POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Accountancy and Finance Sta.

Mesa, Manila

PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Submitted by: GROUP 1 Abraham, Ezekiel M. Acosta, Mark Louie A. Agnes, Alea A. Agustin, Eddieson P. Arevalo, Ma. Veronica A.

Course, Yr. & Section: BSA 1-12

Submitted to: Prof. Corazon C. Constantino

Psychological Development
GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, AND MATURITY Growth
Growth is a sign of life. All living animals irrespective of their status in the biological hierarchy have to grow. The following points can clarify the meaning of growth from psychological point of view. The term growth is used in purely physical scene. It generally refers to an increase in size, length, height and weight. Changes in the quantitative respect come into the domain of growth. Growth is one of the parts of the developmental process. In the strict scene development in its quantitative aspects is termed as growth. Growth may be referred to describe the changes which take place in particular aspects of the body and behavior of an organism. Growth does not continue throughout the life. It stops when maturity has been attained. The changes produced by growth are subjects of measurements. They may be quantified and observable in nature. Growth may or may not bring development. A child may grow (in terms of weight) by becoming fat but this growth may not bring any functional improvement (Qualitative change or Development)

Development
Development implies overall changes in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working or functioning. It indicates the changes in the quality or character along with the quantitative aspect. Development is a wider and comprehensive term. It refers to over all changes in the individual growth which is one of its parts. Development describes the changes in the organism as whole and does not list the changes in parts. Development is a continuous process. It goes on from the womb to the tomb; it does not end with the attainment of maturity. The changes however small they may continue throughout the life span of the individual. Development simply implies improvement in functioning and behavior and hence brings qualitative changes that are difficult to be measured directly. They are assessed through keen observation of behavior in different situations. Development is also possible without growth as we see in the cases of some children that they do not gain in terms of their height, weight or size but they do experience functional improvement or development in physical social or intellectual aspects.

Maturity
Maturity is the ability to respond to the environment in an appropriate manner. This response is generally learned rather than instinctive. Maturity also encompasses being aware of the correct time and place to behave and knowing when to act, according to the circumstances and the culture of the society one lives in. Maturity emphasizes a clear comprehension of life's purpose, directedness, and intentionality, which contributes to the feeling that life is meaningful.

FACTORS GOVERNING DEVELOPMENT

1. Genes and environment nature via nurture Genes are the biological units of heredity; discrete sections of chromosomes responsible for transmission of traits. Human development is a product of a dynamic and continuous interaction between our biology (as determined by our genes) and our experience (as determined by our environment), that is, between nature and nurture. 2. The role of early nutrition Nutrition is the process of nourishing or being nourished, especially the process by which an organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and for replacement of tissues. In the development of health and disease, early nutrition is related to functional outcomes in later life. 3. The importance of early attachments Attachment refers to a relationship between two individuals who feel strongly about each other and do a number of things to continue the relationship. Human relationships, and their effects on each other, are the building blocks of healthy development. 4. The role of culture Culture is the behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation. Culture influences every aspect of human development and is reflected in families childrearing beliefs and practices. 5. The balance of risk and protective factors Childrens development is shaped by the ongoing interplay between the risk and protective factors present in their lives. Risk factors are biological, psychosocial or environmental factors that increase the chance of poor outcomes. Protective factors are environmental and biological factors that strengthen an individuals response to risk. 6. Promoting child development good enough parenting What we know about is good enough parenting, rather than parenting or early stimulation that can speed up development. 7. Availability and quality of mainstream and specialist services One of the factors influencing childrens development as well as the well -being of the family is the availability of affordable, accessible, high quality, and universal childrens services.

SEQUENTIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Stages Approximate Age

1. Prenatal Period 2. Infancy 3. Early Childhood 4. Middle And Late Childhood 5. Adolescence 6. Early Adulthood 7. Middle Adulthood 8. Late Adulthood

conception - birth birth - 2 yrs. 2 - 6 yrs. 6 - 12 yrs. 12 - 20 yrs. 20 - 40 yrs. 40 - 65 yrs. 65 yrs. - death

BEGINNINGS
Genes and chromosomes The nucleus of each human cell contains 46 chromosomes, which are composed of DNA. Genes are short segments of DNA and act as blueprint for cells to reproduce and manufacture proteins that maintain life. Reproduction Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring by gametes, or sex cells. Gametes are formed by the splitting of cells, a process called meiosis. Reproduction takes place when a female gamete (ovum) is fertilized by a male gamete (sperm) to create a single-celled ovum.

I.

Prenatal Period

It is a time of tremendous growth from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities, produced in approximately a 9-month period. Prenatal development is commonly divided into three main periods: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.

A. The Germinal Period

It is the period that takes place in the first 2 weeks after conception. It includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. By approximately 1 week after conception, the zygote is composed of 100 to 150 cells. The differentiation of cells has already commenced as inner and outer layers of the organism are formed. Blastocyst the inner layer of cells that develop during the germinal period. These cells later develop into the embryo. Trophoblast the outer layer of cells that develops during the germinal period. It later provides nutrition and support for the embryo. Implantation the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall, takes place about 10 days after conception.

B. The Embryonic Period It is the period that occurs from 2 to 8 weeks after conception. During this period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear. As the zygote attaches to the uterine wall, its cells form two layers. The mass of cells is now called an embryo. Endoderm - the inner layer of cells, which will develop into the digestive and respiratory systems. Mesoderm the middle layer which will become the circulatory system, bones, muscle, excretory system, and reproductive system. Ectoderm the outermost layer, which will become the nervous system, sensory receptors and skin parts. As the embryos three layers form, life-support systems for the embryo mature and develop rapidly. These include the placenta, the umbilical cord, and the amnion. The placenta forms as an area of the uterine wall through which oxygen and nutrients reach the fetus. The umbilical cord connects the embryo to the placenta and provides nutrients and carries away waste products.

 The amnion is a bag or envelope that contains a clear fluid (amniotic fluid) in which the developing embryo floats. The amniotic fluid helps: The developing baby to move in the womb, which allows for proper bone growth The lungs to develop properly Keep a relatively constant temperature around the baby, protecting from heat loss Protect the baby from outside injury by cushioning sudden blows or movements

C. The Fetal Period

It lasts from two months after conception until birth . About one month into this stage, the sex organs of the fetus begin to form. The fetus quickly grows as bones and muscles form, and it begins to move inside the uterus. Organ systems develop further and start to function. During the last three months, the brain increases rapidly in size, an insulating layer of fat forms under the skin, and the respiratory and digestive systems start to work independently.

The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development

First Trimester (1 to 3 month) period of organogenesis (all organs are formed) which is the most critical period in fetal growth and development.
st rd

First Month
Baby is 1/4 inch in length Heart, digestive system, backbone and spinal cord begin to form Placenta (sometimes called "afterbirth") begins to develop The single fertilized egg is now 10,000 times larger than size at conception

Second Month

Baby is 1-1/8 inches long Heart is functioning Eyes, nose, lips, tongue, ears and teeth are forming Penis begins to appear in boys Baby is moving, although the mother cannot yet feel movement

Third Month
Baby is 2 1/2 to 3 inches long Weight is about 1/2 to 1 ounce Baby develops recognizable form Nails start to develop and earlobes are formed Arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet and toes are fully formed Eyes are almost fully developed Baby has developed most of his/her organs and tissues Baby's heart rate can be heard at 10 weeks with a special instrument called a Doppler

Second Trimester (4 to 6 month) continuous growth and development. The focus of growth is on the length of the fetus.

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Fourth Month
Baby is 6 1/2 to 7 inches long Weight is about 6 to 7 ounces Baby is developing reflexes, such as sucking and swallowing and may begin sucking his/her thumb Tooth buds are developing Sweat glands are forming on palms and soles Fingers and toes are well defined Sex is identifiable Skin is bright pink, transparent and covered with soft, downy hair Although recognizably human in appearance, the baby would not be able to survive outside the mother's body

Fifth Month
Baby is 8 to 10 inches long Weight is about 1 pound Hair begins to grow on baby's head Soft woolly hair called lanugo will cover its body. Some may remain until a week after birth, when it is shed. Mother begins to feel fetal movement Internal organs are maturing Eyebrows, eyelids and eyelashes appear

Sixth Month

Sixth Month
Baby is 11 to 14 inches long Weight is about 1 3/4 to 2 pounds Eyelids begin to part and eyes open sometimes for short periods of time Skin is covered with protective coating called vernix Baby is able to hiccup

Third Trimester (7 to 9 month) the period of most rapid growth and development. The focus of growth is on weight gaining.

