Eg 3

GEOGUIDE 3
GUIDE TO ROCK AND SOIL DESCRIPTIONS
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE Civil Engineering Department The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
GEOGUIDE 3
GUIDE TO ROCK AND SOIL DESCRIPTIONS
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE Civil Engineering Department The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
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The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

First published, July 1988 Reprinted, April 1991 Reprinted, May 1994 Reprinted, January 1997 Reprinted, November 2000
Prepared by:
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Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering Department, Civil Engineering Building, 101 Princess Margaret Road, Homantin, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
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This publication is available from: Government Publications Centre, Ground Floor, Low Block, Queensway Government Offices, 66 Queensway, Hong Kong.
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Overseas orders should be placed with: Publications Sales Section, Information Services Department, Room 402, 4th Floor, Murray Building, Garden Road, Central, Hong Kong. Price in Hong Kong: HK$68 Price overseas: US$14 (including surface postage)
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An additional bank charge of HK$50 or US$6.50 is required per cheque made in currencies other than Hong Kong dollars. Cheques, bank drafts or money orders must be made payable to The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
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FOREWORD
This Geoguide p r e s e n t s a recommended s t a n d a r d of good practice f o r t h e description of Hong Kong r o c k s and soils for engineering purposes. This need was recognized in July 1983, when a Subcommittee of t h e Building Authority Working P a r t y on Geotechnical Regulations reviewed t h e application in Hong Kong of t h e British S t a n d a r d BS 5930 : 1981, Code of Practice f o r Site Investigations. With r e g a r d t o Section 8 of BS 5930 (Descriptions of Soils a n d Rocks), t h e Subcommittee concluded t h a t i t should not be recommended f o r general u s e in Hong Kong, because p a r t s of t h e section were not r e l e v a n t to local conditions o r conflicted with c u r r e n t Hong Kong practice. This Geoguide should b e used in conjunction with t h e companion document, Guide t o Site Investigation (Geoguide 2). which c o v e r s t h e topics dealt with in Sections 1 to 7 of BS 5930. Together, t h e s e two Geoguides expand upon, and largely replace, Chapter 2 of t h e Geotechnical Manual f o r Slopes (1984).
A s with o t h e r Geoguides, t h i s document gives guidance on good practice, and i t s recommendations a r e not mandatory. Considerable debate has always existed o v e r t h e u s e of ' s t a n d a r d i s e d ' methods and terminology f o r t h e descriptions of r o c k s and soils. Many different schemes exist, a n d i t i s recognized t h a t t h e practitioner may wish t o u s e alternative methods to t h o s e recommended herein.
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The Geoguide was p r e p a r e d in t h e Geotechnical Control Office ( G C O ) u n d e r t h e general direction of M r J.B. Massey. I t was d r a f t e d by D r R.P. Martin, with assistance from Dr R.L. Langford. who wrote most of t h e material for Appendix A a n d provided many of t h e photographic illustrations. The final The Geoguide incorporates production was s u p e r v i s e d by D r P.L.R. Pang. background material and p a r t s of earlier d r a f t s p r e p a r e d by D r R . Shaw of t h e G C O a n d by D r S.R. Hencher, a former member of t h e G C O staff. D r T.Y. I r f a n , t o g e t h e r with many o t h e r G C O staff members, made valuable comments on earlier versions. To e n s u r e t h a t t h e Geoguide would be considered a c o n s e n s u s document b y t h e v a r i o u s i n t e r e s t e d parties in Hong Kong. a d r a f t version was circulated widely f o r comment in e a r l y 1987 t o c o n t r a c t o r s , consulting e n g i n e e r s . academic institutions and Government Departments. Many organizations a n d individuals made v e r y helpful comments, and t h e i r contributions a r e gratefully acknowledged. Practitioners a r e encouraged t o comment a t a n y time to t h e G C O on t h e c o n t e n t s of t h i s Geoguide, s o t h a t improvements can b e made t o f u t u r e editions.
E.W. Brand Principal Government Geotechnical Engineer July 1988
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CONTENTS
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T I T L E PAGE
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
1,
INTRODUCTION
1.1 1.2
PURPOSE AND SCOPE GENERAL GUIDANCE 1.2.1 Definitions of Rock a n d Soil 1.2.2 T h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y 1.2.3 Material a n d Mass C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 1.2.4 D e s c r i p t i o n i n D i f f e r e n t Locations
2,
DESCRIPTION OF ROCKS
2.1 2.2 2.3 GENERAL PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF R O C K DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MATERIALS 2.3.1 Strength 2.3.2 Colour 2.3.3 Texture a n d Fabric 2.3.4 Weathering a n d Alteration 2.3.5 Rock Name ( I n c l u d i n g Grain S i z e ) 2.3.6 Additional I n f o r m a t i o n 2.3.7 Examples
2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6
2.4
DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES General Structure Discontinuities Rock Mass W e a t h e r i n g Additional Information Examples
2.5
ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION
3,
DESCRIPTIONOFSOILS
3.1 3.2
GENERAL PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF SOIL DESCRIPTION
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3.3
MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS 3.3.1 Strength 3.3.2 Colour Particle S h a p e a n d Composition 3.3.3 Soil Name 3.3.4 Additional Information 3.3.5
3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4
36 36 37 37 38 41 41 41 42 43 44 44 46 47 48 48
3.4
MASS CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS Structure Discontinuities S t a t e of Weathering Additional Information
3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9
SOILS DERIVED FROM INSITU R O C K WEATHERING COLLUVIUM FILL ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION EXAMPLES
ENGINEERING C L A S S I F I C A T I O N S OF ROCKS AND S O I L S

4.1 4.2 4.3
53 53 53 54
GENERAL GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF R O C K MASSES SOIL CLASSIFICATION FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES
5,
LEGEND FOR MAPS, PLANS AND DIAGRAMS

5.1 5.2
57 57 57 57 57
SYMBOLS FOR ROCKS AND SOILS OTHER SYMBOLS 5.2.1 Symbols f o r Borehole Records Symbols f o r Geological S t r u c t u r e s a n d Boundaries 5.2.2
REFERENCES TABLES
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69 71 73
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FIGURES
L I S T OF F I G U R E S FIGURES
PLATES
L I S T OF P L A T E S PLATES
APPENDIX A
NATURE AND OCCURRENCE OF HONG KONG ROCKS AND SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS
GLOSSARY
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE A N D SCOPE The p u r p o s e of t h i s Geoguide i s t o p r e s e n t a recommended s t a n d a r d of good practice f o r t h e description of Hong Kong r o c k s and soils f o r engineering purposes. I t is a companion document t o Geoguide 2 : Guide t o Site Investigation ( G C O , 1987a). This Geoguide i s aimed primarily a t t h e practising civil o r geotechnical e n g i n e e r , b u t i s also i n t e n d e d f o r u s e b y geologists, engineering geologists and o t h e r professionals working in t h e e a r t h sciences. I t has been p r e p a r e d on t h e assumption t h a t t h e u s e r may not have a n y specialist knowledge of descriptive systems o r methods. The overall s t r u c t u r e a n d many individual t e x t sections of t h i s Geoguide a r e based on Section 8 of BS 5930 : 1981, Code of Practice f o r Site Investigations (BSI, 1981). This British S t a n d a r d (BS) has been selected a s t h e basic r e f e r e n c e document for both t h i s Geoguide and Geoguide 2, in t h e belief t h a t many of i t s sections a r e applicable t o Hong Kong conditions without t h e need f o r major modification. However. t h e layout of t h i s document differs considerably from t h a t of Section 8 of t h e BS, and a number of new t e x t sections have been added. t o g e t h e r with many more tables, f i g u r e s a n d plates. These c h a n g e s reflect not only differences of emphasis with r e g a r d t o local geological conditions, b u t also t h e need f o r more illustration and explanation of geological terms f o r t h e non-specialist u s e r . The following section of this c h a p t e r contains some g e n e r a l guidance on descriptive methods and terms. The two major c h a p t e r s of t h e Geoguide (Chapters 2 a n d 3 ) a r e devoted t o methods of description f o r t h e two main g r o u p s of engineering materials (i.e. r o c k s a n d soils). Following t h e s e i s a s h o r t e r c h a p t e r concerned with engineering classifications of r o c k s a n d soils (Chapter 4 ) . The fifth c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s recommended rock a n d soil symbols t o b e used for maps, plans a n d diagrams. Appendix A, which contains a geological summary of t h e n a t u r e a n d o c c u r r e n c e of Hong Kong r o c k s and soils, i s intended t o fulfil a similar role t o t h a t of Appendix G in t h e BS. This is followed b y a glossary of terms. Also included s e p a r a t e l y i s a checklist f o r field o r laboratory use. This Geoguide provides guidance f o r good practice in t h e u s e of one scheme of rock a n d soil description. I t i s recognized t h a t practitioners may wish t o continue t o u s e o t h e r descriptive methods and terminology. Whatever scheme i s employed, t h e important principle is t h a t all descriptive t e r m s should b e defined clearly and used consistently. 1.2 1.2.1 GENERAL GUIDANCE Definitions of Rock a n d Soil
The engineering u s a g e of 'rock' and 'soil' differs from t h e geological u s a g e of 'rock' a n d 'superficial deposits' in c u r r e n t Hong Kong practice. The two schemes can b e distinguished f o r most practical p u r p o s e s b y using t h e following simple definitions. In engineering t e r m s , a 'soil' is a n y naturally formed e a r t h material o r fill which c a n be broken down by hand i n t o i t s constituent g r a i n s ; conversely, a 'rock' c a n n o t be broken down, o r may only b e
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partially broken down by hand, depending on i t s weathered condition. In geological terms, 'superficial deposit' covers a n y geologically recent. unlithified, t r a n s p o r t e d material of sedimentary origin (Bennett, 1984a); 'rock' r e f e r s t o a n y lithified, solid material of igneous, sedimentary, pyroclastic o r metamorphic origin. Practically all of Hong Kong's superficial deposits were formed within t h e Q u a t e r n a r y period (i.e. within t h e last two million y e a r s ) , whereas most of t h e r o c k s a r e much o l d e r t h a n t h i s ( s e e Appendix A). The simplest way of relating t h e two schemes i s t o consider engineering soils a s comprising all superficial deposits and fill those r o c k s which have weathered insitu t o t h e condition of a soil in engineering terms. There a r e one o r two exceptions t o t h i s general distinction, s u c h a s r e c e n t h a r d beach rock and coral (both of which would b e mapped b y geologists a s superficial d e p o s i t s ) , b u t s u c h materials a r e of v e r y r e s t r i c t e d e x t e n t in Hong Kong. The above engineering definitions of rock a n d soil a r e used t h r o u g h o u t t h i s Geoguide, except in Appendix A a n d in a few o t h e r cases where t h e geological definitions a r e clearly implied b y t h e text. I t should b e emphasised. however, t h a t t h e r e a r e no h a r d and f a s t rules; i t may well b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o u s e different definitions. depending on t h e particular requirements of t h e engineering project. 1.2.2 The Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y
This Geoguide u s e s t h e classification system and nomenclature f o r r o c k s and superficial deposits developed by t h e Geological S u r v e y Section of t h e Planning Division. Geotechnical Control Office ( h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y (HKGS)). The description a n d classification of r o c k s used by geologists f o r mapping p u r p o s e s r e q u i r e s a detailed consideration of mineralogy and p e t r o g r a p h y , which may be of i n t e r e s t t o e n g i n e e r s only in special circumstances. However, t h e value of a n engineering rock o r soil description i s often increased if t h e materials encountered a r e placed in t h e context of t h e geological s t r u c t u r e of t h e a r e a a r o u n d t h e site. In this r e s p e c t , t h e e n g i n e e r should consult t h e geological maps and memoirs produced b y t h e HKGS. In cases of difficulty when identifying rock t y p e s , o r i n t e r p r e t i n g geological maps, t h e e n g i n e e r should consult a geologist f o r assistance.
A new programme of detailed systematic geological mapping b y t h e HKGS. a t a scale of 1:20 000, has been underway in t h e Geotechnical Control Office since 1983. As of t h e e n d of 1988, six maps a n d t h r e e memoirs will b e available (Addison, 1986; G C O , 1986a; 1986b; 1987b; 1988a; 198813; 1988c; Langford e t al, 1988; S t r a n g e & Shaw. 1986). The full mapping programme, which i s summarised in Geoguide 2 (GCO, 1987a). will cover t h e whole of t h e Territory. both o n s h o r e a n d offshore, and will eventually comprise fifteen maps and six memoirs ( s e e pp 188-189). On completion, t h i s mapping will s u p e r s e d e t h e earlier geological s u r v e y work c a r r i e d o u t b y Allen & S t e p h e n s (1971).
1.2.3 Material and Mass Characteristics

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Complete rock a n d soil descriptions should include information on both material and mass characteristics. For rocks, t h e distinction between material and mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e p e n d s on t h e size of t h e sample in relation t o t h e typical spacing of discontinuities and o t h e r a s p e c t s of rock s t r u c t u r e . Rock material r e f e r s t o
t h e relatively s t r o n g cohesive assemblage of mineral particles t h a t form t h e i n t a c t rock blocks between discontinuities in t h e rock mass. Therefore, rock material characteristics can b e observed a n d described most easily in hand samples of rock a n d drillcore. Rock mass r e f e r s to a l a r g e r volume of rock t h a t contains discontinuities s u c h a s joints, faults a n d bedding planes; s u c h f e a t u r e s a r e b e s t described in field exposures, although some indication of mass characteristics may be obtained from boreholes. For soils, t h e distinction between material a n d mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s also depends on t h e size of t h e sample being described. In practice, t h i s distinction may not be a s clear a s f o r r o c k s because some of t h e characteristics, a t both t h e material a n d mass scales, may b e d e s t r o y e d o r altered significantly if t h e soil has been d i s t u r b e d o r remoulded in relation t o i t s original u n d i s t u r b e d condition. Therefore particular attention should b e paid to t h e d e g r e e of sample d i s t u r b a n c e when making soil descriptions. Mass characteristics in soils can only b e described satisfactorily in u n d i s t u r b e d samples o r exposures. Weathering processes a r e of particular importance in Hong Kong, and many of t h e soils encountered in engineering works a r e t h o s e derived from insitu weathering of rocks. Where t h e y retain t h e original rock material t e x t u r e a n d fabric, t h e s e engineering soils r e p r e s e n t a special case f o r description, because t h e y can b e described both a s r o c k s a n d a s soils. This is considered in g r e a t e r detail in t h e main text.
1.2.4
Description in Different Locations
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Rock a n d soil descriptions for engineering applications in Hong Kong a r e typically c a r r i e d o u t in t h r e e main locations, viz : (a) (b) (c) in t h e field, a t a n a t u r a l o r man-made exposure, in t h e field, on c o r e obtained investigation drilling rig. a n d from a ground
in t h e laboratory, on pieces of core o r o t h e r small hand samples and various t y p e s of confined samples.
General guidance on description in each of t h e s e locations is given in Table 1. I t is emphasised t h a t t h e scope of t h e description, a n d t h e d e g r e e of emphasis given to particular descriptive items, may need t o be varied t o s u i t t h e particular application (e.g. projects involving slopes, t u n n e l s , foundations, e t c ) . I t i s t h e responsibility of t h e p r o j e c t e n g i n e e r o r engineering geologist t o decide on t h e a p p r o p r i a t e scope a n d detail r e q u i r e d . With r e g a r d t o t h e description of core samples in t h e field and in t h e laboratory, two common a s p e c t s of poor practice should be mentioned. F i r s t , descriptions should r e f e r only t o t h e specific locations from which t h e samples have been taken. Descriptions of small d i s t u r b e d samples obtained from drill bit c u t t i n g s a r e often used wrongly t o c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e n a t u r e of t h e material t h r o u g h o u t t h e complete c o r e r u n o r a d j a c e n t c o r e r u n s . A second related point i s t h a t only a small percentage of soil samples recovered by t r i p l e - t u b e c o r e - b a r r e l s a r e e v e r split open and described. Most samples a r e usually r e s e r v e d f o r laboratory t e s t i n g . A significant proportion a r e often discarded a t t h e e n d of t h e p r o j e c t without being opened f o r e i t h e r description o r testing. Even if samples a r e opened for t h e p u r p o s e of selecting t e s t specimens, t h e remainder of t h e c o r e i s often discarded without being described. Adequate description of all borehole samples recovered i s essential
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to good ground investigation practice.
