Rational Mythology Can a rational person accept the stories of the Puranas as literally true?

A lecture by Sadaputa Dasa Presented at the Parliament of the World's Religion, Chicago, !!" #n $i%e&ananda S'ami's famous lecture on (induism at the Parliament of Religions in )!", he began by outlining some of the salient features of traditional (induism* (e mentioned &arma, reincarnation, and the problem of e%il in the material 'orld* (e 'ent on to e+plain that the solution to this problem depends on see&ing refuge in ,od* ,od is that one -by 'hose command the 'ind blo's, the fire burns, the clouds rain, and death stal&s upon the earth*- (e is the source of strength and the support of the uni%erse* (e is e%ery'here, pure, almighty, and all.merciful* And 'e are related to ,od as a child to a father or mother and as a friend to a belo%ed friend* $i%e&ananda said that 'e are to 'orship ,od through unselfish lo%e, and he pointed out that the 'ay to achie%ing lo%e of ,od 'as -fully de%eloped and taught by /rishna, 'hom the (indus belie%e to ha%e been ,od incarnate on earth*-0 1hrough lo%e 'e are to perfect oursel%es, reach ,od, see ,od, and en2oy bliss 'ith ,od* 3n this, he said, all (indus are agreed*" 4ut he 'ent on to say that in the final stage of reali5ation, ,od is seen to be impersonal 4rahman* 1he indi%idual then ends separate e+istence by reali5ing his identity 'ith 4rahman* Ma&ing an analogy 'ith physical science, he said, -Physics 'ould stop 'hen it 'ould be able to fulfill its ser%ices in disco%ering one energy of 'hich all the others are but manifestations, and the science of religion 6'ould7 become perfect 'hen it 'ould disco%er . 3ne 'ho is the only Soul of 'hich all souls are but delusi%e manifestations*-8 1he Pros and Cons of Pure Monism $i%e&ananda's strictly monistic concept of ,od has a long history* 1he idea has al'ays been lin&ed 'ith the rational, speculati%e approach to reality* 9or e+ample, in the fifth century 4*C*, the ,ree& philosopher Parmenides concluded by speculati%e arguments that -only 3ne 1hing can possibly e+ist and that this 3ne 1hing is uncreated, unchangeable, indestructible, and immo%able* Plurality, creation, change, destruction, and motion are mere appearances*-: Parmenides argued that the 3ne must ha%e no parts distinct from one another, for other'ise it 'ould be not 3ne but many* 1hus he concluded that the 3ne must be a sphere of perfectly uniform substance* 4ut e%en a sphere has an inside and an outside, and so it is mar&ed by duality, not oneness* 1he idea of absolute oneness, or pure monism, may seem alluring, but it re;uires us to gi%e up all concei%able attributes and finally gi%e up thought itself* $i%e&ananda recogni5ed this problem, and he argued that in the (indu religion specific forms of gods and goddesses ser%e as symbols to help us %isuali5e the inconcei%able* 1hus he said, -1he (indus ha%e disco%ered that the absolute can only be reali5ed, or thought of, or stated, through the relati%e, and the images, crosses, and crescents are simply so many symbols, so many pegs to hang the spiritual ideas on*-< 1he idea of religious imagery as a symbol for the unthin&able Absolute sometimes turns out useful in the modern age* $i%e&ananda 'as born in Calcutta in )<" as =arendranath

Datta, and he gre' up during the high noon of 4ritish dominance in #ndia* During this period, >uropean rationalism, based on the famous 9rench >nlightenment, made a strong impact on #ndia* Reformers li&e Rammohan Roy and De%endranath 1agore founded the 4rahmo Sama2 in an effort to re%ise (induism and ma&e it compatible 'ith modern Western thin&ing*? 1his effort re;uired the sol%ing of t'o problems@ A B the problem of religious plurality and A0B the problem of the clash bet'een modern science and old religious beliefs* 1he old philosophy of pure monism, or ad%aita, is 'ell suited to sol%e these problems* 9irst of all, if religious imagery has only a symbolic meaning that refers to something inconcei%able, then many different systems of symbols should 'or& e;ually 'ell* #n this 'ay, all ma2or religious systems can be reconciled* 1his 'as $i%e&ananda's idea, and he greatly stressed the e;uality of all religions* Ci&e'ise, if religious imagery is simply symbolic, then there is no ;uestion of a conflict bet'een religion and science* A religious story that seems to conflict 'ith established scientific facts can simply be interpreted as a symbolic clue pointing to the 3ne beyond the grasp of the finite scientific mind* $i%e&ananda also mentioned that the star& simplicity of the impersonal 4rahman fits 'ith the simplicity sought by physicists in their hoped.for ,rand Dnified 1heory of nature* 4ut in pure monism, 'hat becomes of lo%e of ,od, or indeed, lo%e of anyone? #f the ultimate reality is pure oneness, and personal e+istence is illusory, then lo%e is also illusory* Co%e