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Seventh Month
Baby is 14 to 16 inches long Weight is about 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 pounds Taste buds have developed Fat layers are forming Organs are maturing Skin is still wrinkled and red If born at this time, baby will be considered a premature baby and require special care

Eighth Month
Baby is 16 1/2 to 18 inches long Weight is about 4 to 6 pounds Overall growth is rapid this month Tremendous brain growth occurs at this time Most body organs are now developed with the exception of the lungs Movements or "kicks" are strong enough to be visible from the outside Kidneys are mature Skin is less wrinkled Fingernails now extend beyond fingertips

Ninth Month
Baby is 19 to 20 inches long Weight is about 7 to 7 1/2 pounds The lungs are mature Baby is now fully developed and can survive outside the mother's body Skin is pink and smooth Baby settles down lower in the abdomen in preparation for birth and may seem less active

Miscarriage and Abortion A miscarriage, or spontaneous abortion, happens when pregnancy ends before the developing organism is mature enough to survive outside the womb. Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. Any agent that causes birth defects is called a teratogen. Maternal diseases and conditions Maternal diseases and infections can cause damage by crossing the placental barrier, or they can be destructive during the birth process. Among the maternal diseases and conditions believed to be involved in possible birth defects are rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, aids, the mothers age, nutrition, and emotional state and stress. Drugs Thalidomide was a tranquilizer given to pregnant mothers to alleviate their morning sickness. Alcohol, tobacco, heroin, and cocaine are other drugs that can adversely affect prenatal and infant development. Environmental hazards Among the environmental hazards that can endanger the fetus are radiation in occupations and x rays, environmental, pollutants, toxic wastes, toxoplasmosis, and prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and hot tube.

BIRTH
After the long journey of prenatal development, birth takes place. The birth process occurs in three stages. For a woman having her first child, the first stage lasts an average of 12 to 24 hours; it is the longest of the three stages. In the first stage, uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the beginning and last up to a minute. These contractions cause the womans cervix to stretch and open. As the first stage progresses, the contractions come closer together, appearing every 2 to 5 minutes. Their intensity increases, too. By the end of the first birth stage, contractions dilate the cervix to an opening of about 4 inches so that the baby can move from the uterus to the birth canal. The second birth stage begins when the babys head starts to move through the cervix and the birth canal. It terminates when the baby completely emerges from the mothers body. This stage lasts approximately 1 hours. With each contraction, the mother bears down hard to push the baby out of her body. By the time the babys head is out of the mothers body, the contractions come almost every minute and last for about a minute. Afterbirth is the third stage, at which time the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled. This final stage is the shortest of the three birth stages, lasting only minutes.

Delivery Complications Precipitate delivery a form of delivery that takes place too rapidly. It is one in which the baby takes less than 10 minutes to be squeezed through the birth canal. This deviation in delivery can disturb the infants normal flow of blood, and the pressure on the infants head can cause hemorrhaging. Anoxia the insufficient supply of oxygen to the infant which can develop if the delivery takes too long. It can cause brain damage. Breech position the babys position in the uterus that causes the buttocks to be the first part to emerge from the vagina. Cesarean section the surgical removal of the baby from the uterus. It is usually performed if the baby is in a breech position, if it is lying crosswise in the uterus, if the babys head is too large to pass through the mothers pelvis, if the baby develops complications, or if the mother is bleeding vaginally.

Preterm infants and Age-Weight Considerations An infant is full-term when it has grown in the womb for the full 38 to 42 weeks between conception and delivery. A preterm infant (also called a premature infant) is one who is born prior to 38 weeks after conception. Low-birthweight infants are infants born after a regular gestation period (the length of time between conception and birth) of 38 to 42 weeks, but who weigh less than 5 pounds (normal is around 7.5 pounds).

II.

Infancy

Infancy, among humans, is the period of life between birth and the acquisition of language approximately one to two years later. This is followed by childhood which is about up to twelve years. During infancy and childhood, there are some major psychological developments. Motor development refers to a babys increasing ability to use the muscles of the body to move about and explore the environment. At birth, the motor capabilities of infants are mostly reflexive. Reflexes - inborn, automatic responses to a particular form of stimulation. These are mostly important for an infants adaptation and survival. The Moro reflex is an outstretching of the arms and legs in response to a loud noise or sudden change in the environment. The infant's body tenses; arms are extended and then drawn inward as if embracing. The rooting reflex is the turning of an infant's head toward a stimulus such as a breast or hand. The plantar reflex is the curling under of the toes when the ball of the foot is touched. Physicians sometimes use these reflexes to assess the rate of development. Gradually, learned responses replace the reflex actions as an infant becomes more responsive to the environment.

The Babinski reflex is an outward projection of the big toe and fanning of the others when the sole of the foot is touched. The grasping reflex is the vigorous grasping of an object that touches the palm. The sucking reflex occurs when an object touches the lips.

Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Sequences The cephalocaudal pattern is the sequence in which the greatest growth always occur at the top the head with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom (to neck, shoulders, middle trunk, and so on). This same pattern occurs in the head area; the top parts of the head the eyes and brain grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw. An extraordinary proportion of the total body is occupied by the head during prenatal development and early infancy. The proximodistal pattern is the sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities. An example of this is the early maturation of muscular control of the trunk and arms as compared with that of the hands and fingers. Gross and Fine Motor Skills As neonates grow, their reflexes tend to disappear, they begin to act voluntarily, and their motor skills develop. Gross motor skills involve large muscle activities such as moving ones arms and walking. Fine motor skills involve more finely tuned movements, such as finger dexterity.

III. Early Childhood

Sometimes this period of development is referred to as the preschool years because the child prepares for formal schooling especially at age six years. On the average, the developmental tasks mastered are the ability to care for oneself like personal hygiene and dressing oneself, self-sufficiency like initiating self play, development of school-readiness skills (e.g., following simple instructions, using writing implements, identifying sounds, letters, and numbers). During this period, children also become physically better coordinated. Walking, climbing, reaching, grasping, and releasing are no longer simply activities in their own right but, rather, the means for new endeavor. Their developing skills give children new ways to explore the world and to accomplish new things. Height and Weight The average child grows 2 inches in height and gains between 5 to 7 pounds a year during early childhood. Growth patterns vary individually, though. Some children are unusually short because of congenital problems, a physical problem that develops in childhood, or emotional problems. Deprivation dwarfism a type of growth retardation caused by emotional deprivation; children are deprived of affection, which causes stress and alters the release of hormones by the pituitary gland. The Brain The brain is a key aspect of growth. By age 5, the brain has reached nine-tenths of its adult size. Some of its increase in size is due to increases in the number and size of nerve endings, some to myelination a process in which nerve cells are covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells. Increasing brain maturation contributes to improved cognitive abilities. Peer Relations Peers are children of about the same age or maturity level. They provide a source of information and comparison about the worlds outside the family. Peer relations are both like and unlike family relations. Children touch, smile, and vocalize when they interact with parents and peers. However, rough-and-tumble play occurs mainly with peers. In times of stress, children generally seek out their parents. Healthy family relations usually promote healthy peer relations. Self-Understanding Self-understanding is the childs cognitive representation of self the substance and content of the childs self -conceptions. In early childhood, the physical and active self becomes a part of self-understanding. Gender Sex refers to the biological dimension of being male or female; gender refers to the social dimension of being male or female. Gender identity is the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by 3 years of age. Gender role is the set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel.

IV. Middle and Late Childhood

It approximately corresponds to the elementary school years. The fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the childs world, and self-control increases.

