Human activity also impacts on waterways.

Chemical monitoring and management assists in providing safe water for human use and to protect the habitats of other organisms.

5.5 GATHER, PROCESS AND PRESENT INFORMATION ON THE FEATURES OF THE LOCAL TOWN WATER SUPPLY IN TERMS OF:
- CATCHMENT AREA - POSSIBLE SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION IN THIS CATCHMENT - CHEMICAL TESTS AVAILABLE TO DETERMINE LEVELS AND TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS - PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES USED TO PURIFY WATER - CHEMICAL ADDITIVES IN THE WATER AND THE REASONS FOR THE PRESENCE OF THESE ADDITIVES

CATCHMENT AREA
Catchment area = A natural region where rainwater and run-off are collected to provide a water supply. - They are determined by the geographical features of the land Describe your local catchment area Sydney Catchment has four/5 main catchments, one of which is Warragamba system (supplies Sydney metropolitan) o extends from south of Goulburn, north to Lithgow, east to Mittagong and west to Crookwell. o Other four (not necessary): Upper Nepean system, Woronora system, Blue Mountains system & Shoalhaven system o Each system contains rivers: lakes, dams & reservoirs; pumping stations, water filtration plants & pipelines Is located 60km west of Sydney in a narrow gorge in Warragamba River It is one of the worlds largest domestic supply dams Catchment area is 9000 square km Delivers water to the Prospect water filtration plant, where it is purified Identify some activities that are permitted in a catchment area and some that are not Permitted activities: - picnicking - bushwalking - recreational activities Not permitted activities: - swimming penises - boating on the dam - farming - logging - urban development - industry - the use of chemicals such as insecticides

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION IN THIS CATCHMENT

Identify possible sources of water contamination in your local catchment area (not: conc. of ions) Coliform bacteria and microbes from sewage plants, e.g. Cryptosporidium & Giardia Sediments from erosion (e.g. soil erosion and ash by bushfires) Urinal and faecal wastes from agricultural livestock and wild animals penis -Run-off from agricultural areas (increases nutrient levels and turbidity) - Fertiliser and sprays including organic toxicants and pesticides with phosphate Blue-green algae Run-off from disturbed vegetation (increases turbidity) Decaying organisms Leaching of chemicals from surrounds Corrosion from structures in the area -Sewage overflows Careless or illegal chemical use may also pose a risk -Storm water runoff (increases oil, TDS and turbidity) Leaching of heavy metals from mine sites Contamination from industry (e.g. organic solvents, heavy metals) (coal refinery) Increased levels of calcium and magnesium from ground water Others in specificity (Warragamba)

Turbidity surface water run-off into rivers from bushland & grazing land after heavy rain leads to temporary increases in turbidity & nutrient levels of the water High levels of iron & manganese: catchment area for Woronora dam has high natural iron & manganese levels that leached from the local soil & rock strata leads to water that is coloured & has metallic taste Treated/untreated sewage & industrial effluent: sewage treatment plants along some of the catchment rivers discharge treated sewage into the river o Usually far enough upstream that little N & P contamination detected near dam walls o Some areas connected to septic tanks raw sewage overflow has adverse effects on water quality o Industrial waste may release bacteria, heavy metal ions & other ions, organic matter Microbes: catchment water contains variable levels of microbes, water run-off from agricultural land contributes to this Pesticides: low levels of pesticides from agricultural properties have been detected in outer catchment Mining: Zn, Cu and Pb have been detected in areas near abandoned mines due to leaching, coal mining in outer catchment also threatens water quality Grazing: cattle graze extensively along creeks & rivers in catchment faecal matter carried into water during storms Native & feral animals: potential carriers of parasites parasites can find way into water Logging & land clearing activities: releases ions into water via run offs resulting in higher TDS & turbidity Agriculture activities: using excess fertilisers which are rich in phosphate and nitrate fertilisers can enter waterways via run offs causing eutrophication and algal blooms Polluted discharges from stormwater canals: high heavy metal levels in sediments in various bays in Sydney Harbour & Parramatta river