re;uires t'o, and not 2ust t'o of anything* 1'o persons are needed for a relationship of lo%e* #f such relationships do ha%e spiritual reality, then at least t'o spiritual persons must eternally e+ist* #n traditional (indu thought, there are, in fact, t'o categories of eternal persons@ A B the 2i%a souls that li%e in indi%idual material bodies and A0B the original Supreme Personality of ,odhead and (is countless spiritual e+pansions* As $i%e&ananda pointed out, (indus belie%e that the Supreme 4eing incarnated on earth as /rsna, 'ho e+pounded on the 'ays of lo%ing de%otional reciprocation bet'een (imself and indi%idual 2i%a souls* Dnfortunately, after ma&ing this point, $i%e&ananda re2ected both /rsna and the indi%idual soul as illusory* #n his monistic approach to religion, all concei%able features of the Absolute are ruled out* 4eingness, &no'ledge, and bliss are three, and they must be discarded from the 3ne as earthbound misconceptions* 1he same is true of the might and mercy of the Cord* Ci&e'ise, if the real truth is absolute oneness, all personal relationships of admiration, friendship, parental lo%e, or con2ugal lo%e must be gi%en up as delusions* 1he $aisna%a Alternati%e ,i%en by 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura #t is natural then to as& if some other solution is a%ailable to the problems posed 'hen modern rational thought meets the multiplicity of religious systems* 1o e+plore this, # no' turn to the life of 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura, a contemporary of S'ami $i%e&ananda* 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura 'as born in )") as /edaranath Datta in the =adia district of West 4engal* As a young man he ac;uired an >nglish education, and he used to e+change thoughts on literary and spiritual topics 'ith De%endranath 1agore, the 4rahmo Sama2 leader and $i%e&ananda's early teacher* #n due course he studied la', and for many years he supported his family as a magistrate in the 4ritish court system*

4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura deeply studied the religious thought of his day* (e scrutini5ed the 'or&s of >uropean philosophers, and he 'as greatly impressed 'ith the de%otional teachings of Eesus Christ* At first, his Western education inclined him to loo& do'n on the $aisna%a literature of de%otional ser%ice to /rsna* #ndeed, he 'rote that the 4haga%ata, one of the main te+ts describing /rsna, -seemed li&e a repository of ideas scarcely adopted to the nineteenth century*-) 4ut at a certain point he ran across a 'or& about the great $aisna%a reformer Cord Caitanya, and he 'as able to obtain the commentary Caitanya had gi%en on the 4haga%ata to the ad%aita $edantists of 4enares* 1his created in him a great lo%e for the de%otional teachings of /rsna as presented by Caitanya*! #n due course he achie%ed an e+alted state of spiritual reali5ation by follo'ing Caitanya's teachings, and he 'rote many boo&s presenting those teachings to people both in #ndia and abroad* A (istorical #nterlude 4efore 'e go into 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura's spiritual teachings, let me gi%e an e+plicit idea of the intellectual climate in 'hich he 'as operating in late nineteenth.century 4engal* 1o do this, # 'ill ;uote a passage from the 'ritings of Sir William Eones, a 2urist 'ho 'or&ed for the 4ritish >ast #ndia company and 'as the first president of the Asiatic Society of 4engal* #n an article on (indu chronology 'ritten in ?)), Eones ga%e the follo'ing account of the close of D%apara.yuga, the 1hird Age of the Puranas and the Mahabharata@ # cannot lea%e the third #ndian age, in 'hich the %irtues and %ices of man&ind are said to ha%e been e;ual, 'ithout obser%ing, that e%en the close of it is manifestly fabulous and poetical, 'ith hardly more appearance of historical truth, than the tale of 1roy, or of the ArgonautsF for Gudhisthira, it seems, 'as the son of Dherma, the ,enius of EusticeF 4hima of Pa%an, or the ,od of WindF Ar2un of #ndra, or the 9irmamentF =acul and Sahade%a of the Cumars, the Castor and Pollu+ of #ndiaF and 4hishma, their reputed great uncle, 'as the child of ,anga, or the ,anges, by Santanu, 'hose brother De%api is supposed to be still ali%e in the city of CalapaF all 'hich fictions may be charming embellishments of an heroic poem, but are 2ust as absurd in ci%il (istory, as the descent of t'o royal families from the Sun and the Moon* H What Eones is referring to here is the story in the Mahabharata of e%ents in #ndia at the time of /rsna's ad%ent* According to (indu tradition, these e%ents too& place about fi%e thousand years ago, 'hen the D%apara.yuga ga%e 'ay to the present epoch, called the /ali.yuga* GudhisIhira, Ar2una, 4hima, =a&ula, and Sahade%a are the fi%e Panda%a brothers 'ho figured in many of /rsna's pastimes* We can see from Eones's comments that he does