The Skeletal and Muscular Systems During the elementary school years, children grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year until, at the age of 11, the average girl is 4 feet 10 inches tall and the average boy is 4 feet, 9 inches tall. Childrens legs become longer and their trunks slimmer. During the middle and late childhood years, children gain about 5 to 7 pounds a year. The weight increase is due mainly to increases in the size of the skeleton and muscular systems, as well as the size of some body organs. Muscle mass and strength gradually increase. Legs lengthen and trunks slim down as baby fat decreases. Because of their greater number of muscle cells, boys are usually stronger than girls. Motor Skills Childrens motor development becomes smoother and more coordinated. Chil dren gain greater control over their bodies and can sit and attend for longer frames of time. However, their lives should be activity oriented and very active. Increased myelinization an insulation of the nerves that helps nerve impulses travel faster of the central nervous system is reflected in improved fine motor skills. Improved fine motor development is reflected in childrens handwriting skills over the course of middle and late childhood. Intelligence Intelligence is an abstract concept that is measured indirectly. It is a verbal ability, problem-solving skills, and the ability to learn from and adapt to the experiences of everyday life. Mental retardation a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life. Giftedness having above-average intelligence (an IQ of 120 or higher) and/or superior talent for something. The Self It is the system of concepts we use in defining ourselves and the awareness we have of ourselves as separate entities that are able to think and initiate action. The self enables us to imagine ourselves in other peoples positions and see what they expect of us in a give role. Self-esteem is the global evaluative dimension of the self. Self-esteem is also referred to as self-worth or self-image. Self-concept refers to domain-specific evaluations of the self. Children can make self-evaluations in many domains of their livesacademic, athletic, appearance, and so on. At about 15 to 18 months, children will begin to touch their own noses when they see the red spot in the mirror. Apparently, 18-month-olds have a schema of how their face should look, and they wonder, What is that spot doing on my face? Beginning with this simple self-recognition, the childs self-concept gradually strengthens. By school age, children start to describe themselves in terms of their gender, group memberships, and psychological traits, and they compare themselves with other children. Childrens views of themselves affect their actions. Children who form a positive self-concept are more confident, independent, optimistic, assertive, and sociable. By the end of childhood, at about age 12, most children have developed a self-concept. Parent-Child Interaction Parents spend less time with children during middle and late childhood, including less time in caregiving, instruction, reading, talking and playing. Nonetheless, parents still are powerful and important socializing agents during this period. Peer Interaction Children spend considerably more time with peers in middle and late childhood. Most peer interactions occur outside the home (although close to home), occur more often in private than in public places, and occur more between children of the same sex than between children of different sexes.

V. Adolescence
Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, a period that brings sometimes tumultuous physical, social, and emotional changes. Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty and extends to adulthood, usually spanning the years between 12 and 20. Pubertal Change Puberty is the period during which the reproductive system matures, a process characterized by a marked increase in sex hormones. Menarche, or the first menstrual period, marks the onset of puberty in girls with 10 being the average age . The beginning of nocturnal emissions, so-called wet dreams, marks the onset of puberty in boys with 12 being the average age . Girls reach full sexual maturation around age sixteen, and boys reach sexual maturation at around eighteen. The Identification Process Adolescents may go through an identity crisis, during which they struggle to understand themselves and decide their future. Gender differences in behaviors or mental processes continue to develop during adolescence. Research has indicated that experience and learning have a greater impact on such behaviors than do biological factors. Gender identity, the recognition of being male or female, develops by age 3. Once they have established gender identity, children usually try to adapt their behavior and thoughts to accepted genderspecific roles. A gender role consists of the behaviors associated with one's gender. Gender related activities help an individual to establish an identity. Sometimes a person adopts genderrole stereotypes, beliefs about the typical behavior of males and females expected by society. One meaning of the term androgynous is having adopted both behaviors associated with males and those associated with females. Androgynous males can do hard physical labor and yet care for babies; androgynous females can be homemakers and yet fix cars or drive taxis.

Interaction with Peers Adolescents spend huge chunks of time with peers, more than in middle and late childhood. Most peer group relationships in adolescence can be categorized in one of three ways: the crowd, the clique, or individual friendships. Crowd the largest and least personal of adolescent groups. Members of the crowd meet because of their mutual interest in activities, not because they are mutually attracted to each other. Clique smaller, involve greater intimacy among members, and have more group cohesion than crowds. Peer pressure. The pressure to conform to peers is strong during adolescence, especially during the eighth and ninth grades. Dating Dating can be a form of mate selection, recreation, a source of status and achievement, and a setting for learning about close relationships. Most adolescents are involved in dating. Adolescent females appear to be more interested in intimacy and personality exploration than adolescent males are.

VI. Early Adulthood

It is a time of establishing personal and economic independence, a time of career development, and, for many, a time of selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family, and rearing children. Peak and Slowdown in Physical Performance Peak physical status is reached between ages 18 and 30, especially between 19 and 26. Health also peaks during these years. There is a hidden hazard in these peaks of physical performance and health; bad health habits may be formed. Toward th e latter part of early adulthood, a detectable slowdown and decline in physical status is apparent. Attraction, Love, and Close Relationships Familiarity precedes a close relationship. We like to associate with individuals who are similar to us. Consensual validation provides an explanation of why individuals are attracted to people who are similar to them. Our own attitudes and behavior are supported when someone elses attitudes and behavior validate ours. Marriage and the Family There are six stages in the family life cycle: leaving home and becoming a single adult; the joining of families through marriage the new couple; becoming parents and a family with children; the family with adolescents; the midlife family; and the family in later life. For some, the parental role is well planned and coordinated. For others, there is surprise and sometimes chaos. There are many myths about parenting, among them the myth that the birth of a child will save a failing marriage. Choices concerning marriage and family are often made during this period. Research shows that divorce is more likely among people who marry during adolescence, those whose parents were divorced, and those who are dissimilar in age, intelligence, personality, or attractiveness. Separation is also more frequent among those who do not have children. Work/Career Choice Work or career choice affects not only socioeconomic status but also friends, political values, residence location, child care, job stress, and many other aspects of life. And while income is important in both career selection and career longevity, so are achievement, recognition, satisfaction, security, and challenge. In the modern cultures of many nations, the careers of either spouses or partners frequently must be considered in making job choices.

VII. Middle Adulthood

It is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent, mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in ones career. Physical Changes At some point in the forties, decline in physical development usually indicates that middle adulthood has arrived. Seeing and hearing decline, and individuals actually become shorter. Health status becomes a major concern in middle adulthood. Some deterioration is to be expected. The main health nemeses of middle adulthood are cardiovascular disease, cancer, and weight. How individuals deal with physical decline varies greatly from one individual to the next. Job Satisfaction Work satisfaction increases steadily throughout the life from age 20 to at least age 60, for both college-educated and noncollege-educated adults. Satisfaction probably increases because as we get older we get paid more, we are in higher positions, and we have more job security. Empty Nest Syndrome This states that marital satisfaction will decrease when children leave home after adolescence because parents derive considerable pleasure from their children. The empty nest syndrome may hold true for some parents who live vicariously through their children, but marital satisfaction usually increases during the post-childbearing years. Midlife Crisis A midlife crisis is a time of doubt and anxiety in middle adulthood. While it is not regarded as a universal phenomenon, during one's 40s and 50s comes the recognition that more than half of one's life is gone. That recognition may prompt some to feel that the clock is ticking and that they must make sudden, drastic changes in order to achieve their goals, while others focus on finding satisfaction with the present course of their lives. Menopause Menopause is the gradual, permanent cessation of menstruation and usually begins between ages forty-five and fifty-five. Though many women suffer uncomfortable physical symptoms during menopause, such as hot flashes, emotional reactions to menopause are far from universal: many women have strong emotional reactions, while just as many others may not. Though men dont experience menopause, they do experience a gradual decline in te stosterone production and sperm count as they age.

VIII. Late Adulthood

It is a time of adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to social roles. The Young Old, the Old Old, and the Oldest Old Developmentalists are increasingly differentiating the late adult period. Distinctions include the young old or old age (65 to 74 years), the old old or late old age (75 years and older), and the oldest old (85 years and older). The needs, capacities, and resources of the oldest old are often different from those of their young old counterparts. Ageism Ageism may be defined as the prejudice or discrimination that occurs on the basis of age. Although it can be used against people of all ages, older people are most frequently its target and it may often result in forced retirement. Stereotyping of the elderly is also an aspect of ageism, as seen in such a statement as He drives like a little old lady. Physical changes People typically reach the peak of their physical strength and endurance during their twenties and then gradually decline. In later adulthood, a variety of physiological changes may occur, including some degree of atrophy of the brain and a decrease in the rate of neural processes. The respiratory and circulatory systems are less efficient, and changes in the gastrointestinal tract may lead to increased constipation. Bone mass diminishes, especially among women, leading to bone density disorders such as osteoporosis. Muscles become weaker unless exercise programs are followed. The skin dries and becomes less flexible. Hair loss occurs in both sexes. There is also decreased sensitivity in all of the sensory modalities, including olfaction, taste, touch, hearing, and vision. Cognitive Changes The study of cognitive changes in the older population is complex. Response speeds (neural and motor) have been reported to decline; some researchers believe that agerelated decrease in working memory is the crucial factor underlying poorer performance by the elderly on cognitive tasks. Intellectual changes in late adulthood do not always result in reduction of ability. While fluid intelligence (the ability to see and to use patterns and relationships to solve problems) does decline in later years, crystallized intelligence (the ability to use accumulated information to solve problems and make decisions) has been shown to rise slightly over the entire life span. Retirement Retirement at age 65 is the conventional choice for many people, although some work until much later. People have been found to be happier in retirement if they are not forced to retire before they are ready and if they have enough income to maintain an adequate living standard.