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2.
2.1
GENERAL
DESCRIPTION OF ROCKS
The recommendations in this c h a p t e r a r e generally applicable t o all local rock t y p e s . For some of t h e important descriptive characteristics, s u c h a s s t a t e of weathering, specific recommendations a r e given only f o r some of t h e common rocks. This disproportionate t r e a t m e n t reflects t h e g r e a t e r engineering experience gained in certain rock t y p e s (mainly g r a n i t e , granodiorite and some t u f f s ) .
2.2
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PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF R O C K DESCRIPTION
The main p u r p o s e of a rock description f o r engineering p u r p o s e s i s t o give an indication of t h e likely engineering properties of t h e rock. A complete description should comprise a simple rock name, qualified by selected descriptive terms f o r s t r e n g t h , colour, t e x t u r e o r s t r u c t u r e , g r a i n size, s t a t e of weathering and alteration, discontinuities and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s appropriate. Geological classification of r o c k s i s necessary t o i n t e r p r e t t h e geological s t r u c t u r e of a n a r e a , and t o establish good geological correlation between boreholes; i t can also be important when rock i s r e q u i r e d f o r construction purposes. for example a s building stone, c o n c r e t e a g g r e g a t e o r roadstone. A s with o t h e r geological classifications, t h e HKGS rock classification scheme does not include engineering properties of rock. In practice, however. engineering properties a r e often closely related t o geological characteristics, a n d e n g i n e e r s with local experience may i n t e r p r e t t h e HKGS rock classification t o some extent in terms of likely engineering characteristics. This i s considered f u r t h e r in Section 2.3.5. In t h e following sections, "material characteristics" r e f e r s to essentially uniform pieces of rock and drillcore; discontinuities a n d o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s will not normally b e considered in t h e material description unless t h e y occur a s an i n t r i n s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c with a spacing of less t h a n about 200 mm (e.g. slatey cleavage). This i s t h e scale a t which detailed description a n d logging of samples, and most engineering t e s t s , a r e u n d e r t a k e n . "Mass characteristics" r e f e r s t o l a r g e r volumes of rock t h a t incorporate t h e usual s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s ; t h e y can be fully appreciated only t h r o u g h careful field description. This is t h e scale which i s usually most r e l e v a n t t o engineering design and construction. Mass engineering properties a r e generally much more difficult t o determine t h a n material properties, because of t h e g r e a t e r influence of s t r u c t u r a l defects a n d t h e i r r e g u l a r distribution of different component materials within t h e mass. In most Hong Kong r o c k s , t h e presence of discontinuities a n d t h e effects of weathering will have a g r e a t influence on engineering behaviour. Hence, t h e descriptive methods recommended in t h i s c h a p t e r place emphasis on s u c h features. In a rock description, t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should preferably b e given in t h e following o r d e r ( b a s e d on Hawkins. 1984) : (a) s t r e n g t h (material),
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(b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
colour (material), t e x t u r e and f a b r i c (material); s t r u c t u r e (mass), s t a t e of weathering and alteration (material a n d mass), rock name (in capitals, e.g. GRANITE), including g r a i n size (material), discontinuities (mass), a n d additional geological information.
In t h e following sections, each of t h e characteristics in t h i s l i s t i s discussed in detail f o r both rock material and rock mass, a s appropriate. The scope of t h i s scheme i s similar t o t h e schemes recommended by BSI (1981), Geological Society (1972, 1977) a n d IAEG (1981). The differences i n t h e p r e s e n t scheme a r e ones of detail, mainly with r e s p e c t t o t h e description of t h e weathered s t a t e of t h e rock material and rock mass, a n d an expansion of t h e description of discontinuities a n d o t h e r a s p e c t s of rock mass s t r u c t u r e . I n addition t o description, in some circumstances i t may be useful t o make an overall classification of rock masses f o r engineering p u r p o s e s . Guidance on rock mass classification i s given in Chapter 4. 2.3 2.3.1 DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MATERIALS Strength
A recommended scale of s t r e n g t h , based on uniaxial compressive s t r e n g t h t e s t i n g (UCS), i s given in Table 2. This scale i s similar t o t h a t used in BSI (1981). b u t has been extended a t t h e weaker e n d in o r d e r t o cover t h e extremely weak decomposed rock materials t h a t a r e commonly encountered in Hong Kong. Simple field identification t e s t s have also been added s o t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h terms may b e estimated p r i o r t o a n y laboratory t e s t i n g ; t h e s e a r e based on t h e classifications given by t h e Geological Society (1977) a n d Miller et a1 (1986).
The s t r e n g t h of rock material determined i n t h e uniaxial compression t e s t i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e moisture c o n t e n t of t h e specimen, anisotropy a n d t h e t e s t p r o c e d u r e adopted. A review of compressive s t r e n g t h t e s t practice in Hong Kong has been made b y Gamon & Szeto (1984). The point load t e s t (PLS) is a useful index t e s t f o r estimating t h e compressive s t r e n g t h of moderately weak t o extremely s t r o n g r o c k s (ISRM, 1985). Approximate PLS values f o r t h e granitic a n d volcanic r o c k s in Hong Kong a r e included in Table 2. These values a r e derived b y applying a correlation factor of 24 t o UCS values. They a r e based on t h e work r e p o r t e d b y Lumb (1983) a n d Gamon (1984). a n d on a review of existing l i t e r a t u r e f o r isotropic igneous a n d volcanic r o c k s c a r r i e d o u t within t h e Geotechnical Control Office. The correlation f a c t o r of 24 i s generally l e s s reliable f o r r o c k s a t t h e weaker e n d of t h e PLS t e s t scale.
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2.3.2
colour
Colour may b e e x p r e s s e d quantitatively in terms of t h r e e parameters : 'hue', 'chroma' a n d 'value' (Munsell, 1941). 'Hue' i s a basic colour o r a mixture of basic colours, 'chroma' i s t h e brilliance o r intensity of t h e colour, and 'value' i s t h e lightness of t h e colour. The complete Munsell system contains a l a r g e number of examples of different hues. chromas and values, and is too detailed f o r general engineering use. A much simpler qualitative system i s recommended, a s s e t o u t in Table 3. In cases where t h e colour distribution i s non-uniform, an additional d e s c r i p t o r should b e u s e d in conjunction with t h e t h r e e basic terms (Table 3). For a more detailed description of colour, t h e Rock-Color Chart (Geological Society of America, 1963) i s recommended. This c h a r t is a simplification of t h e Munsell system. b u t i t contains many more h u e s , chromas a n d values t h a n Table 3. I t should b e noted t h a t wetting a rock sample decreases t h e value (i.e. makes t h e sample d a r k e r ) , b u t does not c h a n g e t h e hue o r chroma. Therefore, a good rock colour description should s t a t e w h e t h e r t h e sample was wet o r d r y when described. In written r e p o r t s , descriptions should ideally b e s u p p l e mented b y colour p h o t o g r a p h s , which should always include a s t a n d a r d colour c h a r t f o r r e f e r e n c e (e.g. Kodak Color Control P a t c h e s ) . 2.3.3 Texture and Fabric
'Texture' i s a broad term t h a t r e f e r s t o t h e general physical a p p e a r a n c e of a rock. I t c o v e r s t h e geometric a s p e c t s , s u c h a s size a n d s h a p e of t h e component g r a i n s o r c r y s t a l s , and t h e relationships between t h e s e a s p e c t s (e.g. distribution of v a r i o u s grain sizes and crystallinity, o r t h e d e g r e e t o which c r y s t a l s have developed in t h e rock). The t e r m i s usually applied t o t h e small-scale f e a t u r e s visible in hand specimens. If t h e rock i s composed of v e r y small g r a i n s , t h e description of t e x t u r e may not be possible without t h e u s e of a hand l e n s o r a microscopic examination of a t h i n slice of t h e rock. The term ' s t r u c t u r e ' i s used for t h e l a r g e r - s c a l e physical f e a t u r e s of a rock a n d i s considered in Section 2.4.2. However, terms describing s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s with a spacing of less t h a n a b o u t 200 mm may also b e applicable t o rock material descriptions. The most common t e x t u r a l terms applicable t o Hong Kong r o c k s a r e illustrated in Plate 1 a n d a r e defined in t h e Glossary. The u s e of t h e s e terms i s generally r e s t r i c t e d to t h e crystalline igneous a n d non-foliated metamorphic r o c k s (Table 5; s e e also Appendix A.2.5), t h e g r a i n s o r c r y s t a l s of which have usually formed in close mutual association (e.g. d u r i n g solidification of an igneous rock from a magma). The main a s p e c t s of rock t e x t u r e illustrated b y Plate 1 a r e relative grain size (e.g. e q u i g r a n u l a r , megacrystic) a n d crystallinity. Some methods of textural description, e.g. IAEG (1981), also cover absolute g r a i n size, o r t h e a v e r a g e dimension of t h e mineral o r rock fragments which make u p t h e rock. However, i t i s common practice in Hong Kong t o link g r a i n size terms directly t o t h e rock name. Therefore, grain size i s considered in Section 2.3.5. Grain s h a p e is a n o t h e r a s p e c t sometimes t a k e n into account in t h e description of sedimentary rock t e x t u r e s , b u t s h a p e terms a r e more commonly used in soil descriptions when individual i n t a c t g r a i n s can b e easily s e p a r a t e d ( s e e Section 3.3.3).
'Fabric' r e f e r s specifically to t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e constituent g r a i n s o r c r y s t a l s in a rock. P r e f e r r e d orientation of t h e s e c o n s t i t u e n t s is often t h e most noticeable a s p e c t of t h e rock fabric. In igneous a n d o t h e r crystalline rocks, t h e f a b r i c i s t h e p a t t e r n produced by t h e v a r i o u s s h a p e s a n d orientations of t h e crystalline a n d noncrystalline p a r t s of t h e rock. I t is d e p e n d e n t on t h e relative sizes and s h a p e s of t h e s e p a r t s a n d t h e i r positions with r e s p e c t t o one a n o t h e r a n d t o t h e groundmass, where p r e s e n t . In sedimentary r o c k s , p r e f e r r e d orientation, where p r e s e n t , of t h e individual g r a i n s a n d t h e i r position in relation t o a n y cementing material a r e usually t h e most important a s p e c t s of t h e fabric. Fabrics in fine s a n d s t o n e s a n d mudstones c a n n o t be described satisfactorily without t h e u s e of a hand l e n s o r microscope. The orientation of g r a i n s and c r y s t a l s may b e described in qualitative terms o r , alternatively, may b e quantified b y measurement with a compassclinometer if t h e f a b r i c directions a r e clear t o t h e naked eye. For r o c k s insitu, f a b r i c orientations may b e s t a t e d e i t h e r directly a s a compass bearing a n d dip angle, o r indirectly in relation t o o t h e r p a r t s of t h e fabric, o r t o s t r u c t u r a l planes s u c h a s joints a n d bedding (e.g. elongate particles in a sedimentary rock would often b e described a s having a p r e f e r r e d orientation parallel t o t h e bedding planes). In recovered samples, f a b r i c orientations can only b e described indirectly, unless t h e configuration of t h e whole sample in t h e g r o u n d i s recorded accurately a t t h e time of sampling. 'Fabric' also includes a n y small discontinuities o r planes of separation t h r o u g h o r between g r a i n s o r crystals. These a r e commonly termed 'microf r a c t u r e s ' and may b e caused by mechanical weathering, tectonic activity, stress-relief o r o t h e r factors. Microfractures can have a significant effect on engineering properties a n d a r e particularly common f e a t u r e s in t h e c o a r s e r grained granitic rocks. No specific terms a r e recommended for t h e description of microfractures, b u t a s a general r u l e t h e i r i n t e n s i t y , spacing, continuity a n d a n y p r e f e r r e d orientation should b e noted. Plate 2 shows f o u r examples of microfractures, f o r which a p p r o p r i a t e descriptions would b e a s follows : Plate 2A. Randomly-oriented microfractures intersecting a n iron-stained joint s u r f a c e in highly decomposed, coarse-grained GRANITE. Spacing variable. 2-20 mm. Some have open a p e r t u r e s u p t o 1 mm wide. Rock easily crumbled t o fine g r a v e l and finer-sized fragments due. t o microfracturing. Plate 2B. Continuous s u b v e r t i c a l microfractures parallel t o tension c r a c k s in s a n d y SILT (Residual Soil). Spacing 5-20 mm. Soil loose a n d v e r y friable a s a r e s u l t of microfracturing. Plate 2C. Continuous c u r v e d rnicrofractures following t h e b o u n d a r y s h a p e of a l a r g e corestone of moderately decomposed, medium-grained GRANITE. Spacing 5-10 mm. Effect of microfractures i s t o form thin c u r v e d shells of rock. Plate 2D. I n t e n s e random microfracturing between a n d t h r o u g h q u a r t z a n d f e l d s p a r g r a i n s in slightly decomposed, medium-grained GRANITE. Spacing generally < 1 mm.
The description o f t e x t u r e and fabric should include any other notable features o f t h e small-scale physical appearance o f t h e rock. For example, i n certain volcanic lavas, small pores or voids (termed 'vesicles') are sometimes visible. The size, shape, spacing and orientation o f voids should be described where appropriate. Texture and fabric are probably t h e most d i f f i c u l t aspects o f a rock description for t h e non-specialist. I t i s not easy t o give simple precise guidance on t h e use o f appropriate terms. I f problems are encountered, t h e engineer should consult a geologist for assistance.
2.3.4
Weathering and Alteration
( 1 ) General Aspects o f Weathering. Weathering has a v e r y significant e f f e c t on t h e engineering properties o f rock. Most engineering projects in Hong Kong encounter substantial thicknesses o f weathered rock, which may v a r y significantly i n degree o f weathering over relatively short distances. T h e r e f o r e , careful description and assessment o f t h e state o f weathering o f t h e rock material is o f particular importance.
The two main components o f weathering are mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition. Generally, both mechanical and chemical e f f e c t s act together and are interdependent, b u t , depending on t h e past and present climatic and hydrological regimes. one or t h e other o f t h e s e aspects may be dominant. Mechanical weathering or disintegration is caused b y physical processes such as f r o s t action, absorption and release o f water, and changes i n temperature and s t r e s s at or near t h e exposed rock surface. I t results i n t h e opening o f discontinuities, t h e formation o f new discontinuities b y rock fracture, t h e opening o f grain boundaries, and t h e fracture or cleavage o f individual mineral grains. Disintegration o f rock material can also be caused or speeded up b y biological factors such as t r e e root growth in joints. Decomposition or chemical weathering is t h e process b y which chemical reactions, such as hydration, oxidation, ion exchange and solution, t r a n s f o r m rocks and minerals into new chemical combinations t h a t are stable under prevailing environmental conditions. Decomposition causes some silicate minerals such as feldspars t o change t o clay minerals, b u t o t h e r s , notably quartz, resist t h i s action and may s u r v i v e largely unchanged. Solution is a particularly important aspect o f chemical weathering in carbonate rocks such as limestones. Chemical weathering also results in discolouration o f t h e rock when compared with i t s colour i n t h e f r e s h ( u n w e a t h e r e d ) state. Decomposition is t h e dominant aspect o f weathering in Hong Kong rocks. Rock material weathering in Hong Kong rarely produces a homogeneous weathered rock mass where all rock material is weathered t o t h e same degree, or even a simple weathered profile where t h e degree o f weathering decreases progressively with depth. Complex variation o f weathering throughout t h e rock mass is more o f t e n t h e rule. This r e f l e c t s such variable factors as orientation and spacing o f discontinuities in t h e rock. groundwater flow paths and t h e removal o f overlying weathered material b y erosion. To appreciate fully t h e pattern o f weathering in a rock mass, i t is necessary t o make careful observations o f t h e degree o f material weathering i n natural exposures. excavations, borehole samples and trial pits.