not regard the story of the Panda%as as true history* Why not? 9or many of us, the problem is that the story contains elements simply not credible to a person trained in the modern rational %ie'point* We &no' that people don't descend from demigods* All documents putting forth such nonsense are re2ected by responsible historians, so ob2ecti%e historical accounts hold no such absurdities* Such things ne%er happened, and our history boo&s abundantly confirm this* Sir William Eones 'as clearly thin&ing along these lines, but he 'as not e+actly a modern rationalist* Eones 'as a Christian 'ho belie%ed fully in the Mosaic chronology of the 4ible* 1he table on page 0< sho's ho' Eones at.tempted to reconstruct (indu chronology to

bring it in line 'ith Christian* Eones, it seems, 'as able to scorn (indu myths as absurd 'hile at the same time accepting as true the supernatural e%ents of the 4ible* #t is perhaps poetic 2ustice that the same scornful treatment Eones applied to the Mahabharata 'as soon applied to the 4ible* During Eones's lifetime, the -higher- scientific criticism of the 4ible 'as being de%eloped in ,ermany, and it 'as unleashed in >ngland in the mid.nineteenth century* #n )<H, the Anglican theologians 4en2amin Eo'ett and 4aden Po'ell stole attention from Dar'in's ne'ly published boo& 3n the 3rigin of Species by a contro%ersial essay that re2ected miracles, on scientific grounds* 0 1he Dar'inists and the higher 4iblical critics ;uic&ly 2oined forces, and Dar'in's supporter 1homas (u+ley began ;uoting ,erman 4iblical scholars in his essays on the interpretation of ,enesis* " As the nineteenth century dre' to a close, rational, scientific s&epticism became the only acceptable path for a scholar or intellectual in any respectable field of study* 1he 4haga%ata 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura 'as confronted 'ith this hostile intellectual climate in his efforts to present spiritual &no'ledge to the young 4engali intellectuals of his day* After drin&ing in from their 4ritish teachers the ideas of William Eones and other Western orientalists, these young people 'ere not at all inclined to gi%e credence to old myths* (o' then could the teachings of /rsna on lo%e of ,od be presented? 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura 2udiciously chose to gi%e a partial picture of the truth that 'ould introduce important spiritual ideas 'ithout in%o&ing re2ection due to deep.seated pre2udices* #n a lecture deli%ered in Dina2pur, West 4engal, in )<!, he focused on the 4haga%ata, or 4haga%ata Purana, as the preeminent te+t on the nature of the Supreme and the means of reali5ing our relation 'ith the Supreme* Re2ecting pure monism as a useless idea, he held that ,od is an eternal person* 1hus he said, -1he 4haga%ata has . a 1ranscendental, Personal, All.intelligent, Acti%e, absolutely 9ree, (oly, ,ood, All. po'erful, 3mnipresent, Eust and Merciful and supremely Spiritual Deity 'ithout a second, creating, preser%ing all that is in the uni%erse*- 8 1he highest ob2ect of the soul, he 'ent on to say, is to -ser%e that #nfinite 4eing for e%er spiritually in the acti%ity of Absolute Co%e*- : 4ha&ti%inoda described the material 'orld as the product of maya* (ere maya means not illusion but the eternal energy of the Supreme that (e uses to be'ilder souls 'ho desire to li%e outside of harmony 'ith (im* 1he creation of the material 'orld through maya is actually an aspect of the Cord's mercy, since (e thereby allo's independent.minded souls to act in a 'orld from 'hich ,od is apparently absent* All these ideas are ta&en from the 4haga%ata 'ithout modification* 4ut in describing 'hat the 4haga%ata says about the details of the material uni%erse, 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura adopted an indirect approach* 1hus he said, #n the common.place boo&s of the (indu religion in 'hich the Ra2a and 1ama ,unas ha%e been described as the 'ays of religion, 'e find description of a local hea%en and a local hellF the hea%en is as beautiful as anything on earth and the (ell as ghastly as any picture of e%il* . 1he religion of the 4haga%at is free from such a poetic imagination* #ndeed, in some of the chapters 'e meet 'ith descriptions of these hells and hea%ens, and accounts of curious tales, but 'e ha%e been 'arned in some place in the boo&, not to