Health Problems As we age, the probability that we will have some disease or illness increases. Chronic disorders rarely develop in early adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become common in late adulthood. Arthritis an inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems. Osteoporosis an aging disorder involving an extensive loss of bone tissue. Osteoporosis is the main reason many older adults walk with a marked stoop. Women are especially vulnerable to osteoporosis, the leading cause of broken bones in women. Alzheimers disease a progressive, irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually physical function.

DEATH AND DYING

In addition to hospital and home, a third context for dying that has received increased attention in recent years is the hospice a humanized institution committed to making the end of life as free from pain, anxiety, and depression as possible. The hospices goals contrast with those of a hospital, which are to cure illness and prolong life. Brain Death Brain death is a neurological definition of death, which states that a person is brain dead when all electrical activity of the brain has ceased for a specified period of time. A flat EEG (electroencephalogram) recording for a specified period of time is one criterion of brain death. Euthanasia Sometimes called mercy killing, euthanasia is the act of painlessly putting to death persons who are suffering from incurable diseases or severe disabilities. Active Euthanasia death is induced by a deliberate attempt to end a persons life, as by injecting a lethal dose of a drug. Passive Euthanasia available treatments, such as life-sustaining therapeutic devices, are withheld, allowing a person to die. Widowhood Women tend to marry men older than they are and, on average, live 5 to 7 years longer than men. One study found ten times as many widows as widowers. Widowhood is particularly stressful if the death of the spouse occurs early in life; close support of friends, particularly other widows, can be very helpful.

Developmental Theorists
SIGMUND FREUD
Theory of Psychological Reality Psychosexual Stage Theory
Sigmund Freud, M.D., was an eminent Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist of Jewish origin. Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method through which an analyst unpacks unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of the patient. His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, among other topics, were some of the most influential academic concepts of the 20th century. Early Career He was born Sigismund Schlomo in Freiberg in Austria, today called Pbor and part of Czech , on May 6, 1856. When he was four years old his family moved to Vienna, the town where he would live and work for most of the remainder of his life. He received his medical degree in 1881 and became engaged to marry the following year. His marriage produced six children the youngest of whom, Anna, was to herself become a distinguished psychoanalyst. After graduation, Freud promptly set up a private practice and began treating various psychological disorders. Considering himself first and foremost a scientist, rather than a doctor, he endeavored to understand the journey of human knowledge and experience. Early in his career, Freud became greatly influenced by the work of his friend and Viennese colleague, Josef Breuer, who had discovered that when he encouraged a hysterical patient, Anna O, to talk uninhibitedly about the earliest occurrences of the symptoms, the symptoms sometimes gradually abated. Inspired by Breuer, Freud posited that neuroses had their origins in deeply traumatic experiences that had occurred in the patient's past. He believed that the original occurrences had been forgotten and hidden from consciousness. His treatment was to empower his patients to recall the experience and bring it to consciousness, and in doing so, confront it both intellectually and emotionally. He believed one could then discharge it and rid oneself of the neurotic symptoms. Freud and Breuer published their theories and findings in Studies in Hysteria (1895). Sick with cancer and wary of rising anti-Semitism, Freud fled for London in 1938 just before World War II and died there on September 23rd 1939, having committed suicide with the help of his doctor and his daughter Anna. Two centigrams of morphine plunged Freud into a coma. Death took him only two days later, just twenty-two days after the outbreak of the war. Lasting Legacy Freud's many theoriesincluding those about "psychic energy," the Oedipus complex and the importance of dreams were no doubt influenced by other scientific discoveries of his day. Contributions to Psychology Sigmund Freud was the first to use the term psychoanalysis in 1896. From that point his theories blossomed. Freud did not invent the terms unconscious, conscious, or conscience; however, he was pivotal in making them popular. Freud accomplished this through his theory of psychological reality : id, ego, and superego. Following his unpublished Project for a Scientific Psychology Freud went on to develop psychoanalysis as a theory of mind and disorder that suggest we have layers of consciousness and conflicting motives that range from social and moral to biological. The structural model The mind is constituted by the conscious - what one can actually focus attention on and remember clearly, our sense of reality. the preconscious - the dynamic unconscious is the band of semiconsciousness where it sometimes is clear and conscious and other times unclear and unconscious. (Splash zone) the unconscious - true unconscious source of our psychic energy. Drives by the passions of the pleasure principle. (The submerged) Dialectical tensions are at the centre of his model, eros & thanatos (life & death) as well as the biological and the social / moral aspects of human being. id - the original source of psychic life, driven to maintain and reproduce. Immediate gratification of drives. ego - The mediator of the personality caught between the demands of the biological id needs and wants and the super-ego cries for moral control and servitude. Reality! super-ego arises third in development beginning during the third year when training and assertion come along. Freud also drove a strong movement that sex drive is the most important motivating force . He went on to identify that at times in our lives we find different areas on our bodies pleasurable (today these are called erogenous zones). These ideas fused together to form Freuds Psychosexual Stage Theory, which is still taught in textbooks today. This theory consisted of five different stages.

 At birth one is all id, needing gratification of impulses in the moment. Initially one is said to be in the oral stage of development where pleasure comes through sucking, chewing, ... Soon the anal stage emerges when the toilet training comes in, at this time the ego begins to differentiate more clearly. Control! The phallic stage is said to be next where self interest emerges but is usually punished by parents social interaction. Boys are believed to be driven by the Oedipal conflict where they are driven towards their mothers and against their fathers. Appropriate resolution will have the boy identify with the father, giving in and accepting his moral authority and the development of a super ego. A similar crisis is said to exist for girls where they are driven to their fathers and against their mothers. Lesser super-egos. The Latency period arrives when sublimation begins and the postponement of sexuality. Get down to work and social bonding. Finally, the genital stage occurs and children come to realize their beginnings of adult sexuality. Dreams and repression, neuroticism.

JEAN PIAGET

Theory of Cognitive Development

Early Life and Education Born in 1896 in Neuchtel, Switzerland, Jean Piagets father, Arthur Piaget, taught medieval literature at the University of Neuchtel. Piaget showed an early interest in biology and the natural world. He attended the University of Neuchtel, and later, the University of Zrich. Even as a young student, Piaget wrote two philosophical papers that were unfortunately rejected as adolescent thoughts. Later Life and Death Jean Piaget was honored with the Balzan Prize for Social and Political Sciences in 1979. The following year, he died on September 16, 1980. He was 84 years old.

Contributions and Achievements It has been believed that no theoretical framework has had a bigger influence on developmental psychology than that of Jean Piaget. He founded the International Centre of Genetic Epistemology at Geneva and became its director. He made extraordinary contributions in various areas, including sociology, experimental psychology and scientific thought. Piaget took ideas from biology, psychology and philosophy and investigated the method by which children learn about the world. He based his conclusions about child development on his observations and conversations with his own, as well as other children. By asking them ingenious and revealing questions about simple problems he had devised, he shaped a picture of their way of viewing the world by analyzing their mistaken responses. He formulated an outstandingly well-articulated and integrated theory of cognitive development. Piaget was a highly prolific author who wrote about 70 books and more than 100 articles about human psychology. His theoretical conceptualizations have induced a vast amount of research. Some of his contributions to the study of psychology include the development of the four stages of cognitive development, which are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Piaget also contributed Developmental Psychology and Genetic Epistemology, which studied how knowledge was learned within humans. The four principles are as follows: 1) Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development, 2) Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e. assimilation and accommodation) According to Piaget, childrens thought processes change as they mature physically and interact wi th the world around them. Piaget believed children develop schema, or mental models, to represent the world. As children learn, they expand and modify their schema through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the broadening of an existing schema to include new information. Accommodation is the modification of a schema as new information is incorporated. 3) Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities, 4) Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges (Genetic Epistemology 2005) Even though he never formally studied child psycho logy, Jean Piaget led the way for other activist for studying childrens modes of learning and thinking. Jean Piaget passed away in 1980. However, his contributions will be forever lasting and anyone associated with educational purposes for children will look at his theories and studies as the start of the pathway to show that childrens thinking should be taken seriously.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg was a 20th century psychologist known primarily for his research into moral psychology and development. Professional Life Lawrence Kohlberg was born in Bronxville, New York on October 25, 1927. Kohlberg enrolled in the University of Chicago, and with high examination scores, he was excused from many required courses and received his bachelors degree in just one year. He received his PhD in psychology from the University of Chicago in 1958. His dissertation was based on his research into the moral choices of adolescent boys and led to a life devoted to the exploration of moral and ethical development in young people. In 1959, Kohlberg joined the staff of Yale University as an assistant professor of psychology. In 1962, he returned to the University of Chicago as an assistant professor. Over several years, he worked as an associate professor and director of Child Psychology Training Program at the university. The remainder of his career was spent as a professor of education and social psychology at Harvard University between 1968 and 1987. Kohlberg married Lucy Stigberg in 1955, and the couple had two sons. Kohlberg died of an apparent suicide in 1987, after a long battle with depression coupled with painful symptoms from a tropical parasite he had contracted in Belize in 1971. He parked his car, leaving identifying documents behind, then walked into the frigidly cold Boston Harbor.