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Weathering i s a g r a d u a l , continuous process. ~t i s difficult to describe i t s effect quantitatively a s a precise d e g r e e of c h a n g e from an original unweathered condition. For general descriptive p u r p o s e s , i t i s convenient to classify t h e weathering s e q u e n c e into a number of easily recognizable g r a d e s . In view of t h e dominance of chemical decomposition in Hong Kong r o c k s , material weathering g r a d e s have been traditionally classified using t h e term 'decomposed' r a t h e r t h a n t h e more general term 'weathered'. This practice is retained here. The term 'weathered' i s used in t h e rock mass weathering classification in Section 2.4.4. (2) Classification of Decom~osition Grades. Recommendations f o r t h e description of decomposition g r a d e s of rock material a r e given in Table 4. The left-hand side of t h e table gives a summary of t h e general characteristics t h a t can be used t o a s s e s s decomposition g r a d e in most Hong Kong rocks. This i s generally applicable t o all t h e igneous a n d pyroclastic r o c k s , b u t i t can also b e used f o r o t h e r r o c k s which have s t r e n g t h s in t h e f r e s h condition similar t o t h o s e of t h e g r a n i t e s a n d t u f f s , i.e. in t h e s t r o n g t o extremely s t r o n g r a n g e in Table 2 (Lumb. 1983). However. not all t h e g e n e r a l characteristics listed in Table 4 a r e applicable to some of t h e weaker sedimentary a n d metamorphic rocks. I t may b e more convenient t o u s e a d i f f e r e n t classification for t h e s e materials (e.g. Beggs & Tonks, 1985, used f o u r classes f o r description of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in t h e Yuen Long a r e a ) . If a d i f f e r e n t number of classes is u s e d , a n d t h e class boundaries cannot b e e q u a t e d conveniently with a n y of t h o s e in Table 4, i t is recommended t h a t alternative t e r m s and symbols a r e adopted and defined clearly to avoid confusion. The g r a d e classification i s of v e r y limited u s e f o r description of c a r b o n a t e r o c k s s u c h a s limestone and marble. Since p u r e carbonate material dissolves completely in contact with weakly acidic g r o u n d w a t e r , t h e r e is no g r a d u a l transition from f r e s h rock t o residual soil. However, most c a r b o n a t e r o c k s contain a small percentage of non-soluble impurities (e.g. q u a r t z , iron oxides, clay minerals) which can accumulate in t h e form of residual d e b r i s a s t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c a r b o n a t e material i s removed in solution. The only significant c a r b o n a t e rock in Hong Kong i s t h e marble of t h e Yuen Long Formation, which generally has a v e r y low p e r c e n t a g e of impurities (Pascall. 1987: Langford e t al. 1988). Hence t h e amount of residual d e b r i s produced by weathering of t h e marble itself is usually negligible, and i s of little importance for engineering. I t should b e noted t h a t t h i s d e b r i s should not b e classified a s a t r u e insitu r e s i d u a l soil since t h e solution of t h e carbonate material r e s u l t s in a complete collapse of t h e original rock fabric. The general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shown in t h e left-hand s i d e of Table 4 a r e based on observation o r simple t e s t s t h a t r e q u i r e a minimum of field o r laboratory equipment (e.g. u s e of a geological hammer, breakage of lumps b y hand, visual evidence of discolouration). A water s u p p l y a n d small container a r e needed t o c a r r y o u t t h e slake t e s t , which is used t o distinguish between completely a n d highly decomposed rock. The r e s u l t s of t h e slake t e s t may be affected b y differences in t h e initial sample moisture content. Generally, i t i s a fairly reliable indicator when u s e d in partly s a t u r a t e d soils, b u t i t i s difficult t o apply in fully s a t u r a t e d soils sampled from below t h e water table (Howat. 1986). Discolouration may not b e an easy indicator t o use, because i t relies on knowledge of t h e colour of t h e f r e s h r o c k , which is often not exposed. Generally, i t i s a good indicator of t h e differences between f r e s h , slightly, moderately and highly decomposed rock. Slightly decomposed material can usually b e distinguished from f r e s h rock by staining in t h e vicinity of rock
joints (often a brown staining caused by t h e formation of iron oxides). Moderately decomposed rock i s usually stained t h r o u g h o u t , while highly and completely decomposed rock commonly show a complete colour c h a n g e when compared with t h e f r e s h rock. Very few of t h e general characteristics in Table 4 a r e definitive f o r assessing t h e decomposition g r a d e s . I t is recommended t h a t a number of different t e s t s and observations should b e c a r r i e d o u t w h e r e v e r possible before t h e assignment of t h e decomposition g r a d e . The remaining columns of Table 4 give typical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e f o u r most common rock t y p e s in Hong Kong. These can be used in addition to t h e general indicators discussed above, providing t h e rock t y p e can be identified. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s include typical sequences of colour c h a n g e s . decomposition of c e r t a i n minerals, a n d t h e r e s u l t s of o t h e r simple s t r e n g t h index t e s t s .
A t t h e less decomposed end of t h e scale, t h e Schmidt hammer i s a rapid a n d simple field t e s t . However, a s discussed in Geoguide 2 (GCO, 1987a), c a r e i s r e q u i r e d when using t h e hammer on weak, c r a c k e d o r f i s s u r e d rocks, o r on a n y r o u g h rock s u r f a c e . Notes on t h e u s e of t h e hammer a r e given in Table 4. A t t h e more decomposed e n d of t h e scale, a s t a n d a r d hand penetrometer can be used to give a n approximate indication of undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h (Table 4 ) . A s with t h e slake t e s t , t h e r e s u l t s may be affected by c h a n g e s in t h e sample moisture content, b u t i t i s generally reliable f o r distinguishing between highly a n d completely decomposed rock in granitic materials. In t h e medium- and c o a r s e - g r a i n e d igneous r o c k s , a n o t h e r useful t e s t i s t o a s s e s s t h e d e g r e e of alteration of t h e f e l d s p a r g r a i n s by probing with a knife o r pin, o r b y crumbling between t h e f i n g e r s . Different t y p e s of f e l d s p a r s may decompose a t different rates: t h e e n g i n e e r should consult a geologist for a s s i s t a n c e in identification a n d description where appropriate.
The six decomposition g r a d e s in t h e most common Hong Kong r o c k s a r e illustrated in Plate 3. In general, decomposition effects a r e most obvious in t h e igneous and highly metamorphosed r o c k s , particularly coarse-grained t y p e s which possess l a r g e decomposable minerals. In sedimentary a n d less highly metamorphosed r o c k s , t h e effect of decomposition on c h a n g e s in colour a n d mechanical p r o p e r t i e s i s l e s s marked; i t may not b e e a s y to assign decomposition g r a d e s in t h e s e rocks. Assessment of decomposition g r a d e using Table 4 i s a d e q u a t e f o r general descriptions, b u t subdivision of t h e g r a d e s may b e justified if a more detailed description is r e q u i r e d ; for example when making detailed correlations between laboratory t e s t r e s u l t s f o r engineering design a n d d e g r e e of decomposition. For t h i s t y p e of description, more detailed observations of t h e rock t e x t u r e / f a b r i c should b e made and individual index t e s t r e s u l t s on specific samples should be quoted. Other, more precise, laboratory and field index t e s t s should also b e considered (e.g. quick absorption, density, slake durability and point load s t r e n g t h t e s t s in g r a d e s 1-111 materials; SPT, d r y d e n s i t y a n d particle size distribution t e s t s in g r a d e s IV - VI). F u r t h e r guidance on rock and soil index t e s t s is given by Brown (1981) a n d BSI (1975) respectively. A review of t h e u s e of index t e s t s for engineering assessment of weathered r o c k s has been made b y Martin (1986). The most detailed method of describing d e g r e e of decomposition i s to u s e a wholly quantitative index. A n example i s t h e X , index f o r g r a n i t e proposed by Lumb (1962), which is based on a comparison of t h e weight ratios
of q u a r t z t o f e l d s p a r in t h e f r e s h and decomposed rock. A number of o t h e r quantitative indices have also been defined on t h e basis of mineralogical examination ( I r f a n & Dearman. 1978). However, t h e calculation of t h e s e various indices involves t h e u s e of detailed petrographical analysis, which i s generally i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r routine descriptions. The distinction between completely decomposed r o c k s and residual soils (i.e. g r a d e s V and VI in Table 4 ) i s important f o r full description of t h e s e materials. Grade VI residual soils have lost all evidence of t h e original rock t e x t u r e . Therefore, a full description of t h e s e materials can only be made in soil terms ( s e e Chapter 3 ) . Since g r a d e V materials retain t h e original rock t e x t u r e , i t is recommended t h a t complete descriptions should be made in rock t e r m s ( s e e Sections 2.3.1 t o 2.3.6), supplemented where necessary b y additional soil terms t o cover compactness/consistency and particle size distribution applicable t o t h e remoulded condition. F u r t h e r guidance is given in Section 3.5. 13) State of Disintegration. The assessment of decomposition g r a d e should b e supplemented by description of t h e s t a t e of disintegration of t h e rock material. This can b e important in terms of t h e likely engineering behaviour of t h e rock. For example, an intensely d i s i n t e g r a t e d , friable, moderately decomposed rock may well show t h e engineering properties t o b e expected of highly o r completely decomposed material. I t should be noted t h a t small-scale cracking and f r a c t u r i n g of rock can b e caused by f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n disintegration (mechanical weathering), s e e f o r example Plates 28 a n d 2D. In many r o c k s , i t i s not e a s y t o s e p a r a t e t h e effects of t h e different factors. If t h e r e i s d o u b t on t h e origin of c r a c k s and microfractures, t h e y may be described u n d e r t h e general non-genetic heading of 'rock fabric' ( s e e Section 2.3.3). A f u r t h e r difficulty with t h e description of disintegration i s t h a t , unlike decomposition, often i t i s not possible t o distinguish a p r o g r e s s i v e s e q u e n c e of increasing disintegration o v e r t h e complete material weathering scale. Once clay minerals s t a r t t o form in t h e weathering process, c r a c k s can b e closed o r 'healed' a s t h e original rock f a b r i c begins t o be d e s t r o y e d , leading to an a p p a r e n t reduction in t h e d e g r e e of disintegration with increasing weathering.
(4) State of Alteration. Rocks may be altered by circulation of hot g a s e s a n d fluids associated with l a t e r s t a g e intrusion. Common alteration terms a r e kaolinized a n d mineralized ( s e e Glossary). The terms used f o r description of decomposition g r a d e s of rock material may be used where a p p r o p r i a t e (e.g. a kaolin deposit may be described a s completely decomposed), because in many c a s e s t h e effects of alteration a r e not easily distinguished from t h o s e b r o u g h t a b o u t b y decomposition. In Hong Kong r o c k s , alteration i s often visible in t h e coarse-grained granitic rocks, particularly a r o u n d q u a r t z veins. The most common e f f e c t s a r e f e l d s p a r s a l t e r e d t o s o f t white kaolin in relatively undecomposed material, and a n overall reduction in t h e material grain size. Also, t h e q u a r t z content may a p p e a r lower t h a n in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g unaltered material, d u e t o solution of original q u a r t z by hydrothermal activity.
2.3.5
Rock Name (Including Grain Size)
Recommended rock names a r e given in Table 5. They should be written in capital l e t t e r s . This table follows t h e system of rock classification a n d nomenclature used by t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y , b u t i t is intended only a s a general guide f o r engineers. Geological t r a i n i n g is r e q u i r e d f o r satisfactory identification of rocks. The e n g i n e e r need n o t b e overly
concerned about t h e large number of igneous rock t y p e s shown in Table 5, o r t h e a p p a r e n t complexity of t h e i r classification. Outcrops of most of t h e basic a n d intermediate t y p e s a r e only found in small a r e a s of Hong Kong. Granite, granodiorite and rhyolite a r e t h e most common igneous r o c k s in t h e Territory. Grain size terms, which r e f e r to t h e a v e r a g e dimension of t h e mineral o r rock fragments comprising t h e rock, a r e included in Table 5, e i t h e r implicitly in t h e rock name o r a s a specific qualifying term. I t should b e noted t h a t t h e grain size d e s c r i p t o r s f o r g r a n i t e , a s h tuff a n d superficial deposits (i.e. coarse, medium, fine) have different limiting dimensions. For t h i s reason, i t may not b e possible to u s e t h e c o r r e c t term f o r g r a i n size unless t h e rock t y p e can be identified accurately. In cases where t h e rock name i s not known, i t i s recommended t h a t t h e grain size should be written quantitatively a s p a r t of t h e description, t o g e t h e r with an a p p r o p r i a t e textural term (e.g. 'megacrystic rock with l a r g e g r a i n s 10 t o 25 mm s e t in a groundmass of smaller g r a i n s 2 t o 4 mm'). S t r a n g e (1984) has given a clear explanation of t h e system of textural and grain size t e r m s used f o r t h e g r a n i t e s in Hong Kong. The smallest grain size visible t o t h e naked e y e is about 0.06 mm. Identification of g r a i n s smaller t h a n t h i s r e q u i r e s t h e u s e of a hand lens o r a microscope. With experience, Table 5 can b e i n t e r p r e t e d to some e x t e n t in t e r m s of broad engineering characteristics. For example, a v e r a g e joint spacing in t h e igneous r o c k s t e n d s t o increase with increasing grain size; compressive s t r e n g t h of f r e s h igneous a n d pyroclastic r o c k s t e n d s t o d e c r e a s e with increasing grain size. However, i t i s emphasised t h a t Table 5 c a n n o t be used for detailed i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of engineering characteristics. Complete engineering descriptions of r o c k s should include information on t h e o t h e r items covered elsewhere in t h i s c h a p t e r , a s well a s t h e rock name. If t h e r e i s d o u b t about t h e c o r r e c t rock name, this may b e indicated in t h e description by u s e of a suitable qualifying term (e.g. 'probably') o r a question mark. F u r t h e r guidance and explanation of t h e HKGS system of rock naming a n d classification i s given in Appendix A. 2.3.6 Additional Information
Any additional f e a t u r e s which could b e of importance in assessing t h e n a t u r e and engineering properties of t h e material should b e described a f t e r t h e rock name. I t i s recommended t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of a n y quantitative index t e s t s (e.g. point load s t r e n g t h , Schmidt hammer r e b o u n d ) should be recorded a t t h i s point, e v e n if t h e y have been i n t e r p r e t e d in defining o t h e r descriptive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s u c h a s s t r e n g t h o r s t a t e of weathering. These r e s u l t s may b e useful f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o t h e r t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t on specific samples. 2.3.7 Examples
The following examples of rock material descriptions a r e given f o r guidance in t h e u s e of a p p r o p r i a t e descriptive terms. Samples corresponding t o t h e s e descriptions a r e illustrated in Plate 4.