accept them as real facts, but to treat them as in%entions to o%era'e the 'ic&ed and to impro%e the simple and the ignorant* < #n fact, the 4haga%ata does ascribe reality to hells and hea%ens and their inhabitants* #t describes in great detail the higher planetary systems and the %arious demigods 'ho li%e there, including 4rahma, Si%a, and #ndra* =ot only does the 4haga%ata say that these beings are real, but it gi%es them an important role in the creation and maintenance of the uni%erse* #t also gi%es them a role in many of /rsna's manifest pastimes AlilasB 'ithin the material 'orld* 9or e+ample, in the story of the lifting of ,o%ardhana (ill, it is #ndra 'ho creates a de%astating storm 'hen /rsna insults him by interfering 'ith a sacrifice in his honor* 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura chose to sidestep these -mythological- aspects of the 4haga%ata in an effort to reach an audience of intellectuals 'hose mundane education ruled out such myths as absurd fantasy* #ndeed, he 'ent e%en further* #n ))H he published a treatise entitled Sri /rsna Samhita in 'hich he elaborately e+plained the philosophy of /rsna consciousness* ? #n this boo& he also put forth a reconstruction of #ndian history similar to the one introduced by Sir William Eones to bring (indu chronology into line 'ith the Mosaic timetable of the 4ible* 1his in%ol%ed con%erting demigods and Manus into human &ings and reducing their total span of history to a fe' thousand earthly years* # should point out clearly that 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura did not personally accept the modified %ersion of the 4haga%ata he presented to the 4engali intellectuals* (e actually accepted the so.called myths of the 4haga%ata as true, and he presented them as such in many of his 'ritings* 9or e+ample, in his boo& Eai%a Dharma, 4ha&ti%inoda said this@ # ha%e said that the $aishna%a religion came into being as soon as the creatures came into e+istence* 4rahma 'as the first $aishna%a* Sriman Mahade%a is also a $aishna%a* 1he ancient Pra2apaties are all $aishna%as* Sri =arada ,os'ami, 'ho is the fancy.born child of 4rahma, is a $aishna%a* Gou ha%e seen the $aishna%a religion of the beginning of the creation* 1hen again 'hen ,ods, men, demons, etc*, ha%e been separately described, 'e get Prahlada and Dhru%a from the %ery start* Manu's sons and Prahlada are all grandsons of Pra2apati, /ashyapa* 1here is no doubt about it . that the pure $aishna%a religion began 'ith the beginning of history* 1hen the &ings of the solar and lunar dynasties and all great and famous sages and hermits became de%otees of $ishnu* 1his passage 'as 'ritten in response to challengers 'ho argued that $aisna%a dharma is a recent de%elopment* 1he passage ta&es it for granted that beings such as 4rahma, Mahade%a, =arada, and Prahlada literally e+ist as described in the sastras, or $edic scriptures* Many similar e+amples can be found in 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura's 'ritings* =o', if 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura accepted the literal truth of the sastras, ho' could he 2ustify ma&ing presentations in 'hich he denied it? (is grand.disciple Srila A*C* 4ha&ti%edanta S'ami Prabhupada has pointed out that there is a precedent for ma&ing such indirect presentations of sastra* An interpretation of a te+t that adheres directly to the dictionary definitions of its 'ords is called mu&hya.%rtti, and an imaginary or indirect interpretation is called la&sana.%rtti or gauna.%rtti* Srila Prabhupada pointed out, -Sometimes . as a matter of necessity, $edic literature is described in terms of the la&sana.%rtti or gauna. %rtti, but one should not accept such e+planations as permanent truths*- ! #n general, one should understand sastra in terms of mu&hya.%rtti* 1he 1heology of $isions

3ne might grant that 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura 'as 2ustified in modifying the sastras to reach out to intellectuals trained to scorn old myths* 4ut serious ;uestions can still be raised@ What is the scope for ma&ing such a presentation of religion today, and to 'hat e+tent can such a presentation be regarded as true? #s the mythological material in the (indu sastras unimportant, so that one might present it as true to people 'ho belie%e in it and false to people 'ho disbelie%e? 3r should 'e accept from modern &no'ledge that (indu myths really are false and try to formulate a philosophy that preser%es the essential idea of lo%e of ,od 'hile dispensing 'ith superannuated ideas? 1o ans'er these ;uestions, let us see ho' 'e 'ould ha%e to reformulate $aisna%a philosophy to ma&e it readily acceptable to Western intellectuals in the late t'entieth century* 1o do this 'e must de%iate to some e+tent from the pre%ailing materialistic frame'or& of modern science* Physical scientists tell us that the mind, 'ith all its conscious e+periences, is simply a product of the brain* #f 'e accept this, then all religious e+perience, 'hether it be the bliss of 4rahman or prema.bha&ti, lo%e of ,od, is simply hallucinatory* #f this is true, 'e can forget about religionJunless, of course, 'e li&e hallucinations* 9or an alternati%e %ie'point, # 'ill turn to the psychologist William Eames* Although Eames 'as a man of the nineteenth century, he 'as a Western scientist 'ho applied the methods of empirical scientific research