Contribution to Psychology Kohlbergs stages of moral development were influenced by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piagets stage-based theory of development. Kohlberg expanded on Piagets two stages, identifying six stages of moral development. He argued that correct moral reasoning was the most significant factor in moral decision-making, and that correct moral reasoning would lead to ethical behavior. Kohlberg believed that individuals progress through stages of moral development just as they progress through stages of cognitive development. Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development (includes three levels and six stages) Preconventional Morality: o Stage one: Obedience and punishment. The child is motivated to avoid punishment and has little or no independent moral reasoning. o Stage two: Individualism and exchange. Individuals are focused on fulfilling their own self-interests, while acknowledging that different people have different views. Conventional Morality: o Stage three: Maintaining interpersonal relationships. At this stage, individuals emphasize the importance of being kind to other people, engaging in good behavior and showing concern for others. This stage includes a strong emphasis on gaining approval. o Stage four: Law and order. The individual is determined to obey the rules, focusing on the value that the law adds to human life. A person at this stage might argue that breaking the law is wrong because the law is designed to protect people. Stage 4 individuals focus on maintaining the social order and upholding cultural norms. Post-Conventional Morality o Stage five: Social contract. People at this stage of development focus on doing what is best for society as a whole and respecting individual rights. Civil disobedience would be endorsed by people in both stages of postconventional morality. o Stage six: Universal principles. At this stage, individuals are focused on upholding principles of universal justice, fairness, and ethics. They believe in the democratic process, but also endorse disobeying unjust laws.

To determine which stage of moral development his subjects were in, Kohlberg presented them with invented moral dilemmas, such as the case of a man who stole medicine for his sick wife. According to Kohlberg, few people reach stages five and six; most tend to stay at stage four. Criticism and Controversy Kohlberg purported that women were often at a lower stage of moral development than men, but psychologist Carol Gilligan questioned his findings. Gilligan claims that women place a strong emphasis on caring and empathy, rather than on justice. She developed an alternative scale, heavily influenced by Kohlberg's scale, that showed that both men and women could reach advanced stages of moral development.

ERIK ERIKSON

Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erik Homberger Erikson was born on June 15, 1902 in Frankfurt, Germany to his Jewish mother Karla Abrahamsen and to his biological father, who was an unnamed Danish man. When Erikson graduated high school, he was interested in becoming an artist. He did not prefer the atmosphere that formal schooling produced, so instead of going to college he traveled around Europe, keeping a diary of his experiences. After he traveled around Europe for a year, he made the decision to enroll in an art school back in Germany. Erikson stayed at the art school for several years, so he began to teach art and other subjects to the American children who came to Vienna for Freudian training Erikson is known for being a prolific writer since he wrote many books and essays. For example, he published Childhood and Society (1950), Young Man Luther (1958), Youth: Change and Challenge (1963), Insight and Responsibility (1964), and Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968). Erikson passed away in 1994 at the age of 92. Contribution to Psychology THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Erikson recognized the basic notions of Freudian theory, but believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. Erikson said that humans develop throughout their life span, while Freud said that our personality is shaped by the age of five. Erikson developed eight psychosocial stages that humans encounter throughout their life. The Psychosocial Stages of Human Development 1. Trust vs. Mistrust occurs from approximately birth to one year. Erikson defined trust as an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness. He thought that an infant who gets fed when he is hungry and comforted when he needs comforting will develop trust. He also said that some mistrust is necessary to learn to discriminate between honest and dishonest persons. If mistrust wins over trust in this stage, the child will be frustrated, withdrawn, suspicious, and will lack self-confidence.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt occurs between ages two and three. During this period it is important that the parents create a supportive atmosphere in which the child can develop a sense of self-control without a loss of self-esteem. Shame and doubt about the child's self-control and independence occur if basic trust was insufficiently developed or was lost such as when the child's will is broken by an over controlling parent. In this stage, Erikson said the child encounters rules, such as which areas of the house he is allowed to explore. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt occurs between ages four and five. This is the stage in which the child must find out what kind of person he/she is going to be. The child develops a sense of responsibility which increases initiative during this period. If the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious then they will have uncomfortable guilt feelings. Erikson believed that most guilt is quickly compensated for by a sense of accomplishment. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority occurs between six years and puberty. This is the period in which the child wants to enter the larger world of knowledge and work. One of the great events of this time is the child's entry into school. This is where he is exposed to the technology of his society: books, multiplication tables, arts and crafts, maps, microscopes, films, and tape recorders. However, the learning process does not only occur in the classroom according to Erikson, but also at home, friend's houses, and on the street. Erikson said that successful experiences give the child a sense of industry, a feeling of competence and mastery, while failure gives them a sense of inadequacy and inferiority, a feeling that one is a good-for-nothing. 5. Identity vs. Confusion occurs during adolescence. During this period the identity concern reaches climax. According to Erikson this is the time when adolescents seek their true selves. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation occurs during young adulthood. Intimacy with other people is possible only if a reasonably well integrated identity emerges from stage five. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives. When the individual feels that he has done nothing to help the next generation then they experience stagnation. 8. Integrity vs. Despair occurs during late adulthood. This is the time in which the individual looks back and evaluates their life. If the previous stages have developed properly then they will experience integrity. If the previous stages have not developed in a positive way then they will feel despair.

ROBERT HAVIGHURST

Developmental Tasks

Robert Havighurst was in june 5, 1900 in depere, wisconsin, a small town in the midwestern united states. He attended public schools in Wisconsin and Illinois. He obtained many degrees and education achievements: 1918-21 B.A. from Ohio Wesleyan University, 1922 M.A. Ohio State University, 1924 Ph.D., Chemistry Ohio State University, 1953-54 Fulbright Scholar, University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1961 Fulbright Scholar University of Buenos Aires, 1962 Honorary Degree Sc. Adelphi University, 1963 Hon. L.L.D. Ohio Wesleyan University. Contribution to Psychology Havighurst has identified six major age periods: infancy and early childhood (0-5 years), middle childhood (6-12 years), adolescence (13-18 years), early adulthood (19-29 years), middle adulthood (30-60 years), and later maturity (61+). Certain tasks need to be mastered at certain times of ages in order to mature successfully. The driving forces behind these tasks are the persons physical growth, social pressures upon him or her as well as his or her inner pressures. Table presents typical developmental tasks for each of these periods. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5) 1. Learning to walk 2. Learning to take solid foods 3. Learning to talk 4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes 5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty 6. Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and physical reality 7. Readiness for reading 8. Learning to distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience Middle Childhood (6-12) Adolescence (13-18) 1. Achieving mature relations with both sexes 2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 3. Accepting one's physique 4. Achieving emotional independence of adults 5. Preparing for marriage and family life 6. Preparing for an economic career 7. Acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior 8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games 2. Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself 3. Learning to get along with age-mates 4. Learning an appropriate sex role 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating 6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living 7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values 8. Achieving personal independence 9. Developing acceptable attitudes toward society

Early Adulthood (19-20) 1. Selecting a mate 2. Learning to live with a partner 3. Starting a family 4. Rearing children 5. Managing a home 6. Starting an occupation 7. Assuming civic responsibility

Middle Adulthood (30-60) 1. Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible adults 2. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility 3. Satisfactory career achievement 4. Developing adult leisure time activities 5. Relating to one's spouse as a person 6. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age 7. Adjusting to aging parent

Later Maturity (61-) 1. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health 2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income 3. Adjusting to death of spouse 4. Establishing relations with one's own age group 5. Meeting social and civic obligations 6. Establishing satisfactory living quarters

MORGAN SCOTT PECK

Stages of Spiritual Development

Dr. Peck was born on May 22, 1936 in New York City, the younger of two sons to David Warner Peck, a prominent lawyer and jurist, and his wife Elizabeth Saville. He married Lily Ho in 1959, and they had three children. He received his MD from Case Western Reserve University (1963) and served in the US Army (196372), retiring after two years as assistant chief of psychiatry and neurology at the office of the surgeon-general. He practiced psychiatry in New Preston, CT (1972 84), and eventually and reluctantly attained the status of a guru due to the success of his book, The Road Less Traveled: A New Psychology of Love, Traditional Values and Spiritual Growth (1978). He received his MD from Case Western Reserve University (1963) and served in the US Army (1963 72), retiring after two years as assistant chief of psychiatry and neurology at the office of the surgeon-general. He practiced psychiatry in New Preston, CT (197284), and eventually and reluctantly attained the status of a guru due to the success of his book, The Road Less Traveled: A New Psychology of Love, Traditional Values and Spiritual Growth (1978). It focused on personal integrity and community building, and, although dismissed by some as merely inspirational, it spoke to many people (attested by its presence on best-seller lists for some 15 years). He followed up its success with such books as People of the Lie (1983) and The Different Drum (1987).