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Plate 4A. (Igneous Rock). Very s t r o n g , d r y , brownish g r e y s p o t t e d with single black biotite c r y s t a l s a n d occasional c l u s t e r s of small biotite flakes, inequigranular, slightly decomposed, coarse-grained GRANITE. Point load s t r e n g t h 6.5 MPa. N Schmidt hammer rebound value 55 (measured on site). Plate 4B. (Pyroclastic Rock). Weak, d r y , l i g h t yellowish brown to pinkish brown, highly decomposed, coarse a s h T U F F , with some small ( < 100 mm2) isolated a r e a s of randomly-oriented microfractures, a v e r a g e spacing < 2 mm, located close t o t h e e d g e s of some of t h e l a r g e r i n t a c t mineral grains. Plate 4 C . (Metamorphic Rock). Moderately weak, d r y , l i g h t g r e y mottled and s t r e a k e d with orangish brown, very narrowly cleaved, moderately decomposed, PHYLLITE. Prominent orangish o r r e d d i s h brown mineral coating (iron oxides?) visible on joint s u r f a c e in p a r t of sample. Exposed small a r e a s of cleavage planes a r e undulating a n d shiny. Plate 4 D . (Sedimentary Rock). Moderately s t r o n g , d r y , l i g h t brownish g r e y s t r i p e d with d a r k brown and black, thinly-laminated. fine SANDSTONE a n d MUDSTONE. Mudstone forms t h e d a r k e r laminations: t h e s e a r e 0.12 mm in t h i c k n e s s , mostly continuous b u t occasionally impersistent with convoluted o r branching e n d s . Rock not significantly affected by weathering, i.e. rock colour a n d s t r e n g t h not significantly different from f r e s h material (from field evidence). 2.4 2.4.1 DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASSES General
Rock masses should b e described by f i r s t considering t h e material characteristics of t h e rock, t h e n adding information about mass-scale characteristics. With r e f e r e n c e to t h e list in Section 2.2, a mass description would normally include a statement of s t r e n g t h , colour, s t r u c t u r e , s t a t e of mass weathering a n d alteration, rock name, discontinuities and additional geological information. More detailed information about t h e t e x t u r e / f a b r i c a n d s t a t e of weathering/alteration of different materials within t h e mass can b e a d d e d if necessary, b u t t h i s may not b e r e q u i r e d , depending on t h e n a t u r e of t h e p r o j e c t and t h e s t a g e a t which t h e descriptive information is used ( s e e Section 1.2.4). Initially, t h e mass should b e divided into suitable descriptive units. This often p r e s e n t s t h e b i g g e s t problem f o r engineering assessment. I t i s not possible t o give specific recommendations, a s t h e requirements may differ from one project t o a n o t h e r , b u t t h e general aim should b e t o divide t h e mass into geotechnical u n i t s , each of which has reasonably uniform characteristics with r e g a r d to overall engineering behaviour. In Hong Kong r o c k s , variations in rock t y p e , d e g r e e / e x t e n t of weathering and n a t u r e / e x t e n t of discontinuities a r e generally t h e most important characteristics t o consider in t h e selection of geotechnical unit boundaries.
In a relatively homogeneous rock mass in a single rock t y p e , t h e r e may b e no need f o r t h i s subdivision and t h e description of mass a s p e c t s should be quite s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . Conversely, in a complex exposure comprising two o r more rock t y p e s , each of which may v a r y significantly with r e g a r d t o weathering and discontinuities, t h e initial subdivision of t h e mass will b e of g r e a t importance f o r good description. In particular, i n t e r b e d d e d sedimentary a n d mixed pyroclastic/sedirnentary rock s e q u e n c e s often p r e s e n t problems for mass description. For example, t h e presence of one rock which i s particularly susceptible to weathering may affect t h e weathering of a d j a c e n t r o c k s , a n d t h e overall engineering properties of t h e i n t e r b e d d e d rock mass may depend more on t h e one rock t y p e t h a n t h e o t h e r s . Granitic r o c k s , and thick accumulations of single t y p e s of pyroclastic rock ( t u f f ) , a r e usually easier to subdivide, with variation in weathering often being t h e most important aspect. Once t h e rock mass has been divided into a p p r o p r i a t e geotechnical u n i t s , mass characteristics should b e a s s e s s e d in detail and combined with material c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( a s noted above) t o form t h e complete mass description f o r each unit. The information on mass characteristics should include : (a) (b) description of geological s t r u c t u r e ( s e e Section 2.4.2), t h e n a t u r e , orientation, spacing, persistence, r o u g h n e s s , a p e r t u r e , infilling a n d s e e p a g e a s p e c t s of discontinuities ( s e e Section 2.4.3), and
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(c)
details of t h e mass weathering profile ( s e e Section 2.4.4).
These t h r e e a s p e c t s may have t o b e considered separately f o r each rock t y p e if a rock mass unit contains more t h a n one rock type. Reference may also need t o be made t o major geological s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s faults a n d folds a n d different t y p e s of igneous i n t r u s i o n s ( s e e Appendix A a n d Bennett. 1984b. for f u r t h e r information). The term ' s t r u c t u r e ' i s commonly used in different ways a n d r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r explanation. In t h e b r o a d e s t geological s e n s e , s t r u c t u r e includes two main g r o u p s of f e a t u r e s , i.e. f r a c t u r e s ( o r discontinuities), and folds ( s e e Appendix A . 7 ) . The size of t h e s e f e a t u r e s can v a r y widely, both in areal extent a n d cross-section. Large-scale a s p e c t s of regional rock s t r u c t u r e , s u c h a s major faults a n d folds, a r e often not r e l e v a n t a t t h e scale of an engineering site. The e n g i n e e r i s usually concerned more with t h e smallerscale s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s ; for example, individual joint systems, lineation and foliation. However, s u c h f e a t u r e s a r e ultimately related to regional s t r u c t u r e and cannot b e appreciated fully without some u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e regional structure. With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l i s t of descriptive items in Section 2.2, f e a t u r e s s u c h a s foliation and lineation a r e included u n d e r t h e item ' s t r u c t u r e ' in t h e following section, whilst 'discontinuities' a r e considered separately in Section 2.4.3. Thus. ' s t r u c t u r e ' in Section 2.4.2 i s used in a narrow sense. f o r w a n t of a suitable alternative heading. In t h e broad s e n s e , s t r u c t u r e includes discontinuities, a s noted above. Another term in fairly common u s e by engineering geologists i s ' s t r u c t u r a l domain' ( s e e Glossary). This term should only b e applied t o c h a n g e s in t h e discontinuity p a t t e r n in t h e rock mass, and not t o c h a n g e s in rock t y p e o r weathering. I t would not be c o r r e c t t o u s e t h e term f o r t h e geotechnical units c r e a t e d by subdividing a rock mass f o r description a s
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discussed above, unless t h i s subdivision were made solely on t h e basis of discontinuity variation.
2.4.2
Structure
The s t r u c t u r e of t h e rock mass i s concerned with t h e larger-scale i n t e r relationship of t e x t u r a l f e a t u r e s ( s e e Section 2.3.3). Common terms used t o d e s c r i b e sedimentary r o c k s include 'bedded', 'laminated' o r 'massive'; igneous a n d pyroclastic r o c k s may b e 'massive' o r 'flow-banded'; metamorphic r o c k s may b e 'foliated'. 'banded' o r 'cleaved'. 'Eutaxitic' is a term often applied t o welded t u f f s containing flattened lenses of pumice o r o t h e r material which give t h e rock a distinctive s t r e a k e d appearance. These terms a r e defined in t h e Glossary and a r e illustrated in Plate 5. Additional information on bedding i s given in Section 3.4.1. Recommended d e s c r i p t i v e terms f o r t h e s p a c i n g of p l a n a r s t r u c t u r e s a r e given in Table 6. For sedimentary r o c k s , s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s bedding may be described a s 'thick beds' o r 'thickly-bedded'; f o r example, a 'thickly-bedded sandstone'. For igneous a n d metamorphic r o c k s , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e descriptive terms f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e should b e used; f o r example. 'medium foliated schist', ' v e r y narrowly cleaved phyllite', ' v e r y thickly flow-banded rhyolite'. There is some overlap between textural characteristics of rock materials a n d s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of rock masses. S t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s with a spacing of less t h a n a b o u t 200 mm may also b e applicable to t h e description of rock material ( s e e Section 2.3.3).
2.4.3
Discontinuities
(1) Nature a n d Descriptive Method. A discontinuity i s a f r a c t u r e o r plane of weakness in t h e rock mass across which t h e rock material i s s t r u c t u r a l l y discontinuous a n d has zero, o r a relatively low, tensile s t r e n g t h . 'Discontinuity' i s a collective t e r m and includes joints, f i s s u r e s , f a u l t s , s h e a r planes, cleavages, schistocity, bedding planes a n d o t h e r planes of weakness. I t i s important t h a t discontinuities a r e described carefully a n d precisely, because t h e y control t h e engineering behaviour of most rock masses.
Complete descriptions of discontinuities should include information on t h e i r location and orientation, spacing, persistence, r o u g h n e s s , a p e r t u r e , infilling a n d s e e p a g e characteristics. This list i s based on t h e recommendations given by ISRM (1978). which should b e consulted f o r more detailed information on all t h e s e a s p e c t s . Some discontinuities, s u c h a s tectonic joints, usually o c c u r in more t h a n one direction in a rock mass and often form a number of distinct s e t s . A general description of a discontinuity s e t can often b e made by combining c h a r a c t e r i s t i c values, o r small r a n g e s of values, for each of t h e a s p e c t s in t h e above list. Alternatively, s e p a r a t e full description of individual discontinuities may b e r e q u i r e d if t h e y a r e of particular importance t o t h e engineering project. Other t y p e s of discontinuity, s u c h a s faults, t e n d t o occur a s u n i q u e f e a t u r e s a n d should b e described individually if t h e y a r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e project. Where possible, i t i s desirable t o differentiate between t h e origins of t h e various t y p e s of discontinuity, because t h e i r engineering properties may b e related t o t h e i r genesis (e.g. discontinuities formed by tensile forces, s u c h a s stress-relief joints, may behave differently t o discontinuities formed by s h e a r ,
s u c h a s slip s u r f a c e s and faults). General information on various t y p e s of discontinuity in Hong Kong has been given b y B u r n e t t & Lai (1984). Gamon & Finn (1984a) and Nau (1984). There a r e two levels a t which a discontinuity s u r v e y may b e c a r r i e d o u t , depending on t h e amount of detail r e q u i r e d . I n a s u b j e c t i v e (biased) s u r v e y , only t h o s e discontinuities t h a t a p p e a r to b e important t o t h e p r o j e c t a r e described. In a n objective (random) s u r v e y , all discontinuities t h a t i n t e r s e c t a fixed line, o r a r e located within a demarcated a r e a of t h e rock face, a r e described. The main disadvantage with t h e objective approach i s t h a t i t i s time-consuming a n d tedious. S u b s e q u e n t d a t a analysis may r e q u i r e some form of automatic d a t a processing t o make t h e analysis efficient. However, if t h e r e is a n y d o u b t about t h e n a t u r e of t h e discontinuity p a t t e r n , a n d i t s relation t o t h e proposed engineering works, an objective s u r v e y should b e c a r r i e d out. Borehole c o r e s provide essentially one-dimensional d a t a on discontinuities. These d a t a may b e seriously biased if joint s e t s a r e oriented s u c h t h a t unidirectional boreholes t e n d t o miss them (e.g. s u b - v e r t i c a l joints missed by vertical boreholes). These e r r o r s can be r e d u c e d by drilling in different directions ( e . g . inclined/horizontal holes) and b y checking regional joint p a t t e r n s before commencing g r o u n d investigation. Even if borehole d a t a a r e not seriously biased, c o r e s r a r e l y provide good information on p e r s i s t e n c e , infilling and s e e p a g e characteristics. Good field exposures a r e needed for full description of discontinuities. I t i s common practice t o supplement t h e description of discontinuities in rock c o r e with s e v e r a l quantitative indices relating t o t h e f r a c t u r e s t a t e of t h e rock mass ( s e e item ( 9 ) in t h i s section).
A useful aid f o r t h e systematic recording of discontinuity d a t a is a s t a n d a r d d a t a s h e e t . An example i s shown in F i g u r e 1.
( 2 ) Location a n d Orientation. I t is important t o r e c o r d t h e location of each individual discontinuity described. This is often s t a t e d a s relative position along a fixed datum line, o r g r o u n d co-ordinates plus elevation in a n exposure. Information should preferably b e recorded on a map o r plan.
The orientation of a discontinuity i s described by t h e dip direction, t h e compass bearing of t h e maximum inclination measured clockwise from t r u e n o r t h , and b y t h e dip, t h e maximum inclination of t h e discontinuity measured from horizontal. Dip directions and dips a r e normally measured with a compass and clinometer, and should b e expressed t o t h e n e a r e s t degree. In o r d e r t o differentiate clearly between dip direction and dip, t h e dip direction value should always b e given with t h r e e digits a n d t h e d i p with two digits (e.g. dip direction/dip 025/60). Orientation d a t a can b e obtained in v a r i o u s ways. The most common method is t o measure t h e dip direction a n d dip of discontinuities which i n t e r s e c t a line drawn across an exposed rock face. Data may also b e obtained from oriented rock c o r e o r by means of a downhole i n s t r u m e n t s u c h a s t h e impression packer ( G C O , 1987a). The f o u r main methods of p r e s e n t i n g orientation d a t a a r e by map symbol, p e r s p e c t i v e diagram, joint r o s e t t e a n d spherical projection. Map symbols a r e shown in Table 23. P e r s p e c t i v e diagrams a r e particularly helpful f o r u n d e r g r o u n d work, because t h e y can depict t h e relationship between t h e proposed engineering s t r u c t u r e and t h e rock mass s t r u c t u r e . Joint r o s e t t e s a n d
spherical projections are commonly used for t h e quantitative presentation and analysis o f orientation data. Detailed discussion o f all t h e s e methods is beyond t h e scope o f this Geoguide. The I S R M (1978) report should be referred t o for f u r t h e r guidance. A clear introduction t o t h e use o f spherical projections has been given b y Hoek & Bray (1981). Although stereographic projection analysis i s a popular and powerful technique, i t can easily be misused i f i t s limitations are not fully appreciated. (Brand e t al. 1983; Hencher. 1 9 8 5 ) . The project engineer should be aware o f this when making discontinuity descriptions. Wherever possible, a f u r t h e r inspection o f t h e rock exposure should be made a f t e r t h e analysis is complete t o check t h a t t h e results are valid.
( 3 ) Spacing. Recommended terms for t h e description o f discontinuity spacing are given i n Table 7 . These terms can be applied t o both rock core and rock face exposures. They may be used t o describe t h e spacing o f discontinuities in a single set or for t h e average spacing o f all discontinuities measured along a t r a v e r s e line.
The description o f discontinuity spacing can be supplemented b y reference t o t h e shape o f t h e rock blocks bounded b y t h e discontinuities. Common terms are 'blocky', 'tabular', 'columnar' and 'polyhedral'. These are defined i n t h e Glossary and are illustrated in Figure 2. The use o f such terms requires an understanding o f t h e distribution o f discontinuities i n three dimensions; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y cannot be used in t h e description o f drillcore.
(4) Persistence. 'Persistence' r e f e r s t o t h e areal extent or size o f a I t is one o f t h e most important items in discontinuity within a plane. discontinuity description; unfortunately, however, it is d i f f i c u l t t o quantify accurately because i t is rarely possible t o see t h e three-dimensional extent o f a discontinuity. For most practical purposes, persistence can only be assessed v e r y approximately b y measuring t h e discontinuity trace length on t h e surfaces o f rock exposures. A discontinuity set o f t e n t e n d s t o have a characteristic range o f persistence which d i f f e r s from that o f other sets within t h e same rock mass.
For t h e description o f individual discontinuities, i t i s recommended t h a t t h e measured maximum persistence dimension should always be used where possible. The description should also state whether t h e discontinuity extends outside t h e exposure, terminates against solid rock, or terminates against other discontinuities. In t h e case o f general descriptions o f d i f f e r e n t discontinuity s e t s , relative terms should be used. For example, i n a rock mass with t h r e e discontinuity s e t s , t h e most persistent set could be described as 'persistent', t h e intermediate set as 'sub-persistent' and t h e least persistent set as 'nonpersistent'.
( 5 ) Roughness. The 'roughness' o f a discontinuity is made u p o f two components : large-scale 'waviness' and small-scale 'unevenness' (Figure 3 ) . 'Waviness' r e f e r s t o undulations o f t h e surface o f t h e discontinuity over distances o f typically t e n s o f metres. 'Unevenness' r e f e r s t o t h e bumps, asperities and small ridges on t h e surface o f t h e discontinuity over distances o f typically one centimetre t o a few metres. Other general terms which are used quite commonly are 'first-order' roughness for waviness and 'secondorder' roughness for t h e smaller-scale superimposed unevenness.