to the phenomena of religion* 1hus his obser%ations are still rele%ant today* As a result of his studies, Eames reached the follo'ing conclusions@ 1he further limits of our being plunge, it seems to me, into an altogether other dimension of e+istence from the sensible and merely -understandable- 'orld* =ame it the mystical region, or the supernatural region, 'hiche%er you choose*. Get the unseen region in ;uestion is not merely ideal, for it produces effects in this 'orld* When 'e commune 'ith it, 'or& is actually done upon our finite personality, for 'e are turned into ne' men, and conse;uences in the 'ay of conduct follo' in the natural 'orld upon our regenerati%e change* 4ut that 'hich produces effects 'ith.in another reality must be termed a reality itself, so # feel as if 'e had no philosophic e+cuse for calling the unseen or mystical 'orld unreal*0H 3ne could ta&e this idea of a mystical or transcendent dimension and arri%e at the follo'ing %ersion of $aisna%a philosophy@ Such a transcendental region does e+ist, and it is the eternal abode of /rsna* Ad%anced souls can percei%e that realm in meditation by the grace of /rsna, and so they are able to enter into /rsna's eternal lo%ing pastimes* 4ut all Puranic descriptions of e%ents 'ithin the material 'orld ha%e to be understood rationally through modern scientific &no'ledge* 3n the 'hole, the myths in the Puranas are not literally true* 4ut the stories of /rsna's pastimes are not simply fantasy* Rather, they are spiritual transmissions into the meditati%e minds of great souls, and they refer not to this 'orld but to the purely transcendental domain* 1his is a philosophy that might appeal to many, and # 'ill refer to it as the theology of %isions* #t allo's one to retain the idea of lo%e of ,od, 'hile at the same time a%oiding disturbing conflicts bet'een mythological tales and modern &no'ledge* #t also appears implicitly in the 'or& of some modern scholars of religion 'ho study the bha&ti tradition*

1o illustrate this, # 'ill briefly consider an article, -Shrines of the Mind,- by Da%id (aberman, Assistant Professor of Religion at Williams College*0 #n this article, (aberman argues that $ra2a, the traditional place of /rsna's manifest lilas, is first and foremost a mental shrine, a realm that can be entered and e+perienced in meditation* (e argues that the physical $ra2a, a tract of land near the =orth #ndian city of Mathura, has only been a ma2or center for the 'orship of /rsna since the si+teenth century, 'hen the follo'ers of Caitanya Mahaprabhu and other $aisna%as -redisco%ered- the lost sites of /rsna's pastimes* #n fact, says (aberman, these sites ne%er really e+isted before the si+teenth century, and so they 'eren't redisco%ered* Rather, they 'ere pro2ected onto the physical landscape of $ra2a from the transcendental landscape percei%ed in meditation* (aberman gi%es a number of interpretations of 'hat happens 'hen a person meditates on a mental shrine* 1hese range from the contemplation of imaginary scenes in the ordinary sense to entry into -an eternal transcendent 'orld 'hich is perceptible only to the mind's eye and is reached through meditati%e techni;ue*-00 Since (aberman seems to lean to'ard the latter, it could be said that he is hinting at a %ersion of the theology of %isions@ 3ne can enter into /rsna's transcendental 'orld by meditation, but /rsna ne%er had any actual pastimes in the physical 'orld* Physical, 'orldly history follo'ed the lines re%ealed by modern scholarship* 1his means that many centuries ago in $ra2a there may ha%e been %arious primiti%e tribes follo'ing animistic cults, but there 'as no /rsna literally lifting ,o%ardhana (ill* Although this religious theory allo's one to a%oid certain conflicts 'ith modern scholarship, it does ha%e a number of dra'bac&s* A fe' of these are the follo'ing@ * 1his theory is contrary to $aisna%a tradition, so it calls into ;uestion the thin&ing of the many great souls 'ho ha%e supported the tradition* Since those great souls are the %ery meditators 'ho ha%e seen %isions of /rsna, ho' can those %isions be real? #n other 'ords, 'hy should persons 'ho see the absolute realm belie%e in the truth of myths that e%en 'orldly scholars see to be false? 0* 1his theory doesn't e+plain 'hy the 'orship of /rsna should be a recent affair, as scholars claim* #f there is an eternal realm of /rsna that can be accessed by meditation, 'hy did people begin to access it only recently? "* What does this theory say about the multiplicity of religions? Are the %isions reported in other religious traditions real? #f not, then 'hy is it that $aisna%a %isions alone are real? #f so, then are there many transcendental realms, one for each religion? 3r is it that people see in one transcendental realm 'hate%er they are loo&ing for? 8* 1his theory greatly limits the po'er of ,od* #f ,od only appears in %isions, 'hat becomes of (is role as the creator and controller of the uni%erse? #f 'e let modern science e+plain the material 'orld, ,od's role is 'hittled do'n to practically nothing* :* 1he theology of %isions can easily be transformed into a purely psychological theory of religious e+perience* After all, this is the %ie' that 'ill be o%er'helmingly fa%ored by psychologists, neuroscientists, and physical scientists of all %arieties* #n %ie' of ob2ections A B through A8B, ob2ection A:B is almost una%oidable* We are left 'ith a totally mundane theory that e+plains religion a'ay* #n the case of /rsna's lilas, this line of thin&ing leads us to especially unpleasant conclusions* 1hus (aberman describes