Contribution to Psychology The Road Less Traveled (1978) This is the self-help book that is read by people who don't read self-help books. It contains none of the alluring promises of boundless joy and happiness that are the feature of personal development writing, yet has still been a massive bestseller. Famously beginning with the words, 'Life is difficult', it covers such gloomy topics as the myth of romantic love, evil, mental illness, and the author's psychological and spiritual crises. SPIRITUAL GROWTH THEORY Putting self-discipline at the top of list of values for a good life. Believing that there are no easy ways to enlightenment, and that things like commitment and responsibility are the seeds of fulfillment. DISCIPLINE- is the basic tools require solving lifes problem 1. Delaying Gratification- the process of scheduling the pain and pleasure of life 2. Acceptance of Responsibility 3. Dedication to truth The Four Stages of Spiritual Development Peck postulates that there are four stages of human spiritual development: Stage I is chaotic, disordered, and reckless. Very young children are in Stage I. They tend to defy and disobey, and are unwilling to accept a will greater than their own. They are extremely egoistic and lack empathy for others. Many criminals are people who have never grown out of Stage I. Stage II is the stage at which a person has blind faith in authority figures and sees the world as divided simply into good and evil, right and wrong, us and them. Once children learn to obey their parents and other authority figures, often out of fear or shame, they reach Stage II. Many so-called religious people are essentially Stage II people, in the sense that they have blind faith in God, and do not question His existence. With blind faith comes humility and a willingness to obey and serve. The majority of good, law-abiding citizens never move out of Stage II. Stage III is the stage of scientific skepticism and questioning. A Stage III person does not accept things on faith but only accepts them if convinced logically. Many people working in scientific and technological research are in Stage III. They often reject the existence of spiritual or supernatural forces since these are difficult to measure or prove scientifically. Those who do retain their spiritual beliefs, move away from the simple, official doctrines of fundamentalism. Stage IV is the stage where an individual starts enjoying the mystery and beauty of nature and existence. While retaining skepticism, he starts perceiving grand patterns in nature and develops a deeper understanding of good and evil, forgiveness and mercy, compassion and love. His religiousness and spirituality differ significantly from that of a Stage II person, in the sense that he does not accept things through blind faith or out of fear, but does so because of genuine belief, and he does not judge people harshly or seek to inflict punishment on them for their transgressions. This is the stage of loving others as yourself, losing your attachment to your ego, and forgiving your enemies. Stage IV people are labeled as Mystics. Peck argues that while transitions from Stage I to Stage II are sharp, transitions from Stage III to Stage IV are gradual. Nonetheless, these changes are very noticeable and mark a significant difference in the personality of the individual.

JAMES FOWLER Stages of Faith Development

James W. Fowler III (born 1940), is a graduate of Duke University and Drew Theological Seminary and earned his Ph.D. at Harvard University in Religion and Society in 1971, with a focus in ethics and sociology of religion. He pursued post-doctoral studies at the Center for Moral Development at the Harvard Graduate School of Education (1971-72). He taught at Harvard Divinity School (1969-75) and at Boston College (1975-76). In 1977 he joined the faculty of Emory's Candler School of Theology. Emory named him the Charles Howard Candler Professor of Theology and Human Development in 1987. His pioneering research and the resulting theory of faith development have earned him international recognition. His best-known book, Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Development and the Quest for Meaning, is in its 38th printing, and has been translated into German, Korean, and Portuguese editions. Dr. Fowler has written or edited ten other books and more than 60 articles, contributing to the fields of practical theology and theological ethics. Four volumes of critical discussion of Fowlers research and theory have emerged from nationa l and international seminars devoted to his work. He has received the Oskar Pfister Award from the American Psychiatric Association, for enduring contributions to the dialogue between religion and psychiatry and the William James Award from the American Psychological Association, for contributions that advance the psychology of religion. Both awards came in 1994. In 1999 the University of Edinburgh awarded him a doctor of divinity degree, honoris causa. From 1994 to 2005, Fowler served as the first full-time director of the Center for Ethics at Emory. He is a minister in the United Methodist Church. He and his wife have two married daughters and four grandchildren.

Contribution to Psychology A series of stages of faith development was proposed by Professor James W. Fowler, a developmental psychologist at Candler School of Theology, in the book Stages of Faith. This book-length study contains a framework and ideas, which have generated a good deal of response from the academic community focusing on religious studies. Fowler defines faith as an activity of trusting, committing, and relating to the world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to others and the world. Stage 0 "Primal or Undifferentiated" faith (birth to 2 years), is characterized by an early learning of the safety of their environment (i.e. warm, safe and secure vs. hurt, neglect and abuse). If consistent nurture is experienced, one will develop a sense of trust and safety about the universe and the divine. Conversely, negative experiences will cause one to develop distrust with the universe and the divine. Transition to the next stage begins with integration of thought and languages which facilitates the use of symbols in speech and play. Stage 1 "Intuitive-Projective" faith (ages of three to seven), is characterized by the psyche's unprotected exposure to [1] the Unconscious, and marked by a relative fluidity of thought patterns. Religion is learned mainly through experiences, stories, images, and the people that one comes in contact with. Stage 2 "Mythic-Literal" faith (mostly in school children), stage two persons have a strong belief in the justice and reciprocity of the universe, and their deities are almost alwaysanthropomorphic. During this time metaphors and symbolic language are often misunderstood and are taken literally. Stage 3 "Synthetic-Conventional" faith (arising in adolescence; aged 12 to adulthood) characterized by conformity to religious authority and the development of a personal identity. Any conflicts with one's beliefs are ignored at this stage due to the fear of threat from inconsistencies. Stage 4 "Individuative-Reflective" faith (usually mid-twenties to late thirties) a stage of angst and struggle. The individual takes personal responsibility for his or her beliefs and feelings. As one is able to reflect on one's own beliefs, there is an openness to a new complexity of faith, but this also increases the awareness of conflicts in one's belief. Stage 5 "Conjunctive" faith (mid-life crisis) acknowledges paradox and transcendence relating reality behind the symbols of inherited systems. The individual resolves conflicts from previous stages by a complex understanding of a multidimensional, interdependent "truth" that cannot be explained by any particular statement. Stage 6 "Universalizing" faith, or what some might call "enlightenment." The individual would treat any person with compassion as he or she views people as from a universal community, and should be treated with universal principles of love and justice. Fowler's model has inspired a considerable body of empirical research into faith development, although little of such research has been conducted by Fowler himself. A useful tool here has been Gary Leak's Faith Development Scale, or FDS, which has been subject to factor analysis by Leak (Leak, 2008).

CAROL GILLIGAN

Theory of Women's Moral Development

Carol Gilligan is a contemporary psychologist who has conducted extensive research into women's approach to moral problems. Professional Life Carol Gilligan was born in New York City on November 28, 1936. She studied literature at Swarthmore College as an undergrad, and she graduated from Radcliffe in 1960 with a master's in psychology. She continued to Harvard, where she received her PhD in psychology in 1964. Three years later, Gilligan took a teaching position at Harvard where she worked alongside Erik Erikson and Lawrence Kohlberg. While Gilligan worked as a research assistant under Kohlberg, known for his theory of moral development, she began focusing on the moral dilemmas and development of young girls. In 1997, Gilligan became the Chair of Gender Studies at Harvard, and she codirected the Harvard Project on Womens Psychology, Boys Development, and the Culture of Manhood. Gilligan has lectured at Princeton University and Michigan State University, she was Pitt Professor at the University of Cambridge in 1992 and 1993, and she has taught at New York University since 2002. Gilligans work has been recognized for womens advancement by activists, such as Jane Fonda, who donated $2.5 million to create an endowed faculty chair in Gilligans name at Harvard. Gilligan has been recognized by many institutions and organizations for her efforts in the area of womens advancement and moral psychology. In addition to the Grawemeyer Award for Education, Gilligan has also received the Heinz Award for Human Condition and was named one of the most influential people of the year by TIME magazine in 1996. She has also published works of fiction and developed a full-length play based on Nathaniel Hawthornes Scarlet Letter. Contribution to Psychology best-known contribution to psychology is her adaptation of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development she found that women placed a stronger emphasis on caring in moral decision making her work on moral development outlines how a womans morality is influenced by relationships and how women form their moral and ethical foundation based on how their decisions will affect others What set her off in thinking this was the fact that in some of Kohlberg's investigations, women turned out to score lower less developed - than did men. Were women really moral midgets? Gilligan did not think so. In taking this stand, she was going against the current of a great deal of psychological opinion. Our friend Freud thought women's moral sense was stunted because they stayed attached to their mothers. Another great developmental theorist, Erik Erickson, thought the tasks of development were separation from mother and the family. If women did not succeed in this scale, then they were obviously deficient. Gilligan's reply was to assert that women were not inferior in their personal or moral development, but that they were different. They developed in a way that focused on connections among people (rather than separation) and with an ethic of care for those people (rather than an ethic of justice). Gilligan lays out in this groundbreaking book this alternative theory. Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care Approximate Age Range Stage not listed not listed maybe never Goal Preconventional Goal is individual survival Conventional Self sacrifice is goodness

