0

where A is the area of the body and

h is a constant called the surface coefficient of heat transfer. Show that the temperature T at any time t is given by
,
e
)
T0 i
hAt / mc
0 T
( +
T
= T

where m is the mass of the body and c is its specific heat.

1. dQ = -mcdT is heat loss as T diminishes by dT. Thus, dT =

(1/mc)dQ and dT/dt =

(hA/mc)(T

T
0
)

2.
t
mc
hA
- =
T
-
T
T
T
; dt
mc
hA
- =
T
T -
dT
i
t T
T i

,
_

0
0
0
0
ln
, where T
i
is the initial temperature.

Take the antilog and solve for T to obtain T = T
0
+ (T
i

T
0
)e
hAt/mc
.

66 Two 200-g copper containers, each holding 0.7 L of water, are connected by a 10-cm copper rod of cross-
sectional area 1.5 cm
2
. Initially, one container is at 60

C; the second is maintained at 0

C. (a) Show that the

temperature t
c
of the first container changes over time t according to
e t
t / RC

t
=
0 c c
where t
c0
is the initial temperature of the first container, R is the thermal resistance of the rod, and C is the total heat
capacity of the container plus the water. (b) Evaluate R, C, and the "time constant" RC. (c) Show that the total
amount of heat Q conducted in time t is


) 1 (
0 c e Ct
= Q
t / RC

Chapter 21 Thermal Properties and Processes



(d) Find the time it takes for the temperature of the first container to be reduced to 30

C.
(a) Heat loss dQ = -(m
c
c
c
+ m
w
c
w
)dT
c
, where m
c
and c
c
are the mass and specific heat of the container and m
w

and c
w
are the mass and specific heat of the water. Let the sum of those heat capacities be C. Then we can write
dQ/dt = -C(dT
c
/dt). But we also have, from Equ. 21-7, dQ/dt = kA(T
c

0)/

x = T
c
/R. We therefore have


.
e T
=
T
t ;
RC
=
T
T
dt;
RC
=
T
dT
t/RC
c c
c
c
t
c
c
T
T
c
c

,
_

0
0
0 0
1
ln
1


(b) R =

x/kA; R = 0.1/(401

1.5

10
4
) K/W = 1.66 K/W;
C = (m
c
c
c
+ m
w
c
w
) C = (0.2

386 + 0.7

4180) J/K = 3 kJ/K; RC = 4985 s

= 1.38 h
(c) To determine Q we integrate dQ = (T
c
/R)dt, where T
c
= T
c0
e
t/RC
.

)
e
( ; Q = C T dt
e
R
T
dQ =
t/RC
c
-t/RC
t
c
Q

1
0
0
0
0


(d) T
c
= 1/2T
c0
; exp(

t/RC) = 1/2; t = RC

ln

(2) t = 1.38

ln(2) = 0.96 h

67 Liquid helium is stored in containers fitted with 7-cm-thick "superinsulation" consisting of a large number of layers
of very thin aluminized Mylar sheets. The rate of evaporation of liquid in a 200-L container is about 0.7 L per day.
Assume the container is spherical and that the external temperature is 20

C. The specific gravity of liquid helium is

0.125 and the latent heat of vaporization is 21 kJ/kg. Estimate the thermal conductivity of superinsulation.
1. Find rate of loss in kg/s. dm/dt =

(dV/dt)

2. I = L
v
(dm/dt) = kA(

T/

x); k =
T A
(dm/dt) x
Lv

A = 4

(3V/4

)
2/3

dm/dt = (0.125

10
3
kg/m
3
)(0.7

10
3
m
3
)/(86400 s)
= 1.01

10
6
kg/s
A = 4

(3

2.0x10
1
/4

)
2/3
= 1.65 m
2

k = (21

10
3

10
2

1.01

10
6
)/(1.65

288) W/m
.
K
= 3.1

10
6
W/m
.
K