meditation on /rsna lila as follo's@ -1he desired end is a religious %oyeurism and %icarious en2oyment said to produce infinite bliss*-0" Such sad conclusions are a%oided in the more balanced approach ta&en by traditional $aisna%as, 'ho stress /rsna's roles as the supreme creator and the performer of humanly impossible pastimes on earth* Shifting the 4oundary 4et'een Myth and Science Get if 'e start from the theology of %isions and proceed in the inducti%e manner of scholars, 'e can see ho' it could ser%e as a steppingstone to'ard a more satisfactory theory* A starting point for de%eloping such a theory can be a story related by (aberman about the $aisna%a saint =arottama Dasa 1ha&ura*08 #t seems that =arottama 'as once meditating on boiling mil& for Radha and /rsna* When the mil& boiled o%er in his meditation, he too& the %essel off the fire 'ith his bare hands and got burned in the process* When =arottama a'o&e from his meditation, he disco%ered that his hands 'ere actually burned* 1here are many stories li&e this, and # 'ill briefly mention t'o more* #n the second story, Srini%asa Acarya, a contemporary of =arottama Dasa 1ha&ura, 'as meditating on fanning Cord Caitanya* #n Srini%asa's meditation, Cord Caitanya placed (is garland around Srini%asa's nec&* When Srini%asa a'o&e from meditation, the unusually fragrant garland 'as actually there, around his nec&*0: #n the third story a $aisna%a saint named Duh&hi /rsna Dasa 'as s'eeping the site of /rsna's rasa dance in $ra2a* (e found a remar&able golden an&let and hid it, since he thought that it 'as %ery important* Cater, an old lady came to him and as&ed for the an&let* #t turned out that the old lady 'as really Calita, one of the transcendental maidser%ants of Radha and /rsna* 1he lady finally re%ealed that the an&let belonged to Radha (erself, and then she disclosed her true form as Calita*0< What are 'e to ma&e of such stories? 1he story of the burned hands might be accepted by many scholars* After all, it is 'ell &no'n that Catholics meditating on the crucifi+ion of Christ sometimes de%elop stigmata, in 'hich the 'ounds of Christ appear on their hands and feet* #f meditation can someho' cause bleeding 'ounds, then maybe it can also cause burns* 1he story of the miraculous garland goes one step further* (ere a tangible ob2ect is said to materiali5e* 1his may seem fantastic, but it turns out that there is an e+tensi%e literature on materiali5ation* 9or e+ample, Stephen 4raude, a professor of philosophy at the Dni%ersity of Maryland, has argued that many cases of alleged materiali5ations produced by spirit mediums are bac&ed up by solid empirical e%idence that deser%es serious study*0? #f materiali5ations by spiritualists might be factual, 'hy not materiali5ations of beautiful garlands by saintly persons? 1his brings us to the third story* Although this story seems -far out,- there are many similar stories in 'hich a transcendent person seems to step into our material continuum, perform some action, and then disappear* Another e+ample 'ould be the story from Caitanya.caritamrta in 'hich /rsna, as a small boy, approached the saint Madha%endra Puri, ga%e him a pot of mil&, and then mysteriously disappeared* Madha%endra Puri dran& the mil&, thus sho'ing that it 'as tangible* Cater that night he had a dream in 'hich /rsna re%ealed the location of the ,opala Deity, 'hich had originally been installed by /rsna's grandson $a2ra and had been hidden during a Muslim attac&*0)