Roughness may be measured quantitatively b y using linear profiling, a A clear compass and disc-clinometer or a photogrammetric method.
introduction t o t h e s e t h r e e methods has been given by ISRM (1978). The most commonly-used i s t h e compass and disc-clinometer, which involves measuring discontinuity dip direction a n d dip angles on a s e r i e s of circular plates of different diameter ( G C O , 1987a). The r e s u l t s a r e usually p r e s e n t e d a n d analysed stereographically. For general descriptive p u r p o s e s , waviness should be a s s e s s e d by estimating dimensions of wave length a n d wave amplitude ( F i g u r e 3 ) . These could b e single values for a single discontinuity o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c values for a discontinuity s e t . Unevenness should b e described using two terms, t h e f i r s t r e f e r r i n g t o l e n g t h s of s e v e r a l centimetres and t h e second t o l e n g t h s of u p t o several metres. Nine classes of u n e v e n n e s s a r e formed b y combinations of t h e s e two terms, a s illustrated and defined in Table 8. The term 'slickensided' should only b e used if t h e r e i s clear evidence of previous s h e a r displacement along t h e discontinuity, s u c h a s striations in t h e direction of i n f e r r e d movement. The main reason f o r describing discontinuity r o u g h n e s s is t o a s s i s t in estimating discontinuity s h e a r s t r e n g t h ( G C O . 1987a; Hoek & Bray. 1981; ISRM. 1978). Hencher & Richards (1982) a n d Richards & Cowland (1982) h a v e described in some detail t h e effect of r o u g h n e s s on t h e field s h e a r s t r e n g t h of g r a n i t e sheeting joints in Hong Kong. If quantitative measurements a r e not made, t h e descriptive terms in Table 8, in conjunction with t h e estimation of waviness, can b e used to make comparative assessments of t h e contribution of r o u g h n e s s to s h e a r s t r e n g t h . a s discussed by ISRM (1978).
( 6 ) Aperture. 'Aperture' is t h e perpendicular distance between a d j a c e n t walls of an open discontinuity, in which t h e i n t e r v e n i n g s p a c e i s filled by a i r o r water. I t should b e distinguished from t h e width of a n infilled discontinuity ( s e e item ( 7 ) below). A p e r t u r e s a r e caused by a number of factors, s u c h a s tensile opening, washing o u t of infilling materials, solution, o r s h e a r displacement of discontinuities with significant r o u g h n e s s . Description of a p e r t u r e size i s important because i t has a marked effect on t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h and hydraulic conductivity of a discontinuity.
A p e r t u r e size should b e described using t h e terms given in Table 9. If t h e discontinuity i s closed, with z e r o a p e r t u r e , i t should b e described a s 'tight'. The u s e of t h e s e terms may not provide a reliable indication of t h e hydraulic p r o p e r t i e s of discontinuities, particularly where t h e discontinuities have been d i s t u r b e d by blasting o r s u r f a c e weathering. The influence of a p e r t u r e on t h e hydraulic properties of t h e rock mass is b e s t a s s e s s e d by insitu permeability t e s t i n g ( G C O , 1987a). (7) Infilling. 'Infilling' i s t h e term for t h e material t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e a d j a c e n t rock walls of a discontinuity. This term is p r e f e r r e d t o 'filling', which i s normally used to describe t h e placement of fill materials (see Section 3.7). I t should b e noted, however, t h a t not all infill materials a r e necessarily t r a n s p o r t e d into t h e discontinuity a t a l a t e r s t a g e ; some can form insitu, e.g. by t h e action of i n t e n s e weathering along a joint. Infill materials a r e usually weaker t h a n t h e p a r e n t rock. This i s often t h e most important engineering characteristic. Typical infill materials a r e soil. decomposed o r disintegrated rock, minerals s u c h a s q u a r t z o r calcite (often termed 'veins'), manganese o r kaolin, o r , in t h e case of faults o r s h e a r zones along which significant displacement has o c c u r r e d , fault gouge o r breccia ( s e e Appendix A.7 and t h e Glossary).
No specific terms a r e recommended f o r t h e description of infill materials. If t h e materials a r e decomposed/disintegrated r o c k s o r soils, t h e y should b e d e s c r i b e d i n accordance with Section 2.3 o r 3.3 respectively. If t h e y a r e specific minerals, t h e mineral t y p e , particle size and s t r e n g t h (compactness/consistency) should b e described where possible. Whatever t h e t y p e of material, descriptions of infilling should always include some information on t h e i r width (ideally maximum, minimum a n d a v e r a g e widths in mm) a n d seepage a s p e c t s (e.g. a r e t h e materials d r y , damp/wet, do t h e y show permanent seepage?)
( 8 ) Seepage. Seepage along discontinuities i s often of g r e a t engineering importance a n d d e s e r v e s v e r y c a r e f u l assessment i n a comprehensive rock mass description. Seepage a s p e c t s of unfilled discontinuities should b e described using one of t h r e e basic terms, viz 'dry', 'damp/wetl ( b u t with no f r e e w a t e r ) a n d 'seepage p r e s e n t ' . For t h e l a s t c a t e g o r y , t h e quantity of water flowing a t t h e point of observation should b e noted in litres/second o r litres/minute, e i t h e r by estimation o r approximate measurement. Unless t h e rock mass is completely d r y , i t is often difficult t o select c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s of seepage f o r discontinuity s e t s , in which case supplementary description of s e e p a g e variability within t h e mass should be given. The d a t e of observation should always b e noted when s e e p a g e i s d e s c r i b e d , s o t h a t t h e s e e p a g e amount can b e related t o t h e wet and d r y seasons. If possible, s u b s e q u e n t observations should b e made a t t h e height of t h e wet season and a t t h e e n d of t h e d r y season in o r d e r t o give a n indication of maximum a n d minimum seepages.
In most unweathered r o c k s a n d partially weathered r o c k s in t h e PW90/100 zone (Table 10). t h e flow of water t a k e s place mainly t h r o u g h discontinuities. Some sedimentary r o c k s may b e exceptions t o t h i s rule, because a significant proportion of t h e flow can o c c u r t h r o u g h t h e i n t a c t rock material. In more intensely weathered rock masses ( t h e PW50/90 t o PW0/30 zones in Table l o ) , i t i s much more difficult to give a general indication of typical g r o u n d w a t e r movement. because t h e rock material weathered t o a soil may b e a t l e a s t a s permeable a s t h e discontinuity system. Careful observation of seepage sources in n a t u r a l exposures and excavations can provide valuable information on t h e hydrogeology of t h e rock mass, particularly when related t o o t h e r d a t a s o u r c e s s u c h a s piezometric levels measured in boreholes (GCO, 1982). ( 9 ) F r a c t u r e State. A number of indices c a n b e used for q u a n t i t a t i v e description of t h e f r a c t u r e s t a t e of t h e rock mass a s determined from borehole cores. These a r e Total Core Recovery, Solid Core Recovery, Rock Quality Designation and F r a c t u r e Index. These indices should b e used whenever possible to supplement t h e description of discontinuities in rock core. Only n a t u r a l geological f r a c t u r e s should b e t a k e n into account f o r t h e description of f r a c t u r e s t a t e . Artificial f r a c t u r e s produced, for example. by drilling o r blasting should b e excluded from t h e assessment, although precise i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of f r a c t u r e origin may be difficult. A r o u g h s u r f a c e with f r e s h cleavage planes in individual rock minerals usually indicates an artificial f r a c t u r e . A generally smooth o r weathered s u r f a c e , o r a s u r f a c e coated with infill materials s u c h a s calcite o r kaolin, clearly indicates a n a t u r a l discontinuity. Additional guidance notes on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of f r a c t u r e origin a r e given by ISRM (1978). In c a s e s of doubt. i t i s customary t o r e g a r d t h e discontinuity a s natural. Previous inconsistency in t h e u s e of f r a c t u r e index definitions has led t o some difficulty in measurement a n d interpretation. The definitions a n d t e r m s
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given below a r e based on t h e recommendations made b y Norbury e t a1 (1984). 'Solid core' i s t h e key t e r m t o b e defined in t h e assessment of f r a c t u r e state; i t i s r e g a r d e d a s core with a t l e a s t one full diameter ( b u t not necessarily a full circumference) measured along t h e c o r e axis between two natural fractures. O n t h e basis of t h i s definition, t h e f o u r quantitative f r a c t u r e indices a r e illustrated schematically in Figure 4 , a n d a r e defined a s follows : Total Core Recovery, TCR (%), i s t h e percentage ratio of c o r e recovered ( w h e t h e r solid, i n t a c t with no full diameter, o r non-intact) t o t h e total length of c.ore r u n . Solid Core Recovery, SCR (%), i s t h e percentage ratio of solid c o r e recovered to t h e total length of core r u n . Rock Quality Designation. R O D (%), i s t h e total l e n g t h of solid core pieces, each g r e a t e r t h a n 100 mm between n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , expressed a s a percentage of t h e total l e n g t h of c o r e r u n . F r a c t u r e Index, FI (No./m r u n ) , i s t h e number of clearly identifiable f r a c t u r e s p e r metre r u n of i n t a c t c o r e pieces, measured o v e r core l e n g t h s of reasonably uniform character. This index does not necessarily apply t o whole c o r e r u n s . If t h e r e i s a marked c h a n g e i n f r a c t u r e f r e q u e n c y d u r i n g a c o r e r u n , t h e f r a c t u r e index should be calculated f o r each p a r t of t h e r u n separately. The term 'non-intact' (NI) should be used when t h e c o r e is fragmented. Additional detail can be given by quoting t h e maximum, mean and minimum length of core pieces recovered f o r a n y core length of reasonably uniform character. I t i s important t o note t h a t measures of f r a c t u r e spacing s u c h as R Q D and F r a c t u r e Index may b e biased, depending on t h e orientation of t h e borehole in relation t o t h e dominant discontinuity s e t s . This problem i s discussed in some detail by Beggs & McNicholl (1986) in relation t o site formation works a t Ap Lei Chau, Hong Kong. 2.4.4 Rock Mass Weathering
A section t h r o u g h a weathered rock mass often shows a r a n g e of rock material a t various s t a g e s of decomposition a n d disintegration. Although t h e proportion of t h e more intensely weathered rock is generally g r e a t e r close t o t h e ground s u r f a c e , i t i s unusual t o e n c o u n t e r a weathering profile which shows a n o r d e r l y progression of successively less weathered l a y e r s , from a residual soil a t t h e s u r f a c e t o a n unweathered rock mass a t d e p t h .
To account f o r complex weathering profiles, descriptive schemes f o r rock mass weathering should b e flexible a n d simple t o apply in t h e field. For engineering p u r p o s e s , t h e usual method of description is t o identify pre-defined weathering zones within t h e rock mass. Different zonal classification schemes may b e a p p r o p r i a t e , depending on t h e n a t u r e of t h e engineering p r o j e c t te.g. tunnelling, foundation design, slope stability assessment). The scheme recommended below may r e q u i r e modification (e.g. by subdivision o r
amalgamation of zones), o r replacement by an alternative scheme. t o s u i t particular situations. Rock mass weathering classifications a r e usually established on t h e basis of differing proportions of rock and soil, t h e p r e s e n c e o r absence of mass s t r u c t u r e . a n d t h e d e g r e e of discolouration of discontinuity s u r f a c e s . A simple general scheme based on t h e s e characteristics i s given in Table 10. I t should b e noted t h a t t h i s zonal classification differs substantially from t h a t recommended in BS 5930 (BSI, 1981). In o r d e r t o avoid confusion between t h e two. new self-explanatory zone descriptions a n d symbols a r e used. The scheme in Table 10 i s based on t h e four-zone scheme originally proposed b y Ruxton & Berry (1957). a modified form of which is given in t h e Geotechnical Manual f o r Slopes ( G C O , 1984). The important differences between t h e two schemes may be summarised a s follows : (a) The p r e s e n t scheme ( Table 10) i s expanded t o six zones because t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a broad c o n s e n s u s of opinion t h a t a four-zone scheme i s not a d e q u a t e for engineering purposes. The e x t r a two zones a r e c r e a t e d b y t h e addition of a n 'unweathered' zone, comprising 100% rock (which, in f a c t , i s implicit a s a fifth zone in t h e Ruxton & Berry scheme), and by t h e introduction of a 30% rock boundary. Whereas t h e Ruxton & Berry scheme r e f e r s only t o geological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , some generalised engineering c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e included in Table 10. However, i t i s emphasised t h a t t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e only i n t e n d e d a s a v e r y approximate guide t o t h e engineering behaviour of t h e different zones. Unlike t h e Ruxton & B e r r y scheme, t h e p r e s e n t scheme i s not i n t e n d e d to r e p r e s e n t an idealised weathering profile. Rather, i t i s intended t h a t t h e scheme should b e applied in a flexible s e n s e to s u i t t h e actual distribution of weathering zones in t h e rock mass. This point i s illustrated in Figure 5 a n d explained f u r t h e r below.