Transition is from selfishness -- to -- responsibility to others Transition is from goodness -- to -- truth that she is a person too Postconventional Principle of nonviolence: do not hurt others or self

Thus Gilligan produces her own stage theory of moral development for women. Like Kohlberg's, it has three major divisions: preconventional, conventional, and post conventional. But for Gilligan, the transitions between the stages are fueled by changes in the sense of self rather than in changes in cognitive capability. Remember that Kohlberg's approach is based on Piaget's cognitive developmental model. Gilligan's is based instead on a modified version of Freud's approach to ego development. Thus Gilligan is combining Freud (or at least a Freudian theme) with Kohlberg & Piaget.

She believes that women tend to develop morality in stages. The stages are: Preconventional morality During this stage, there is a strong focus on survival and self-interest. Conventional women prioritize selflessness and caring about others Postconventional women emphasize taking responsibility for the consequences of their choices and gaining control of their own lives. Caring for others is a strong component of this high stage of moral development. Levels and transitions: Level one, orientation to individual survival, shows the individual as self-centered and unable to distinguish between necessity and desire. The individual attempts to protect herself by not pursuing intimate relationships with others. The first transition is from selfishness to responsibility, in which there exists a new connection to others and a differentiation between needs and wants.

Goodness as self-sacrifice is the second level of development. In this stage, the individual places greater reliance on others and yearns for social acceptance. In the second transition, from goodness to truth , the individual questions why she places others needs above her own. The third and last level, the morality of nonviolence, shows an individual with a transformed understanding of self. There is much respect for the self and individual needs, but the individual also recognizes responsibility and care for others and selects among competing choices.

In 1982, Gilligan published In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Womens Development . The book detailed her criticism of Kohlbergs theory and her views on female morality.

ROGER GOULD Adult Development Theory

Roger Gould, M.D. is an adult psychological development. American writer, psychiatrist and leading authority on

In his book Transformations, Gould presents his view that adult psychological development consists of the "dismantling of the illusions of safety developed in childhood ". Goulds theory suggests that these illusions are confronted in a time-sensitive sequence as one progress through the life-cycle. Gould has pioneered the use of computer-assisted and web-based therapy. He was honored by The Smithsonian Institution as a pioneer in the field of computer-assisted therapy. In 2001, Goulds method of computer-assisted therapy was found to be about as effective as traditional therapy. Gould is also the founder of Shrink Yourself, an online, weight-loss program that uses his web-based therapy techniques to eliminate emotional eating, binge eating, overeating and other forms of excessive, compulsive or uncontrolled eating. In 2007, he published a second book, Shrink Yourself: Break Free from Emotional Eating Forever , based on the Shrink Yourself online program. In both the book and online program, Gould suggests that the powerlessness people feel over their cravings to eat when they are emotionally upset is a cover-up for a deeper sense of powerlessness in areas, or "layers", of their lives not directly connected to eating. By examining ones sense of powerlessness in the areas identified, Gould claims one can end emotional eating and other form of uncontrolled eating.

Contribution to Psychology Roger Gould's (1978) theory charts inner stages of consciousness in which the adult gives up various illusions and myths held over from childhood. Gould sees this process as freeing oneself from childhood restraints and establishing a sense of personal identity. To Gould (1978), adulthood is a time of "dismantling the protective devices that gave us an illusion of safety as children. Confronting the myths of childhood results in transformations that lead to increasingly higher levels of consciousness (Dean, 2007). Gould's transformations occur in a series of sequential, age related stages, as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Leaving the Parents' World (16-22) Getting into the Adult World (22-28) Questioning and Reexamination (29-34) Midlife Decade (35-43) Reconciliation and Mellowing (43-50) Stability and Acceptance (50 and over)

The four major false assumptions adults must resolve during their lifetimes are: 1. "We'll always live with our parents and be their child." 2. "They'll always be there to help when we can't do something on our own." 3. "Life is simple and controllable." 4. "There is no real death or evil in the world."

In Gould's theory, identity formation begins between the ages of 16 and 22, when people are challenging the false assumption I will always belong to my parents and believe in their world". The false assumption to be overcome between 22 and 28 is: "Doing things my parents' way with willpower and perseverance will bring results. But if I become too frustrated, confused or tired or am simply unable to cope, they will step in and show me the right way".

LEV VYGOTSKY Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Theory
Lev Vygotsky was an early 20th century developmental psychologist who developed a sociocultural theory of child development designed to account for the influence of culture on a child's growth and development. Professional Life Lev Vygotsky was born into an art- and literature-loving family in what is now Belarus on November 17, 1896, and he was raised in Gomel. Vygotsky began studying at the University of Moscow in 1913, though his course options were severely restricted because he was Jewish. Vygotsky elected to study law, and he graduated in 1917. Back in Gomel, Vygotsky taught logic and psychology at a local college. In 1924, he wowed the Second All-Union Congress on Psychoneurology with his speech, and he was subsequently invited to join the Moscow Institute of Experimental Psychology. At the institute, Vygostsky served as a teacher and researcher for nine years. Vygotsky was an innovative psychologist who made significant advancements in the field of child development. Vygotskys short career focused on child development, development al psychology, and educational philosophy. Contribution to Psychology Vygotsky theorized that children develop their behaviors and habits from their cultures and through interpersonal experiences; he referred to this phenomena as cultural meditation. He argued that higher thinking developed as a result of sociocultural interactions and referred to shared knowledge of a culture as internalization. For example, a child who knows that using the toilet is a private activity has internalized a cultural norm. Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD) remains a popular theory within the field of developmental psychology to illustrate a childs learning process. The zone refers to the span of time it takes a child to proceed from the early stages of learning a new task to the point at which the child can complete the new task independently. Vygotsky claimed that children learned to achieve more challenging tasks with the aid of someone more knowledgeable. Vygotsky referred to this form of social support as scaffolding: the process of helping a child do something without actually doing it for him or her. Scaffolding practices must be constantly adjusted to meet a child's new capabilities. For example, a four year olds zone of proximal development with regards to learning the alphabet might include knowing the alphabet song independently, but pointing to and identifying letters is something he or she might need scaffolding to achieve. As the child learns to recognize letters, his or her parents or teachers might scaffold the child into reading or writing. Many contemporary parenting books advise scaffolding children. Vygotsky also conducted extensive research into play. He discovered that play serves a key role in learning and that children often learn concepts based upon make-believe play. Play can take on symbolic meaning, such as when a child tells an adult that a stick is actually a snake. He argued that cultural norms, rules for behavior, and social skills are frequently learned through play. Consequently, play is an important activity that enables children to learn to modulate and control their own behavior. Overview The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone. Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For example, in learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech". Vygotsky's theory is complementary to Bandura's work on social learning and a key component of situated learning theory as well. Because Vygotsky's focus was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare his views with those a constructivist (Bruner) and a genetic epistemologist (Piaget). Application This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original work was done in the context of language learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962), although later applications of the framework have been broader (see Wertsch, 1985).