1he stories of the burned hand, the miraculous garland, and the transcendental %isits are progressi%ely harder and harder to accept from a con%entional scientific standpoint* 4ut it is hard to see ho' to dra' a line bet'een such stories that might possibly be true and ones that definitely cannot* And all the stories seem to hint at energetic e+changes bet'een spiritual and material energy that might add an important ne' chapter to our scientific &no'ledge, if only they could be properly studied* When 'e study a body of empirical e%idence, 'e al'ays e%aluate it 'ith our limiting assumptions* #n the end, the conclusions 'e deri%e from the e%idence may reflect our limiting assumptions as much as they reflect the e%idence itself* #f the assumptions change, the conclusions 'ill also change, e%en though the e%idence stays the same* Consider 'hat might happen if all the a%ailable e%idence about the history of human e+perience 'ere to be studied not through nineteenth.century rationalism but through a ne' science in 'hich spiritual transformations of matter 'ere considered a real possibility* 1he result might be a completely different picture of the past from the one no' accepted by scholars* 9or one thing, the ob2ections that Sir William Eones e+pressed about the story of the Panda%a brothers might not seem so 'eighty* #f higher beings can step into our continuum from another realm, then humans might 'ell descend from such beings* 1he ne' picture of the past might pro%e much more compatible 'ith traditional spiritual teachings than the one that no' pre%ails* #n the late t'entieth century there are signs that a broader approach to science may be de%eloping* #n the days of $i%e&ananda and 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura, mechanistic, reductionistic science appeared to be marching unimpeded from triumph to triumph, and many people belie%ed that it 'ould soon find e+planations for e%erything* 4ut in the late t'entieth century this triumphant march has been chec&ed on many different fronts* 9or e+ample, physics in the )!Hs loo&ed li&e a closed sub2ect, but in the early decades of the t'entieth century it entered a phase of parado+ and mystery 'ith the de%elopment of relati%ity theory and ;uantum mechanics* 1he mysteries of ;uantum mechanics continue to inspire scientists to contemplate ideas that 'ould ha%e seemed outrageously mystical at the turn of the century*0!, "H, " 4ut no' physics has encountered an e%en more serious obstacle* 1he bold architects of uni%ersal physical theories are no' reali5ing that these theories can ne%er be ade;uately tested by e+periment*"0 1hus the (ar%ard physicist (o'ard ,eorgi characteri5ed modern theoretical physics as -recreational mathematical theology*-"" #n the mid.t'entieth century, computer scientists belie%ed they 'ere on the %erge of pro%ing that thought is mechanical, thereby fulfilling Ca Mettrie's eighteenth.century dream of man as a machine* 4ut in more recent years, e%en though computers ha%e become more and more po'erful, the dream of simulating human intelligence has seemed to recede further and further into the future* With the disco%ery of the D=A spiral heli+ by Watson and Cric& in !:", many scientists thought that the ultimate secret of life had been re%ealed* Since then, molecular biologists ha%e had tremendous success in shedding light on the mechanisms of li%ing cells* 4ut as

molecular biology un%eils the incredible comple+ity of these high.precision mechanisms, the goal of e+plaining the origin of life seems progressi%ely more difficult to attain*"8 1hese are 2ust a fe' of the many areas in 'hich the program of mechanistic reductionism seems to be reaching ultimate limits as the t'entieth century dra's to a close* Perhaps as a result of these de%elopments, many professional scientists are no' sho'ing a 'illingness to consider theoretical ideas and areas of research that ha%e traditionally been taboo* 9or e+ample, 'e no' find organi5ations of professional scientists 'ho openly study phenomena lying on the edge bet'een physical science and the realms of mysticism and the paranormal* >+amples are the #nternational Association for =e' Science A#A=SB, the Society for Scientific >+ploration ASS>B, the #nstitute of =oetic Sciences A#3=SB, and the #nternational Society for the Study of Subtle >nergies and >nergy Medicine A#SSS>>MB* 1hese all sponsor regular scientific conferences* Some of the phenomena these groups study seem similar to the -mythical- phenomena so often reported in old religious te+ts and in recent accounts of religious e+periences* A synergistic interaction bet'een scholars of religion and these ne' scientific organi5ations might pro%e to be a %aluable source of ne' insights for both groups of researchers* 1he Direct Presentation 3f $aisna%a 1eachings We ha%e discussed ho' 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura found it necessary to present a modified %ersion of the $aisna%a teachings to young 4engali intellectuals at the high noon of 4ritish political and ideological imperialism* 4ut as the sun began to set on the 4ritish empire, his son and successor Srila 4ha&tisiddhanta Saras%ati began a %igorous program of directly presenting the $aisna%a conclusions throughout #ndia* 1his program 'as ta&en abroad by his disciple Srila A*C* 4ha&ti%edanta S'ami Prabhupada, 'ho boldly celebrated the ancient Rathayatra festi%al of Eagannatha Puri in Condon's 1rafalgar S;uare* #n the changing climate of scientific opinion in the late t'entieth century, the time may ha%e come to openly introduce the traditional teachings of bha&ti to the 'orld's intellectual communities* 1he once 2arring conflicts bet'een rationalism and traditional religion may progressi%ely fade as science matures and becomes open to the study of mystical phenomena* 1his opens up the possibility of an approach to religion that is intellectually acceptable and at the same time satisfies the soul's inner desire for lo%e in a transcendental relationship* 1his lea%es us 'ith one possible ob2ection* Could it be that the $aisna%a teachings, 'ith their specific emphasis on /rsna as the Supreme, are guilty of sectarian disregard for other religious traditions? 