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(b)
(c)
The rock p e r c e n t a g e s in Table 10 a r e notionally by volume. In most cases, however. information on t h e three-dimensional e x t e n t of t h e mass i s limited, and i t i s usually only possible t o make a r o u g h estimate of t h e s e percentages. One of t h e most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s of mass weathering in certain r o c k s i s t h e development of corestones (Ruxton & Berry. 1957; s e e also Plate 6). In general, t h e c o a r s e r - g r a i n e d , more widely-jointed Hong Kong r o c k s s u c h a s g r a n i t e a n d lapilli tuff t e n d t o weather with t h e development of corestones. whereas t h e f i n e r - g r a i n e d , more closely-jointed r o c k s do not. In principle, Table 10 i s applicable t o all rock t y p e s , b u t in practice i t i s much easier t o a p p l y in corestone-forming rocks. because t h e d i f f e r e n t proportions of rock a n d soil in t h e partially weathered zones can b e recognized more readily i n t h e field. For t h e non-corestone-forming r o c k s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make a c a r e f u l assessment of t h e d i f f e r e n t g r a d e s of rock material decomposition before dividing t h e mass into weathered zones using t h i s scheme. Sometimes, i t may b e found t h a t t h e rock w e a t h e r s s o uniformly t h a t i t is impossible t o identify t h e intermediate zones given in Table 10, in particular t h e PW50/90 and
PW30/50 zones. In s u c h cases, i t may b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o u s e a smaller number of classes by combining certain zones. Alternatively, u s e of a d i f f e r e n t zonal classification should b e considered. I t is often found t h a t some weathering zones a r e a b s e n t , o r a r e p r e s e n t only t o a v e r y small extent. The distribution of weathering zones can be determined b y mapping n a t u r a l exposures a n d excavations, b u t t h e s e may not be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e whole mass. F i g u r e 5 illustrates a n idealised weathered profile, an example of a complex b u t more realistic profile, a n d a section t h r o u g h a corestone-forming rock mass showing t h e subdivision of t h e mass into weathered zones using t h e scheme given in Table 10. Examples of complex weathered rock mass e x p o s u r e s a r e shown in Plate 7. In c a r b o n a t e r o c k s , only small amounts of soil a r e produced d u r i n g weathering unless t h e rock contains a high p e r c e n t a g e of impurities ( s e e Section 2.3.4(2)). The partially weathered PW50/90 to PW0/30 zones a r e r a r e l y developed t o a n y significant thickness. Typically, weathered profiles show a relatively t h i n l a y e r of residual d e b r i s overlying a n i r r e g u l a r s u r f a c e of unweathered o r partially weathered PW90/100 rock. The contact between t h e rock and soil i s usually v e r y s h a r p . Karst f e a t u r e s formed by solution along discontinuities a r e t h e most distinctive a s p e c t s of mass weathering i n c a r b o n a t e r o c k s a n d a r e often of g r e a t engineering significance a n d concern. Useful information on t h e description and engineering assessment of weathering effects in c a r b o n a t e r o c k s is given by Dearman (1981) and Fookes & Hawkins (1988). The o c c u r r e n c e of cavernous g r o u n d in t h e buried marble a t Yuen Long is described by Pascal1 (1987). When c o r e s in decomposed rock a r e logged, t h e decomposition g r a d e s of t h e rock material should b e included in t h e description, b u t not t h e rock mass weathering zones. Zonal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n should not be done a s p a r t of r o u t i n e core description. A borehole is essentially a line sample t h r o u g h t h e rock mass. a n d i t may not b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e overall p a t t e r n of mass weathering. I t is particularly difficult t o c o n s t r u c t a reliable weathering zone model in corestone-forming r o c k s from borehole evidence alone. For examples of t h e u s e of specific weathering zone classifications f o r engineering p r o j e c t s in Hong Kong, r e f e r e n c e should be made t o Gamon & Finn (1984b) f o r a s s e s s m e n t of l a r g e excavations in g r a n i t e a t Kornhill, I r f a n & Powell (1985a) for foundation assessment in granodiorite a t Tai Po, a n d Watkins (1979) f o r tunnelling a n d dam foundation s t u d i e s in various igneous and volcanic r o c k s in t h e e a s t e r n New Territories. 2.4.5 Additional Information
Any additional information t h a t will a s s i s t t h e e n g i n e e r in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u r e of t h e rock mass should b e recorded. An example i s t h e possible o c c u r r e n c e of voids in c a r b o n a t e r o c k s s u c h a s limestone a n d marble. If discovered. t h e geometry of a n y voids should b e described w h e r e possible, a s well a s t h e i r relationship t o discontinuities in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g rock mass and a n y s i g n s of g r o u n d w a t e r o r seepage. Special note should b e made if a n y of t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s described a r e considered t o b e unusual in relation t o t h e r e s t of t h e mass description. I t is particularly important t o indicate w h e t h e r t h e sample of t h e rock mass described is considered to b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e whole mass which i s r e l e v a n t to t h e engineering project. The limitations i n h e r e n t in making mass
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d e s c r i p t i o n s from small isolated e x p o s u r e s , o r from borehole e v i d e n c e alone, should always b e k e p t i n mind. A considerable d e g r e e of professional j u d g e m e n t a n d commonsense i s r e q u i r e d . The e n g i n e e r should assess t h e validity of t h e geotechnical model u s e d in t h e d e s i g n a s e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s proceed a n d f u r t h e r e x p o s u r e s become available. If v a r i a b l e g r o u n d conditions a r e e n c o u n t e r e d , rock mass d e s c r i p t i o n s should b e r e v i s e d d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n where necessary. 2.4.6 Examples
Two examples of rock mass d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e given f o r g u i d a n c e in t h e The r o c k s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e u s e of a p p r o p r i a t e d e s c r i p t i v e terms. d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Plate 8. (a) Plate 8A. (Pyroclastic Rock Mass). The mass i s s p l i t i n t o two b a s i c u n i t s f o r description : (i) Unit 1 : Very s t r o n g . g r e e n i s h g r e y , massive, partially w e a t h e r e d PW90/100, c o a r s e a s h TUFF, with t h r e e major joint sets : ( a ) 010/87, medium-spaced. p e r s i s t e n t , smooth a n d s t e p p e d , t i g h t . d r y ; ( b ) 120/35, v e r y closely-spaced, s u b p e r s i s t e n t , smooth a n d planar, extremely n a r r o w , generally d r y b u t with s e v e r a l minor s e e p a g e points of < 1 litre/rnin in w e s t e r n lower half of face; (c) 345/60, closely-spaced, n o n - p e r s i s t e n t , smooth and planar, tight, d r y . Unit 2 : Weak, r e d d i s h brown. partially w e a t h e r e d PW0/30, c o a r s e a s h TUFF.
(ii)
Unit 2 overlies Unit 1. The b o u n d a r y i s s h a r p a n d d i p s a t approximately 30 t o t h e w e s t a c r o s s t h e excavation face.

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Plate 89. ( I g n e o u s Rock Mass). The l e n g t h of c o r e from 23.73 t o 27.05 m i s s p l i t i n t o two u n i t s on t h e basis of d i f f e r i n g g r a i n size a n d f r a c t u r e f r e q u e n c y : (i) Unit 1 (23.73 to 26.26 m) : Very s t r o n g , g r e y mottled with pink a n d d a r k brown. slightly decomposed, medium-grained GRANITE. with widely-spaced, r o u g h a n d u n d u l a t i n g , brown-stained joints dipping 0 t o 10". TCR 100%. SCR 100%. R Q D 100%. FI 1.2. Unit 2 (26.26 t o 27.05 rn) : Very s t r o n g . l i g h t g r e y i s h pink, slightly decomposed. f i n e - g r a i n e d GRANITE, with closely- t o medium-spaced, generally r o u g h a n d s t e p p e d b u t also smooth a n d p l a n a r (one s u b v e r t i c a l j o i n t ) , brown-stained joints loo, 40" a n d 85". dipping 0 to
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TCR 100%. SCR 55%. R Q D 44%. The core was wet when described.
FI 7.6.
(Note : Since only a v e r y small portion of t h e mass i s exposed in t h e core, t h e description is made essentially in terms of rock material characteristics, plus information on discontinuities.)
2.5
ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Once t h e material and mass characteristics of t h e rock h a v e been described, t h e final item in a complete rock description should b e t h e name of t h e geological formation from which t h e sample rock material o r mass h a s been selected. A guide to t h e name of t h e geological formation i s given in t h e maps a n d memoirs produced b y t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y . The name should b e written with capital initial l e t t e r s (e.g. Ap Lei Chau Formation). The geological formation should be named where t h i s can be done with confidence, b u t i t i s often difficult t o identify a formation name from a small sample, o r to locate formation boundaries in a borehole o r exposure; c o n j e c t u r e should b e avoided. The principal rock t y p e s associated with a specific formation a r e often indicated on t h e geological map, b u t i t should be remembered t h a t , a t a particular location o r horizon, t h e actual rock t y p e may b e completely different from t h a t indicated u n d e r t h e heading of principal rock t y p e . Geological formations may be quite variable in t h e i r r a n g e of rock t y p e s , and a knowledge of t h e formation will often indicate t h e possible r a n g e of r o c k s t o b e expected. For example, t h e Shing Mun Formation of t h e Repulse Bay Volcanic Group is a complex formation t h a t contains lapilli, coarse a s h a n d fine a s h t u f f s , t u f f i t e s a n d a r a n g e of sedimentary rocks from conglomerate t o mudstone. The e n g i n e e r should r e f e r t o t h e HKGS maps a n d memoirs f o r guidance, o r consult a geologist for assistance where necessary.
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3.
3.1
DESCRIPTION OF SOILS
GENERAL
The recommendations in t h i s chapter are generally applicable t o all t y p e s o f superficial deposits. including fill. Some o f t h e recommendations are also applicable t o soils derived from t h e insitu weathering o f r o c k s . In view o f their importance for engineering in Hong Kong, soils derived from insitu rock weathering, colluvium, and fill are considered i n greater detail u n d e r separate sections ( s e e Sections 3.5 t o 3 . 7 ) . These sections follow t h e recommendations for a general descriptive method for soils given in Sections 3.2 t o 3.4. 3.2
P U R P O S E AND S C O P E O F S O I L D E S C R I P T I O N
The main purpose o f a soil description for engineering purposes is t o give an indication o f t h e likely engineering properties o f t h e soil. In t h i s sense, soil descriptions i n principle can be made using t h e same approach adopted for rock descriptions in Chapter 2 , b u t t h e r e is one important d i f f e r e n c e . Unlike r o c k s , most soils can b e easily disturbed during excavation, sampling or t e s t i n g , and t h i s may have a marked e f f e c t on engineering properties. Soil descriptions should include a note on t h e degree o f sample disturbance, where t h i s is considered t o be important. The degree o f disturbance ranges from t h e completely u n d i s t u r b e d , insitu field condition t o t h e fully disturbed, remoulded condition o f a sample t h a t has been completely broken down into i t s constituent grains. Further information and guidance on sampling methods i n relation t o soil disturbance is given in Geoguide 2 : Guide t o Site Investigation ( G C O , 1987a). Soil descriptions can be made directly from field exposures and excavations or from samples recovered from boreholes or excavations. In t h e following sections, "material characteristics o f soils" r e f e r s t o those characteristics t h a t can be described from visual and manual examination o f relatively small volumes o f soil in either disturbed or undisturbed samples. "Mass characteristics o f soils" r e f e r s t o characteristics t h a t can only be described satisfactorily i f t h e original soil s t r u c t u r e remains intact, i.e. t h e y can be observed only in t h e field or t o some extent i n a large undisturbed sample. Additional geological information, s u c h as t h e geological formation. age and t y p e o f deposit, should also be included in t h e description whenever possible, b u t t h e s e aspects may not be readily determined without a detailed geological s t u d y o f t h e area around a site. In a soil description, t h e main characteristics should be given in t h e following order : (a) s t r e n g t h , i.e. compactness or consistency (material),
( b ) colour (material),
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(c)
(dl
particle shape and composition (material), structure (mass).
( e ) state o f weathering ( m a s s ) ,
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(f) (g) (h)
soil name (in capitals, e.g. SAND), grading a n d plasticity (material), discontinuities (mass), a n d additional geological information.
In t h e following sections, t h e material characteristics in t h i s s e q u e n c e a r e considered in Section 3.3 a n d t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in Section 3.4. The scope of t h i s scheme i s similar t o t h e schemes recommended b y BSI (1981) a n d IAEG (1981), b u t t h e layout of t h e s e two sections, and t h e o r d e r in which individual characteristics a r e considered, have been modified t o conform a s closely a s possible t o t h e scheme used f o r rock description in Chapter 2. I t should be noted t h a t t h e term ' s t r u c t u r e ' a s used in t h i s c h a p t e r r e f e r s t o m r n s t r u c t u r e , i.e. s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of a soil mass which can b e identified by t h e naked eye. The description of soil -structure is considered in Section 3.4.4. The recommended scheme for t h e rapid identification a n d description of soils i s summarised in Table 11. Each main item in t h i s Table is discussed in f u r t h e r detail in t h e following text sections. In addition t o description, i t may be useful in some circumstances t o make an overall classification of soils f o r engineering purposes. Guidance on soil classification is given in Chapter 4. 3.3 3.3.1 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS Strength
The s t r e n g t h of a soil may b e altered significantly by d i s t u r b a n c e o r remoulding d u r i n g sampling and t e s t i n g . S t r e n g t h should t h e r e f o r e b e described in t h e u n d i s t u r b e d field condition whenever possible; alternatively, t h e highest-quality, least d i s t u r b e d sample should be used. The s t r e n g t h of cohesive soils i s noticeably affected by moisture content. In Hong Kong, t h i s i s particularly t h e c a s e f o r soils in t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone above t h e water table, where significant s h o r t - t e r m a n d seasonal fluctuations in moisture content can occur. S t r e n g t h descriptions of cohesive soils should t h e r e f o r e include a n indication of t h e moisture condition. For example. possible moisture condition classes could b e ' d r y ' , 'moist', 'wet', etc. Any classes used should b e defined in terms of simple field recognition c r i t e r i a for particular soils, and should be related t o laboratory-measured moisture c o n t e n t s where possible. A s a general r u l e , soil s t r e n g t h in t h e field should b e described a t t h e n a t u r a l field moisture content, a n d a n y samples t a k e n should be k e p t a t t h a t same moisture content. Guidance on t h e handling a n d s t o r a g e of samples i s given in Geoguide 2 ( G C O , 1987a). The recommended qualitative scales for s t r e n g t h assessment a r e given in Table 11. The s t r e n g t h of coarse and v e r y coarse soils ( s a n d s , gravels, cobbles a n d boulders) is described in terms of compactness o r relative density (e.g. 'loose' o r 'dense'). The s t r e n g t h of fine soils i s described in terms of consistency (e.g. 'soft', 'firm', 'stiff', e t c ) . Equivalent quantitative scales of s t r e n g t h for t h e s e two g r o u p s of soils a r e given in Table 12. Compactness and consistency terms cannot be applied easily t o o r g a n i c soils, which should b e
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described a s 'compact', 'spongy' o r 'plastic' (Table 11). The compactness terms f o r s a n d s a n d g r a v e l s in Table 12 a r e based on N values measured in boreholes by t h e S t a n d a r d Penetration Test ( B S I , 1975). This scale is recommended for u s e only in t r a n s p o r t e d soils. There is no generally accepted classification of N values a n d density terms f o r soils derived from insitu rock weathering in Hong Kong; f o r descriptive purposes, a n y measured N values in t h e s e soils should be recorded directly. When used f o r design p u r p o s e s , a correction f a c t o r i s often applied t o N values to account f o r o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e , e n e r g y dissipation in t h e drill r o d s , a n d t h e effect of low permeability in fine s a n d s and silty s a n d s (Rodin e t al, 1974; Skempton, 1986). If t h e descriptive terms a r e based on c o r r e c t e d N values. t h i s should b e noted. The consistency terms f o r fine soils in Table 12 a r e based on values of undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h . For descriptive p u r p o s e s , a r a p i d approximate value of undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h can be obtained by using a small laboratory s h e a r v a n e o r hand penetrometer (Head, 1980). The p r e s e n c e of a mineral cement in t h e soil may have a significant effect on t h e soil s t r e n g t h . Very few s t u d i e s have been c a r r i e d o u t on cementation in Hong Kong soils, b u t i t a p p e a r s t h a t colluvial matrix material (Ruxton, 1986) and fine-grained marine soils (Howat. 1984; Tovey. 1986a; Yim & Li, 1983) can have relatively high s t r e n g t h a n d stiffness d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e of iron oxide, and possibly o t h e r , cementing a g e n t s . The p r e s e n c e of iron oxides in t h e soil i s often indicated b y a distinctive brown o r r e d d i s h brown colouration. If a mineral cement a p p e a r s to b e p r e s e n t , i t i s useful t o note whether slaking o c c u r s on immersion of a non-saturated sample in water. Non-cemented soils usually slake in water. 3.3.2 Colour
I t i s recommended t h a t soil colours should be described according t o t h e scheme given for r o c k s in Table 3 . This scheme i s also summarised in Table 11. A s with r o c k s , i t should be s t a t e d if t h e soil was wet o r d r y when described, because t h i s can have a marked influence on t h e colour description. (Note t h a t t h e moisture condition may already have been recorded in t h e description of s t r e n g t h ; s e e Section 3.3.1). Sample d i s t u r b a n c e o r remoulding may d e s t r o y some of t h e original soil colouring. Therefore, soil colours should be described in t h e u n d i s t u r b e d field condition whenever possible. Bedding planes, relict joints and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s often show a distinctive colour c h a n g e when compared with t h e s u r r o u n d i n g soil matrix, a n d this should be noted where applicable. 3.3.3 Particle Shape and Composition
Particle s h a p e may be described b y r e f e r e n c e to t h e three-dimensional form of t h e particles, t h e i r angularity (which indicates t h e d e g r e e of rounding a t e d g e s and c o r n e r s ) a n d t h e i r s u r f a c e texture. In general, simple visual assessment of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s a d e q u a t e f o r routine descriptions. b u t more precise measurements may b e r e q u i r e d in some cases (e.g. assessment of g r a n u l a r soils a s potential sources of a g g r e g a t e , detailed assessment of sedimentary t e x t u r e a n d fabric, etc).