CHEMICAL TESTS AVAILABLE TO DETERMINE LEVELS AND TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS

Chemical tests available for monitoring water contaminants and the contaminants each test will detect Tests for contaminants AAS (Atomic absorption spectroscopy) (Qualitative) Flame Test Precipitation reaction tests Add acid and test for carbon dioxide produced Gravimetric analysis (quantitative; titration) Contaminants detected by this test Metal ions (concen. in solution) especially heavy metals Metal ions such as Ca , Cu , Ba
2+ 2+ 2+

Ions such as Cl (indicating salinity), SO 4, Pb . CO

23 ions

2-

2+

Insoluble solids such as silt, clays, sludge suspended in the water Total dissolved solids Insoluble solids such as silt, clays, sludge suspended in the water. An indication of microbial contamination such as algal growth, faecal contamination Dumping of acid or alkali wastes, acid rain Low DO indicates increased activity of aerobic microbes, which use up the oxygen. Possible increase in organic wastes Measure of organic matter in water. High BOD can be due to industries such as food processing, paper production. Indicates sewage, fertilizer or detergents in water.

Electrical conductivity (meter) Turbidity (meter)

Acidity DO (Dissolved oxygen)

BOD (Biochemical oxygen demand)

Colorimetric tests for nitrogen and phosphorus content and N:P ratio

Identify organisms whose presence would indicate water contamination Coliform bacteria, e.g. E. coli indicate faecal contamination. Algal bloom indicates sewage, fertiliser or detergents. Protozoans such as giardia and cryptosporidium indicate contamination, e.g. dead animals. Chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants Contamination with acids & alkalis H+ or OH- ions can contaminate water supplies due to human activity (e.g. mining) pH of potable water between 6.5 & 8.5 o Measured using pH meter or narrow-range indicator papers

Contamination with metal ions various cations can contaminate water supplies

o o

Hard water (due to Ca2+ and/or Mg2+) measured using EDTA titration & suitable indicator (e.g. Eriochrome Black-T) Heavy metal ion contamination (e.g. from mining sites or factory effluents) determined using AAS

Contamination with salt rising water tables can result in salt contamination, removal of trees from farming land major cause of salinity o o o o Concentration of Na+, Cl- & SO42+ will increase as salinity increases [Na+] determined using AAS or flame photometry Cl- & SO42- determined volumetrically or gravimetrically e.g. Cl- concentration determined by titration with Ag+ using a chromate indicator

Contamination with nitrogen & phosphorus agricultural run-off increases N & P levels o Determined colourimetrically by reacting them with specific reagents

Another reference
Cryptosporidium, Giardia o *These protozoan parasites are monitored daily at Warragamba Dam, and twice a week at Prospect Reservoir

Faecal coliforms Phosphorus and nitrogen o Nitrogen can be measured using the Kjeldahl method (automated) o Visible spectrometry o *Phosphate is more commonly monitored as it is usually the growth-limiting nutrient Various algae/total cyanobacteria Pesticides Iron, manganese, aluminium, and heavy metals o AAS, mass spectrometry, chromatography o Total dissolved solids o Electrical conductivity probe Turbidity o Secchi disk, turbidity tube, colorimeter, nephelometer pH pH meter Hardness o Dissolved oxygen (DO) o Dissolved oxygen meter o *Measuring dissolved oxygen can tell us extent of eutrophication

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES USED TO PURIFY WATER

Physical processes/treatments Screening out large debris: removes anything wider than half a hairs width, removing twigs, weeds and fish Flocculation (Coagulation) to increase particle size Primary coagulant used by Sydney Water is iron (III) chloride. The floc formed is an iron (III) hydroxide precipitate that helps collect neutralised particles into bigger masses o Sydney Water also uses a number of long chain polymers as secondary coagulants o At Prospect Reservoir, coagulant is added to water immediately before filters, to form a floc which is then trapped by the filter Sedimentation (Sieving) to remove larger suspended particles Filtration to remove finer suspended particles Artificial destratification o In summer, a warm upper layer develops above a considerably colder lower layer of water, separated by a narrow thermocline layer. Lower layer can become depleted in oxygen, and warmer upper layer is in danger of increasing nutrient concentrations and algal growth. In artificial destratification, air is pumped into the lake near the bottom to mix the layers Chemical processes Aeration to oxidise soluble iron & manganese salts to insoluble compounds Oxidation (via a pre-oxidant) (e.g. by potassium permanganate) of iron & manganese salts, to allow them to be removed by flocculation/filtration, e.g. 2+ + 3Mn (aq) + 2MnO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) 5MnO2 (s) + 4H (aq) 2+ 2+ Lime softening to precipitate out high levels of Ca & Mg ions, e.g. 2+ 2Ca (aq) + CO3 (aq) CaCO3 (s) Calcium hydroxide added to raise pH in the coagulation tank Addition of iron (III) chloride to precipitate phosphate ions in coagulation tank pH adjustment in post-treatment Decolourisation: to alter tannins using sulfuric acid Lime or caustic soda may be added to raw water to adjust pH, to facilitate flocculation