1he ans'er is that, of course, any doctrine can be put for'ard in a narro', sectarian 'ay* 4ut as 4ha&ti%inoda 1ha&ura pointed out in his essay on the 4haga%ata, the $aisna%a teachings are inherently broad.minded and ac&no'ledge the %alue of all religious systems* 1he follo'ing prayer sho's the approach to other religions ta&en in the 4haga%ata@ 3 my Cord, Gour de%otees can see Gou through the ears by the process of bona fide hearing, and thus their hearts become cleansed, and Gou ta&e Gour seat there* Gou are

so merciful to Gour de%otees that Gou manifest Gourself in the particular eternal form of transcendence in 'hich they al'ays thin& of Gou*": 1his %erse states that ,od appears to (is de%oted 'orshipers in many different forms, depending on their desires* 1hese forms include the a%ataras of /rsna described in traditional $aisna%a te+ts, but are not limited to those forms* #ndeed, it is said that the e+pansions of the Supreme Personality of ,odhead are uncountable, and they cannot be fully described in the finite scriptures of any one religious community* 1he follo'ing %erse gi%es some idea of the different religious communities in the uni%erse, as described by the 4haga%ata@ 9rom the forefathers headed by 4hrgu Muni and other sons of 4rahma appeared many children and descendants, 'ho assumed different forms as demigods, demons, human beings, ,uhya&as, Siddhas, ,andhar%as, $idyadharas, Caranas, /inde%as, /innaras, =agas, /impurusas, and so on* All of the many uni%ersal species, along 'ith their respecti%e leaders, appeared 'ith different natures and desires generated from the three modes of material nature* 1herefore, because of the different characteristics of the li%ing entities 'ithin the uni%erse, there are a great many $edic rituals, mantras, and re'ards*"< 1his statement is e+plicitly -mythological,- and one can 'ell imagine ho' Sir William Eones might ha%e reacted to it* 4ut it offers a grand picture of countless races and societies 'ithin the uni%erse, all gi%en religious methods suitable for their particular natures* (ere the 'ord -$edic- cannot be limited to particular Sans&rit te+ts that no' e+ist in #ndia* Rather, it refers to the sum total of religious systems re%ealed by the infinite Supreme ,od for the sa&e of ele%ating countless societies of di%inely created beings* As al'ays, the distinguishing feature of the $aisna%a teachings is that ,od is a real person and (is %ariegated creation is also real* 1hus the $aisna%a approach to religious liberality is to regard all genuine religions as real di%ine re%elations* Ci&e'ise, the $aisna%a teachings of lo%e of ,od aim to set in place a relationship of lo%ing ser%ice bet'een the real indi%idual soul and the Supreme Personality of ,odhead, the performer of real transcendental pastimes* =otes * $i%e&ananda, !<", pp* H. * 0* $i%e&ananda, !<", p* * "* $i%e&ananda, !<", p* "* 8* $i%e&ananda, !<", p* 8* :* Eordan, !)?, p* 0?* <* $i%e&ananda, !<", p* ?* ?* Ma2umdar, !<:* )* 1ha&ur 4ha&ti%inod, !)<, p* :* !* 1ha&ur 4ha&ti%inod, !)<, p* <* H* Eones, ?!!, p* "H0* * Eones, ?!!, p* " "* 0* Moore, !)<, p* ""8* "* Moore, !)<, p* "88* 8* 1ha&ur 4ha&ti%inod, !)<, p* "H* :* 1ha&ur 4ha&ti%inod, !)<, p* "H* <* 1ha&ur 4ha&ti%inod, !)<, pp* 08.0:* ?* Rupa.%ilasa dasa, !)!, pp* ")."!* )* 1ha&ur 4ha&ti $inod, !?:, pp* ::.:<* !* 4ha&ti%edanta S'ami Prabhupada, !?:, Adi.lila, $ol* 0, p* !:* 0H* Eames, !)0, pp* : :. <* 0 * (aberman, !!"* 00* (aberman, !!", p* " * 0"* (aberman, !!", p* 0<* 08* (aberman, !!", p* ""* 0:* Rosen, !! , pp* <".<8* 0<* Rosen, !! , pp* !."!* 0?* 4raude, !)<* 0)* 4ha&ti%edanta S'ami Prabhupada, !?:, Madhya.lila, $ol* 0, pp* 0. !* 0!* 4ohm, !)H* "H* Penrose, !)!* " * Eahn and Dunne, !)?* "0* Weinberg, !!0* ""* Crease and Mann, !)<, p* 8 8* "8* (organ, !! * ":* Srimad.4haga%atam, "*!* * "<* Srimad.4haga%atam, * 8*:.?* 4ibliography

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Weinberg, Ste%en, Dreams of a 9inal 1heory, =e' Gor&@ Pantheon 4oo&s,

!!0*

Sadaputa Dasa ARichard C* 1hompsonB earned his Ph*D* in mathematics from Cornell Dni%ersity* (e is the author of se%eral boo&s, of 'hich the most recent is 9orbidden Archeology@ 1he (idden (istory of the (uman Race*