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Common terms f o r simple description of form and angularity a r e illust r a t e d in Tables 13 a n d 14. For a more r i g o r o u s description of s h a p e c h a r a c t eristics, form and a n g u l a r i t y may be quantified by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e axial ratios of t h e particle diameters and t h e radii of c u r v a t u r e of t h e particle c o r n e r s in t h e projected plane. A quantitative classification of particle form i s shown in Figure 6. A quantitative measure of particle r o u n d n e s s i s given by :
where r i s t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e of a c o r n e r of t h e particle s u r f a c e , R is t h e r a d i u s of t h e maximum inscribed circle in t h e projected plane and N i s t h e number of c o r n e r s . A s r o u n d n e s s i n c r e a s e s , r approaches R and P approaches one. Common terms used to describe t h e s u r f a c e t e x t u r e of particles a r e 'smooth', 'rough', 'glassy', 'honeycombed', 'pitted' a n d 'striated' ( s e e Glossary). The composition of particles visible to t h e naked e y e o r u n d e r a hand l e n s may also b e described. Gravel a n d l a r g e r particles a r e usually rock fragments (e.g. g r a n i t e , t u f f , s c h i s t ) . Sand a n d f i n e r particles a r e generally individual mineral g r a i n s (e.g. q u a r t z , mica, f e l d s p a r ) . Gravel a n d s a n d particles may b e coated with specific minerals, s u c h a s limonite a n d o t h e r iron oxides, manganese o r calcite. Soils containing an appreciable proportion of shells may also b e described a s 'shelly' ( s e e also Section 3.4.1). 3.3.4 Soil Name
( 1 ) General Aspects. The basic soil t y p e s a n d t h e i r sub-divisions a r e shown in Table 11. The soil name i s based on particle size distribution and plasticity properties. These characteristics a r e used because t h e y can b e estimated with sufficient a c c u r a c y f o r descriptive p u r p o s e s , a n d can be measured with reasonable precision if r e q u i r e d . They give a general indication of t h e probable engineering characteristics of t h e soil a t a n y particular moisture content. Table 11 provides guidance essentially f o r t h e rapid identification of t h e soil t y p e by hand a n d e y e in t h e field o r in t h e laboratory. If n e c e s s a r y , t h e soil t y p e can b e confirmed by determining t h e particle size distribution and plasticity properties from laboratory t e s t s (BSI, 1975). Because of t h e s u b j e c t i v e n a t u r e of t h e rapid identification procedure, i t i s often found t h a t t h e initial description of soil t y p e i s not c o n s i s t e n t with t h e r e s u l t s of laboratory g r a d i n g a n d plasticity t e s t s . In s u c h cases, i t i s good practice t o r e v i s e t h e soil name in line with t h e laboratory t e s t data, b u t t h e original description should still b e p r e s e r v e d a s a record of t h e o b s e r v e r ' s opinion. A note should always b e a d d e d t o t h e description if t h e soil name has been modified on t h e basis of laboratory t e s t s . Table 11 i s a slightly modified and r e a r r a n g e d form of t h e version given b y BSI (1981) . This method of naming and identifying basic soil t y p e s has been criticised in some detail by Child (1984) and Norbury e t a1 (1984). They proposed an a l t e r n a t i v e method which i s based more on t h e probable mass engineering behaviour of t h e soil (following t h e scheme used in CP 2001 (BSI, 1957)), r a t h e r t h a n on s t r i c t grading limits a s in t h e p r e s e n t scheme. However, t h e u s e of t h i s alternative method d e p e n d s more on t h e judgement of
t h e individual who makes t h e description. The scheme outlined in Table 11 i s considered to b e easier f o r t h e non-specialist t o apply a n d i s t h e r e f o r e recommended. In addition t o identification of t h e soil name, g r a d i n g and plasticity characteristics can also b e used t o make a n engineering classification of soils. This i s considered f u r t h e r in Chapter 4.
(2) Particle Size Distribution. From Table 1 1, i t can b e s e e n t h a t , where a soil (excluding a n y boulders o r cobbles) contains a b o u t 35% o r more of fine material, i t i s described a s a 'silt' o r 'clay' (fine soil). With l e s s t h a n 35% of fine material, i t i s described a s a 'gravel' o r 'sand' (coarse soil). In t h e field, o r when laboratory descriptions a r e made in advance of g r a d i n g t e s t s , t h e s e p e r c e n t a g e s can only b e estimated. If a c c u r a t e determination i s r e q u i r e d , laboratory t e s t s a r e necessary. The gravel, s a n d and silt particle size r a n g e s can b e f u r t h e r subdivided into coarse, medium a n d fine particles (Table 11). The g r a d i n g of s a n d s and g r a v e l s may b e qualified a s 'well-graded' o r 'poorly-graded'; poorly-graded materials may be divided f u r t h e r into 'uniform' a n d 'gap-graded' a s defined in Table 11. Terms s u c h a s well- o r poorly-graded a r e used h e r e in t h e engineering s e n s e and a r e t h e r e v e r s e of t h e s o r t i n g terms used in t h e geological s e n s e . For example, a soil t h a t comprises a wide r a n g e of particle sizes is a well-graded soil t o a n e n g i n e e r , b u t a poorly-sorted soil t o a geologist.
The broad basis f o r t h e description basic soil t y p e s ) i s also given in Table 11. t h e percentage of s e c o n d a r y c o n s t i t u e n t s name. These t e r m s r e f e r only t o mixtures o r clay with a g r a v e l o r s a n d ) .
of composite soils (i.e. mixtures of The terms a r e defined according to and a r e prefixed t o t h e main soil of two basic soil t y p e s (e.g. a silt
Since t h e coarse fraction in a composite soil can itself be divided into approximate proportions of s a n d a n d g r a v e l by estimation, i t i s possible t o describe more complex soil mixtures in terms of t h r e e basic soil t y p e s . o r more t h a n t h r e e if t h e soil also contains v e r y coarse material (cobbles and boulders). The full explanation of t h e u s e of s e c o n d a r y c o n s t i t u e n t s f o r describing composite soils is given in Tables 15 a n d 16. Both tables include examples t o illustrate t h e a p p r o p r i a t e u s e a n d s e q u e n c e of terms. I t should b e noted t h a t no guidance is given for t h e simultaneous description of silt a n d clay where both a r e p r e s e n t in a fine soil o r in a composite soil. Terms s u c h a s 'silty clay' o r ' v e r y clayey silt' can only b e used satisfactorily a f t e r determination of grading a n d plasticity properties by laboratory t e s t s (Norbury e t al. 1984). For r a p i d descriptions, one of t h e names should b e used if t h e fine fraction a p p e a r s to be dominated by e i t h e r silt o r clay. Where no distinction can be made between silt a n d clay, both names should b e u s e d , s e p a r a t e d b y a s t r o k e . This method can be applied t o t h e fine fraction a s e i t h e r t h e principal o r s e c o n d a r y c o n s t i t u e n t (e.g. ' v e r y silty/clayey SAND'. 'slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY'). The term 'FINE SOIL' may also b e used a s t h e name of t h e principal c o n s t i t u e n t when i t i s not possible to distinguish between silt and clay. The recommended method of naming v e r y coarse (boulder a n d cobble size) soils, a n d soils comprising mixtures of v e r y coarse a n d f i n e r ( g r a v e l to clay size) material. i s given in Table 16. Usually, t h e s e soils can only b e described satisfactorily in excavations o r exposures. I t i s often useful to record t h e rock t y p e of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t boulders o r cobbles (Table 5), because t h i s may help in c o n s t r u c t i n g a geological model of t h e site. F u r t h e r guidance
on t h e description of colluvial soils containing v e r y coarse material i s given i n Section 3.6. Organic soils may often b e recognized by t h e p r e s e n c e of plant remains. Soils t h a t consist predominantly of plant remains, e i t h e r fibrous, o r pseudofibrous o r amorphous, may b e described a s 'peat'.
A rapid assessment of particle size distribution has to be made on t h e basis of t h e a p p e a r a n c e a n d 'feel' of t h e soil sample. I t i s relatively e a s y t o distinguish between g r a v e l s a n d s a n d s , o r between gravelly a n d s a n d y fine soils, b e c a u s e t h e particle size which s e p a r a t e s g r a v e l and s a n d (2 mm) i s easily visible. Particles of 2 mm size a r e about t h e l a r g e s t t h a t will cling t o g e t h e r when moist owing t o t h e capillary attraction of water. Well-graded a n d poorly-graded materials can also b e distinguished by visual inspection, although t h i s i s more difficult for s a n d t h a n f o r gravel. I t is less e a s y t o distinguish between s a n d and silt. Material of 0.06 mm size feels h a r s h b u t not g r i t t y when r u b b e d between t h e f i n g e r s , a n d t h e particles a r e a t t h e limit of visibility with t h e naked eye. Finer p u r e silt-sized material feels smooth t o t h e touch. The 'feel' of a fine soil can also b e used t o make a v e r y approximate distinction between silt a n d clay. Silt feels slightly g r i t t y when r u b b e d on t h e t e e t h whereas clay feels g r e a s y ( t h i s simple t e s t should only b e c a r r i e d o u t on non-organic samples, for health r e a s o n s ) . A r a p i d assessment of plasticity usually provides a more reliable means of distinguishing silt from clay ( s e e item (3) below).
( 3 ) Plasticity. As shown in Table 11, clay a n d silt, both alone a n d in mixtures with c o a r s e r material, may be classified f o r descriptive p u r p o s e s i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s , viz non-plastic o r low plasticity (generally silts), intermediate plasticity (lean clays), a n d high plasticity ( f a t clays). For rapid description in t h e field o r in t h e laboratory, t h e s e classes may b e estimated on t h e basis of visual identification a n d hand t e s t s , which a r e summarised in Table 11 a n d a r e discussed in more detail below. A more a c c u r a t e description of plasticity can also be made on t h e basis of laboratory determination of t h e liquid limit (BSI. 1975) a n d t h e extended classification scale given in Table 17. The rapid method i s based on t h e general assessment of cohesion a n d plasticity in coarse soils which contain a significant fine fraction. I n fine soils, t h e method i s based on t h e assessment of d r y s t r e n g t h , t o u g h n e s s a n d dilatancy. In o r d e r t o examine c o a r s e soils f o r cohesion a n d plasticity, a sample should f i r s t be loosened if n e c e s s a r y , for example by c r u s h i n g with t h e foot o r a hammer. A handful of t h e material should t h e n b e moulded a n d p r e s s e d t o g e t h e r in t h e hands. I t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o a d d water and t o pick o u t t h e l a r g e r pieces of gravel. A soil shows cohesion when, a t a suitable moisture c o n t e n t , i t s particles stick t o g e t h e r t o give a relatively firm mass. A soil shows plasticity when, a t a suitable moisture c o n t e n t , i t can b e deformed without r u p t u r e , i.e. without losing cohesion. A firm cohesive piece of soil which deforms readily without r u p t u r e will generally contain a significant proportion of clay. Conversely, a soil which loses cohesion quickly and crumbles quickly when deformed will t e n d t o have a high proportion of silt in t h e fine fraction. Notes on d r y s t r e n g t h of silts a n d clays a r e included in Table 11. 'Toughness' of a fine soil r e f e r s t o t h e c h a r a c t e r of a t h r e a d of moist soil rolled on t h e palm of t h e hand, moulded t o g e t h e r , a n d rolled again until i t has d r i e d sufficiently t o break a t a diameter of a b o u t 3 mm, a s in t h e plastic limit
t e s t (BSI. 1975). In t h i s condition, inorganic clays of high plasticity a r e fairly stiff a n d tough. t h o s e of low plasticity a r e s o f t e r a n d more crumbly. Inorganic silts give a weak a n d often s o f t t h r e a d t h a t b r e a k s u p , crumbles readily, a n d may b e difficult t o form. In t h e dilatancy t e s t , a small piece of soil moistened t o b e soft, b u t not sticky, i s held on t h e open horizontal palm of t h e hand. The side of t h e hand i s t h e n j a r r e d a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r hand s e v e r a l times. Dilatancy i s shown by t h e appearance of a s h i n y film of water on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e soil; when t h e soil i s squeezed o r p r e s s e d with t h e fingers. t h e s u r f a c e dulls a s t h e soil stiffens a n d finally crumbles. These reactions a r e marked only f o r predominantly siltsized material and v e r y fine s a n d , a n d will generally indicate t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e s e materials. F u r t h e r u s e f u l guidance on t h e rapid description of plasticity with r e f e r e n c e t o d r y s t r e n g t h , t o u g h n e s s a n d dilatancy i s given by ASTM (1985a). In organic soils. small quantities of d i s p e r s e d organic matter can produce a distinctive o d o u r a n d a d a r k g r e y , d a r k brown o r d a r k bluish g r e y colour. With l a r g e r quantities of o r g a n i c matter, fine soils usually h a v e high, v e r y high o r extremely high liquid limits, sometimes extending u p t o s e v e r a l h u n d r e d p e r c e n t , b u t t h e s e values may d r o p significantly if t h e soil i s air-dried. Close t o t h e plastic limit, o r g a n i c soils and p e a t have a v e r y weak, s p o n g y o r fibrous t h r e a d , which may b e difficult t o form a t all, a n d t h e i r lumps crumble readily. 3.3.5 Additional Information
Any additional information on t h e s t r e n g t h . colour, composition, g r a d i n g a n d plasticity of t h e soil t h a t would be of value in a s s e s s i n g i t s n a t u r e a n d engineering p r o p e r t i e s should b e recorded. Special note should be made if a n y of t h e descriptive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e material a r e considered t o b e u n u s u a l in relation t o t h e r e s t of i t s description. I t should be indicated if t h e r e i s d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r t h e sample described i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e material from which i t was sampled, d u e , f o r instance. to t h e f r a c t u r e of particles o r loss of fines d u r i n g sampling, o r t o t h e sample size o r borehole diameter being too small in relation to t h e grading of t h e material being sampled. Some information should also b e given on t h e d e g r e e of d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e sample if t h i s i s considered t o b e important (e.g. in relation to description of s t r e n g t h a n d colour). 3.4 3.4.1 MASS CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS Structure
The important t y p e s of s t r u c t u r e in soils a r e bedding in superficial deposits, a n d relict rock s t r u c t u r e s ( s e e Plate 5 ) and discontinuities in soils derived from insitu rock weathering. General c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t should b e considered in t h e description of bedding include t h e t y p e of bedding, a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e b e d s , a n d t h e spacing between bedding planes. Other characteristics t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t specifically t o individual bedding planes, s u c h a s orientation, s u r f a c e t e x t u r e , o p e n n e s s , e t c , a r e considered in Section 3.4.2. Common t y p e s of bedding a r e illustrated in Figure 7 and a r e defined in
t h e Glossary. In Hong Kong soils, t h e o c c u r r e n c e of bedding i s usually limited t o alluvial a n d marine deposits. The a r r a n g e m e n t of b e d s may b e described b y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d e g r e e of stratification and t h e spacing of t h e s t r a t a . 'Interstratified' deposits a r e t h o s e i n which t h e r e a r e l a y e r s of different t y p e s of material. which may b e of c o n s t a n t t h i c k n e s s , o r may t h i n o u t locally o r o c c u r a s lenses. If b e d s of alternating soil t y p e s a r e too t h i n t o b e described individually, t h e soil may b e described a s ' i n t e r b e d d e d ' (e.g. 'SAND with i n t e r b e d d e d CLAY'), t h e f i r s t soil t y p e mentioned being dominant; o r a s 'interlaminated' (e.g. 'thinly i n t e r 'Partings' a r e bedding s u r f a c e s t h a t s e p a r a t e laminated SILT a n d CLAY'). easily. e.g. a thin l a y e r of silt in more cohesive material. The n a t u r e of a n y p a r t i n g material should b e noted. Where two o r more soil t y p e s a r e p r e s e n t in a deposit, a r r a n g e d in an i r r e g u l a r manner, t h e soils may be described a s 'intermixed' (e.g. 'SAND intermixed with CLAY'). Thick b e d s which consist essentially of one soil t y p e a n d show no significant variation in material can b e described a s 'homogeneous'. Apart from variation in basic soil t y p e s , bedding f e a t u r e s can also b e identified by o t h e r sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s , s u c h a s shell b a n d s and root holes. Knowledge of shell t y p e s a n d density within a bed may a s s i s t in s t r a t i g r a p h i c correlations. Dominant shell t y p e s should b e noted ( b y c o r r e c t scientific name), s k e t c h e d o r photographed ( S t r a n g e & Shaw, 1986; Wang & Yim, 1985; Whiteside. 1983). Multiple sequences of deposition involving combinations of marine a n d alluvial soils have been identified in Hong Kong (Liu & Gammon, 1983; Yim, 1983). A b r u p t c h a n g e s in bedding characteristics may occur in s u c h sequences. F u r t h e r general information on bedding characteristics a n d t h e depositional environment of local alluvial a n d marine soils i s given by Dutton (1984), Holt (1962) a n d Lumb (1977). Two o t h e r general s t r u c t u r a l terms commonly applied to sedimentary soils a r e 'fissured', if t h e soil i s cracked o r fragmented, and 'intact' if no f i s s u r e s a r e p r e s e n t . F i s s u r e s a r e most common in fine-grained marine a n d alluvial soils, particularly where t h e s e soils have been exposed t o a i r d r y i n g . Organic soils a r e commonly described a s 'fibrous' o r 'amorphous' (Table 11). The spacing of bedding planes, f i s s u r e s , shell b a n d s a n d o t h e r sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s should b e described using t h e terms given f o r planar s t r u c t u r e s a n d discontinuities in Tables 6 a n d 7, a s summarised in Table 11. Apart from sedimentary soils, planar s t r u c t u r e s may also be visible in soils derived from insitu rock weathering. They should be described in accordance with t h e terms defined in Section 2.4.2 and Table 6. 3.4.2 Discontinuities
As discussed f o r r o c k s in Section 2.4.1, detailed description of soil s t r u c t u r e (in i t s b r o a d e s t s e n s e ) should include a full account of individual discontinuities. in addition t o t h e g e n e r a l description of planar s t r u c t u r e s outlined in t h e previous section. The discussion in Section 2.4.1 of t h e variable u s e of t h e term ' s t r u c t u r e ' f o r rock descriptions applies equally well t o soils. Soil discontinuities a r e individual bedding planes, lamination planes and
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f i s s u r e s in t r a n s p o r t e d soils, a n d relict joints in soils derived from insitu rock weathering. Faults and s h e a r planes may also occur in both t y p e s of soil b u t a r e generally much less common. If a full description of discontinuities in a soil mass i s r e q u i r e d , t h e same p r o c e d u r e s a n d terms given for rock discontinuity description in Section 2.4.3 should b e u s e d . However, with r e g a r d t o s t r e n g t h , deformation, permeability a n d o t h e r engineering c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e influence of discontinuities on mass behaviour i s generally much less marked in a soil mass t h a n in a rock mass. Therefore, a full description of soil discontinuities may only be r e q u i r e d in particular circumstances (e.g. discontinuities which control slope stability ) . F u r t h e r information on t h e description a n d engineering a s s e s s m e n t of discontinuities in some Hong Kong soils i s given by Harris (1985). Hunt (1982) a n d Koo (1982a, 1982b). 3.4.3 State of Weathering
A clear distinction must be made between t h e weathering of superficial deposits (i.e. t r a n s p o r t e d soils) a n d t h e weathering of r o c k s insitu which has led to t h e formation of engineering soils ( s e e Sections 2.2.4 a n d 2.3.4). Description of soils derived from insitu rock weathering i s considered f u r t h e r in Section 3.5. This section is concerned only with t h e description of weathering in t r a n s p o r t e d soils.