CHEMICAL ADDITIVES IN THE WATER AND THE REASONS FOR THE PRESENCE OF THESE ADDITIVES
Explain the addition of the listed chemicals during the water purification process Chemical additive Reason for adding chemical Iron (III) chloride or aluminium hydroxide and a Coagulates fine suspended particles so that they 3+ cationic polymer will sediment or can be more easily filtered. Fe also precipitates excessive phosphate (which is good) Sulfuric acid Breaks down organic wastes and aids coagulation. Lime water or other alkali Neutralises acid and restores neutral pH. Fluoride Hardens tooth enamel and helps prevent tooth decay. Chlorine Forms hypochlorite (ClO ), which bleaches coloured, matter in the water and disinfects the water by killing microorganisms.

Chemical additives: o Addition of chlorine & ammonia to kill microbes (biochemical) Chlorination: Enough chlorine is added (as chlorine gas, liquid sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite tablets) to ensure primary disinfection, as well as some chlorine residual to protect the water from recontamination as it travels to consumers taps. sanatises water Addition of fluoride ions (sodium silicofluoride) to assist in tooth decay prevention (biochemical) Lime [CaO] & CO2 In some filtration plants where water is very soft, lime and carbon dioxide are added. This is because very soft water can corrode metal pipes, increasing metal concentrations in water. The carbon dioxide reacts with lime to form calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO 3)2. Calcium bicarbonate buffers the water, increases hardness, and reduces corrosivity of the water Biochemical organisms Added to 'remedialize' water contaminations.

o o

Extra notes
o Qualitative tests: tests used to identify presence or absence of elements, ions or molecules in a sample Quantitative tests: investigations used to determine the amount of a given element or compound in a known weight or volume of material Parts per million mg/kg, mg/L

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) the amount of oxygen (mg) dissolved in 1 L of water at a fixed temp
DO (ppm) at 25C

High level of DO is vital for water quality aquatic animals rely on DO for respiration <5 ppm most aquatic organisms exhibit respiratory distress
4-6 Moderately polluted

6-8 Healthy

2-4 Severely polluted

<1 Dead

Water Quality

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) the quantity of O2 that is required by decomposers to respire organic waste (and to oxidise certain inorganic materials such as iron) in a body of water Measure of the degree to which a water sample is polluted by organic matter

AAS

electrical conductivity meter

Bibliography
Schell, Marilyn (2007), Dotpoint HSC Chemistry, Science Press, New South Wales Stamell, Jim (2009), Excel HSC Chemistry, Pascal Press, New South Wales Tregarthen, Linden (2005), Macquarie Revision Guides HSC Chemistry, South Yarra Roebuck, C.M. (2004), Excel HSC Chemistry, Pascal Press, New South Wales Davis, Mark: Water Quality HSC Chemistry 2009 [Online] Available < http://hsc.sca.nsw.gov.au/chemistry/support/for_teachers> (May 25, 2013) Lambert, Joe: Water Quality 2012 [Online] Available < http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/water/waterqual.htm> (May 25, 2013) Heather, Margaret: Chemical Monitoring and Management 2010 [Online] Available < http://sydney.edu.au/science/uniserve_science/school/curric/stage6/chem/monitor .html> (May 28, 2013) Sydney Catchment Authority: Catchment Management 2013 [Online] Available < http://www.sca.nsw.gov.au/the-catchments/sca-catchment-management> (May 28, 2013) Scott, Robert: Contamination 2010 [Online] Available <http://hsc.sca.nsw.gov.au/chemistry/water_contamination/possible_sources/land _use> (May 28, 2013) Ross, John: Warragamba Dam 2009 [Online] Available <http://www.floodsafe.nsw.gov.au/faq_warragamba.html> (May 28, 2013)