Example Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this behavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals. Principles 1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age. 2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

Elisabeth Kbler-Ross Five Stages of Grief

Elisabeth Kbler-Ross, M.D. (July 8, 1926 August 24, 2004) was a Swiss American psychiatrist, a pioneer in near-death studies and the author of the groundbreaking book On Death and Dying (1969), where she first discussed her theory of the five stages of grief. She is a 2007 inductee into the American National Women's Hall of Fame. She was the recipient of twenty honorary degrees and by July 1982 had taught, in her estimation, 125,000 students in death and dying courses in colleges, seminaries, medical schools, hospitals, and social-work institutions. In 1970, she delivered the The Ingersoll Lectures on Human Immortality at Harvard University, on the theme, On Death and Dying. Elisabeth Kbler was born on July 8, 1926 in Zrich, Switzerland, one of triplets. Elisabeth was born fifteen minutes before her identical sister, Erika. Minutes later came her sister, Eva. Her family were Protestant Christians. Her father did not want her to study medicine, but she persisted. Eventually her father took pride in her career. In an interview she stated: In Switzerland I was educated in line with the basic premise: work work work. You are only a valuable human being if you work. This is utterly wrong. Half working, half dancing - that is the right mixture. I myself have danced and played too little." During World War II she became involved in refugee relief work in Zrich and later visited Majdanek death camp. She graduated from the University of Zrich medical school in 1957. In 1958 she married a fellow medical student from America, Emanuel ("Manny") Ross and moved to the United States. Becoming pregnant disqualified Kbler-Ross from a residency in pediatrics, so she took one in psychiatry. After suffering two miscarriages, she had a son, Kenneth, and a daughter, Barbara, in the early 1960s.[6] Her husband requested a divorce in 1979. Academic Career Kbler-Ross moved to New York in 1958 to work and continue her studies. As she began her psychiatric residency, she was appalled by the hospital treatment of patients in the U.S. who were dying. She began giving a series of lectures featuring terminally ill patients, forcing medical students to face people who were dying. In 1962 she accepted a position at the University of Colorado School of Medicine. Kbler-Ross completed her training in psychiatry in 1963, and moved to Chicago in 1965. She became an instructor at the University of Chicago's Pritzker School of Medicine. She developed there a series of seminars using interviews with terminal patients, which drew both praise and criticism[citation needed]. She sometimes questioned the practices of traditional psychiatry that she observed. She also undertook 39 months of classical psychoanalysis training in Chicago. Her extensive work with the dying led to the book On Death and Dying in 1969. In it, she proposed the now famous Five Stages of Grief as a pattern of adjustment: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. In general, individuals experience most of these stages when faced with their imminent death. The five stages have since been adopted by many as applying to the survivors of a loved one's death, as well. Kbler-Ross suffered a series of strokes in 1995 which left her partially paralyzed on her left side, and the healing Center closed around that time. In a 2002 interview with The Arizona Republic, she stated that she was ready for death. She died in 2004 at her home in Scottsdale, Arizona, and was buried at the Paradise Memorial Gardens Cemetery.

Five Stages of Grief - Elisabeth Kbler Ross

EKR stage 1 - Denial Interpretation Denial is a conscious or unconscious refusal to accept facts, information, reality, etc., relating to the situation concerned. It's a defence mechanism and perfectly natural. Some people can become locked in this stage when dealing with a traumatic change that can be ignored. Death of course is not particularly easy to avoid or evade indefinitely.

2 - Anger

Anger can manifest in different ways. People dealing with emotional upset can be angry with themselves, and/or with others, especially those close to them. Knowing this helps keep detached and non-judgemental when experiencing the anger of someone who is very upset. Traditionally the bargaining stage for people facing death can involve attempting to bargain with whatever God the person believes in. People facing less serious trauma can bargain or seek to negotiate a compromise. For example "Can we still be friends?.." when facing a break-up. Bargaining rarely provides a sustainable solution, especially if it's a matter of life or death. Also referred to as preparatory grieving. In a way it's the dress rehearsal or the practice run for the 'aftermath' although this stage means different things depending on whom it involves. It's a sort of acceptance with emotional attachment. It's natural to feel sadness and regret, fear, uncertainty, etc. It shows that the person has at least begun to accept the reality. Again this stage definitely varies according to the person's situation, although broadly it is an indication that there is some emotional detachment and objectivity. People dying can enter this stage a long time before the people they leave behind, who must necessarily pass through their own individual stages of dealing with the grief.

3 - Bargaining

4 - Depression

5 - Acceptance

URIE BRONFENBRENNER Ecological Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner was born on April 29, 1917 in Moscow, Russia, as the son of Dr. Alexander Bronfenbrenner and Eugenie Kamenetski Bronfenbrenner. When Urie was 6, his family moved to the United States. After a brief stay in Pittsburgh, they settled in Letchworth Village, the home of the New York State Institution for the Mentally Retarded, where his father worked as a clinical pathologist and research director. After his graduation from Haverstraw High School, Bronfenbrenner attended Cornell University, where he completed a double major in psychology and music in 1938. He went on to graduate work in developmental psychology, completing an M.A. at Harvard University, followed by a Ph.D. from the University of Michigan in 1942. Twenty-four hours after receiving his doctorate he was inducted into the Army, where he served as a psychologist in a variety of assignments for the Army Air Corps and the Office of Strategic Services. After completing officer training he served in the U.S. Army Medical Corps. Immediately after World War II, Bronfenbrenner worked briefly as Assistant Chief Clinical Psychologist for Administration and Research for the Veterans' Administration, before beginning his work as Assistant Professor in Psychology at the University of Michigan. In 1948, he accepted a professorship in Human Development, Family Studies, and Psychology at Cornell University. In the late 1960s to early 1970s, Bronfenbrenner served as a faculty-elected member of Cornell's Board of Trustees. At the time of his death, Bronfenbrenner was the Jacob Gould Schurman Professor Emeritus of Human Development and of Psychology in the Cornell University College of Human Ecology. Bronfenbrenner died at his home in Ithaca, New York, on September 25, 2005, due to complications from diabetes. He was 88. Contributions to Psychology

Microsystem: Refers to the institutions and groups that most immediately and directly impact the child's development including: family, school, religious institutions, neighborhood, and peers. Mesosystem: Refers to relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. Examples are the relation of family experiences to school experiences, school experiences to church experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences. For example, children whose parents have rejected them may have difficulty developing positive relations with teachers. Exosystem: Involves links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context. For example, a parent's or child's experience at home may be influenced by the other parent's experiences at work. The parent might receive a promotion that requires more travel, which might increase conflict with the other parent and change patterns of interaction with the child. Macrosystem: Describes the culture in which individuals live. Cultural contexts include developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity. A child, his or her parent, his or her school, and his or her parent's workplace are all part of a large cultural context. Members of a cultural group share a common identity, heritage, and values. The macrosystem evolves over time, because each successive generation may change the macrosystem, leading to their development in a unique macrosystem. Chronosystem: The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances. For example, divorces are one transition. Researchers have found that the negative effects of divorce on children often peak in the first year after the divorce. By two years after the divorce, family interaction is less chaotic and more stable. An example of sociohistorical circumstances is the increase in opportunities for women to pursue a career during the last thirty years.

JOHN BOWLBY Attachment Theory

John Bowlby was born on February 27, 1907 in London to an upper-middle class family. Believing that too much parental affection and attention would spoil a child, his parents spent only a small amount of time with him each day. At the age of seven he was sent toboarding school, which he would later describe as a traumatic experience. Bowlby went on to attend Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied psychology and spent time working with delinquent children. He then studied medicine at University College Hospital, and then psychiatry at Maudsley Hospital. After becoming a psychoanalyst in 1937, he served in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War II. In 1938, he married a woman named Ursula Longstaff and together they had four children. Once the war was over, Bowlby became Director of the Tavistock Clinic and in 1950 he became a mental health consultant to theWorld Health Organization. Bowlbys Career: Bowlbys early work with children led him to develop a strong interest in the subject of child development. He became particularly interested in how separation from caregivers impacted children. After studying the subject for some time, he began to develop his ideas on the importance of attachment on child development. In 1949, the World Health Organization commissioned Bowlby to write a report on the mental health of homeless children in Europe. In 1951, the resulting work Maternal Care and Mental Health was published in which he wrote the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment. After the publication of the influential report, Bowlby continued to develop his attachment theory. Drawing on a variety of subjects including cognitive science, developmental psychology and evolutionary biology, he created his theory which suggested that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. According to Bowlby, attachment also serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival. The central theme of attachment theory is that mothers who are available and responsive to their infant's needs establish a sense of security. The infant knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world.

Contributions to Psychology

Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long-term relationships between humans. Its most important tenet is that an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional development to occur normally. Attachment theory explains how much the parents' relationship with the child influences development. Attachment theory is an interdisciplinary study encompassing the fields of psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory. Immediately after World War II, homeless and orphaned children presented many difficulties, and psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby was asked by the UN to write a pamphlet on the issue which he entitled maternal deprivation. Attachment theory grew out of his subsequent work on the issues raised. Infants become attached to individuals who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age; this is known as sensitive responsiveness. When the infant begins to crawl and walk they begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a secure base to explore from and return to. Caregivers' responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will guide the individual's perceptions, emotions, thoughts and expectations in later relationships. Separation anxiety or grief following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a normal and adaptive response for an attached infant. These behaviors may have evolved because they increase the probability of survival of the child.