I t i s highly likely t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t e d soils in Hong Kong a r e generally much y o u n g e r t h a n t h e soils derived from insitu rock weathering (Bennett, 1984a). Also, t h e t r a n s p o r t e d soils, unlike t h e igneous and pyroclastic r o c k s , have not formed u n d e r conditions of high t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p r e s s u r e , which means t h a t t h e i r susceptibility to weathering processes in general is much lower. Therefore, t h e d e g r e e a n d extent of weathering in t h e t r a n s p o r t e d soils is generally much l e s s marked t h a n in t h e thick zones of intensely weathered rock found o v e r much of t h e Territory. Nevertheless, t h e c h a n g e s b r o u g h t about by weathering can still have a significant effect on t h e engineering properties of t r a n s p o r t e d soils. The o c c u r r e n c e of weathered t r a n s p o r t e d soils in Hong Kong i s generally limited t o t h e older colluvial and alluvial deposits. Most of t h e marine deposits show no obvious s i g n s of weathering, b u t some weathered marine soils can be found in a r e a s where t h e y have been exposed previously d u r i n g periods of lower sea-level. In fine soils, where individual mineral a n d rock fragments c a n n o t be identified by eye, t h e most distinctive a s p e c t of weathering i s discolouration caused by decomposition of t h e soil particles a n d precipitation of various oxides. Discolouration is most noticeable in alluvial sediments. A non-uniform colour distribution (Table 3). often comprising mottled yellow, r e d a n d brown colours, can be a distinctive f e a t u r e in t h e s e soils (Shaw e t al, 1986; Willis & Shirlaw. 1983). In offshore sedimentary s e q u e n c e s , t h e r e i s often a marked c o n t r a s t between mottled, weathered alluvial sediments a n d t h e overlying unweathered marine muds (Plate 9). In coarse soils, o r composite soils containing coarse fragments, t h e weathered s t a t e of individual gravel a n d larger-sized rock fragments can also b e described. in addition to discolouration of t h e whole soil. Since t h e s e
fragments a r e pieces of rock material, t h e terms a n d methods given in Section 2.3.4 can b e used t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r weathered state. Common weathering f e a t u r e s a r e decomposition of individual mineral g r a i n s o r whole rock fragments, a n d c r a c k i n g o r disintegration, which may show u p a s concentric layering approximately parallel t o t h e fragment boundary. F u r t h e r guidance on weathering description in colluvium i s given in Section 3.6. Weathering f e a t u r e s in soils may b e d e s t r o y e d by sample d i s t u r b a n c e o r remoulding. These f e a t u r e s should t h e r e f o r e be described in t h e field whene v e r possible; alternatively, t h e highest-quality u n d i s t u r b e d sample should b e used. 3.4.4 Additional Information
Because of sample d i s t u r b a n c e o r inadequate sample size, i t i s often difficult t o make a full description of t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of soils. Even in a field exposure, v e r y c a r e f u l and detailed inspection may be n e c e s s a r y f o r a c c u r a t e identification of s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s . Additional information should b e a d d e d t o t h e description if t h e sample i s not considered t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e soil mass, o r if i t shows s i g n s of significant disturbance. One o t h e r g r o u p of f e a t u r e s which should always b e described if p r e s e n t in t h e soil i s voids. The most important t y p e s of void a r e pipes a n d t u n n e l s caused by s u b s u r f a c e erosion (Nash & Dale. 1983), b u t o t h e r f e a t u r e s s u c h a s animal b u r r o w s a n d r o o t holes should also b e noted if t h e y a r e likely t o h a v e a significant effect on t h e mass properties of t h e soil. Soil pipes h a v e been recorded in Hong Kong in both colluvium and soils derived from weathered rocks. In some c a s e s t h e y h a v e been o b s e r v e d within landslide s c a r s (Nash & Chang, 1987), and h a v e t h e r e f o r e been considered a s a possible c a u s e of slope instability. The geometry a n d s e e p a g e a s p e c t s of voids should b e r e c o r d e d where possible. The recommendations in Sections 3.4.1 a n d 3.4.2 d o not cover t h e description of soil microstructure. This can b e important f o r engineering p u r p o s e s , e.g. soils with pronounced small-scale f a b r i c s , s u c h a s v e r y t h i n laminations i n marine clays, microfractures t h r o u g h a n d a r o u n d mineral g r a i n s i n soils derived from insitu rock weathering, etc. Partial assessment of t h e s e f e a t u r e s b y e y e may b e possible, depending on t h e i r spacing and continuity. b u t , if t h e soil microfabric i s of particular importance t o t h e e n g i n e e r i n g project, t h e u s e of a microscope i s recommended. A general introduction t o t h e s t u d y of soil microfabric. using optical microscopy, electron microscopy a n d X-ray diffraction t e c h n i q u e s , i s given by Tovey (1986b3. F u r t h e r information on microfabric description in granitic soils, and i t s relationship t o engineering properties. i s given b y Baynes & Dearman (1978a. 1978b). A t a slightly l a r g e r scale, McGown e t a1 (1980) provide useful guidance on t h e classification a n d description of f a b r i c f e a t u r e s visible to t h e naked e y e o r u n d e r a hand l e n s in sediments.
3.5
SOILS DERIVED FROM INSITU R O C K WEATHERING
Soils derived from insitu rock weathering o c c u r o v e r much of Hong Kong. both on land a n d offshore. Assessment of t h e engineering behaviour of t h e s e soils is of g r e a t importance f o r many a s p e c t s of t h e design and construction of s i t e formations and foundations. The s t a r t i n g point f o r s u c h assessments is a good engineering description.
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These soils can be divided into two main t y p e s , viz : (a) (b) soils t h a t retain t h e original t e x t u r e , f a b r i c a n d s t r u c t u r e of t h e p a r e n t rock, also known a s 'saprolites', a n d soils in which t h e rock texture/fabric/structure has been d e s t r o y e d , properly described a s 'residual soils'.
Both t h e s e soils a r e shown in t h e context of weathering of t h e p a r e n t rock in Tables 4 a n d 10. A t t h e material scale, t h e f i r s t of t h e s e soil t y p e s (saprolite) c o r r e s p o n d s to completely decomposed rock ( g r a d e V ) i n Table 4. b u t may also include less decomposed intensely disintegrated material (e.g. g r a d e IV) t h a t can be completely broken down t o a soil. The second t y p e i s t h e g r a d e VI residual soil.
A t t h e mass scale, saprolite forms t h e non-rock material in t h e partially weathered (PW90/100 t o PW0/30) rock mass zones in Table 10. The second soil t y p e ( t h e s t r u c t u r e l e s s residual soil) comprises t h e RS zone in Table 10; t h i s is identical t o t h e r e s i d u a l soil ( g r a d e VI) in Table 4 b u t simply r e f e r s t o a l a r g e r volume of material.
Different approaches a r e recommended f o r making full descriptions of t h e s e two main soil t y p e s . Saprolites (i.e. soils t h a t retain t h e rock t e x t u r e , f a b r i c a n d s t r u c t u r e ) a r e a special case f o r description, because t h e y can be described e i t h e r in rock ( s e e Chapter 2) o r soil ( s e e Chapter 3 ) terms, o r both. The recommended scheme i s t o u s e t h e rock terms given in Chapter 2, t o g e t h e r with t h e soil s t r e n g t h ( s e e Section 3.3.1) a n d soil name ( s e e Section 3.3.4) applicable t o t h e remoulded condition a d d e d in b r a c k e t s . For example, t h e description of a hand sample might b e 'extremely weak, d r y , light yellowish brown, e q u i g r a n u l a r . completely decomposed, coarse-grained GRANITE ( d e n s e , slightly silty gravelly SAND)'. The exception t o t h i s recommendation comes when t h e r e i s d o u b t about t h e origin of t h e soil, e.g. a v e r y small sample might not contain sufficient evidence of original rock t e x t u r e f o r t h e origin t o b e determined. In s u c h cases, t h e sample should be described by means of t h e soil t e r m s given in Chapter 3, followed by a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e p a r e n t rock a n d weathered s t a t e in b r a c k e t s , e.g. 'stiff, moist, g r e y i s h brown, slightly gravelly s a n d y SILT/CLAY (completely decomposed coarse a s h TUFF?)'. A t t h e mass scale, a full description of a saprolite should include a detailed description of discontinuities s u c h a s relict joints ( s e e Section 2.4.3). Full descriptions of residual, s t r u c t u r e l e s s soils should b e made b y means of t h e soil terms defined in Sections 3.2 a n d 3.3. If t h e r e i s sufficient field evidence in t h e weathering profile to identify t h e p a r e n t rock from which t h e r e s i d u a l soil has formed, t h i s should b e a d d e d in b r a c k e t s , e.g. 'firm, d r y , brown, slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY (Residual soil derived from fine a s h TUFF)'. Residual soils may b e difficult t o distinguish from o t h e r soils s u c h a s colluvium and fill. This i s considered in Section 3.6. True residual soils a r e r a r e l y developed t o a n y significant t h i c k n e s s in Hong Kong (usually l e s s t h a n 3 m). Generally, t h e y a r e much less important t o engineering t h a n t h e saprolites. F u r t h e r information on t h e n a t u r e , description and engineering p r o p e r t i e s of Hong Kong soils derived from insitu rock weathering i s given by Bennett (1984a). G C O (1982), Hencher & Martin (1982), Lumb (1965) a n d Ruxton &
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Berry (1957). Some illustrated examples of complete descriptions a r e given in Section 3.9. 3.6 COLLUVIUM
Colluvial soils o r 'mass wasting deposits' ( s e e Appendix A.6.2) a r e formed b y e a r t h materials slipping, flowing o r rolling down slopes u n d e r t h e action of gravity. Typical colluvial deposits in Hong Kong a r e s t r u c t u r e l e s s mixed accumulations of soil a n d rock fragments deposited on and a t t h e base of n a t u r a l slopes. The y o u n g e r colluvium is often loose, whereas some of t h e older colluvium may be partially o r wholly cemented. The deposits often have a distinctive lobe- o r fan-shaped s u r f a c e form a n d may b e interlayered with alluvial fan deposits formed by t h e action of r u n n i n g water. Colluvium i s widely d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e hilly t e r r a i n of Hong Kong. I t o c c u r s mostly in t h e form of s c a t t e r e d , relatively small accumulations on t h e lower p a r t s of t h e s t e e p major slopes. The maximum t h i c k n e s s of colluvium recorded in Hong Kong i s about 35 m, b u t t h i s is exceptional; most colluvium deposits a r e less t h a n 10 m thick. Detailed field s t u d i e s of t h e locations, s h a p e s and compositions of colluvial deposits b y t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y has enabled a classification of t h e deposits t o b e made according t o t h e i r mode of formation b y d i f f e r e n t mass movement processes. On t h e 1:20 000 HKGS Maps (e.g. GCO. 1986a), mass wasting deposits a r e subdivided into d e b r i s flow deposits, t a l u s (rockfall) deposits, mixed d e b r i s flow a n d talus deposits, a n d slide deposits. F u r t h e r information on t h e n a t u r e of t h e material in each of t h e s e classes is given b y Addison (1986) a n d Bennett (1984a). For routine p u r p o s e s , t h e description of colluvium should follow t h e recommendations given in Sections 3.2 t o 3.4. Since most colluvial deposits contain v e r y coarse (cobble- a n d boulder-size) fragments, t h e discussion of composite soils in Section 3.3.4 (2) a n d Table 16 i s of particular relevance f o r description. Although colluvial deposits a r e usually described a s ' s t r u c t u r e l e s s ' , Ruxton (1984) s u g g e s t e d t h a t a variety of s t r u c t u r e s exist in t h e colluvium i n t h e Mid-levels a r e a of Hong Kong Island. If p r e s e n t , s t r u c t u r a l t y p e s can only b e identified and described adequately in large exposures. Use of t h e p r o c e d u r e s a n d terms in Sections 3.3 a n d 3.4 should give a satisfactory basic description. However, if t h e colluvium is of particular importance t o t h e e n g i n e e r i n g project, i t i s recommended t h a t t h e following additional a s p e c t s should b e described : t h e proportion of v e r y coarse fragments (cobbles a n d boulders) t o t h e nearest lo%, a n y preferential distribution c o a r s e fragments, of the very
t h e a n g u l a r i t y , s t r e n g t h a n d decomposition g r a d e of t h e v e r y c o a r s e fragments, using t h e terms given in Table 14, Section 2.3.1 a n d Section 2.3.4, a n d t h e t h i c k n e s s of a n y clearly identifiable weathering r i n d s developed on t h e v e r y coarse fragments (measured in mm), t o g e t h e r with a n y o t h e r notable f e a t u r e s of t h i s r i n d (e.g. colour, decomposition grade. d e g r e e of
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f r a c t u r i n g ) relative t o t h e remainder of t h e cobble o r boulder. The importance of t h e s e additional observations has been demonstrated b y detailed investigations c a r r i e d o u t in t h e Mid-levels a r e a of Hong Kong. These investigations have indicated t h a t t h r e e s e p a r a t e classes of colluvium may b e recognized on t h e basis of t h e colour a n d stiffness of t h e matrix, t h e ratio of v e r y coarse fragments t o matrix material, a n d t h e d e g r e e of decomposition of t h e v e r y coarse fragments (GCO, 1982; Lai & Taylor, 1983). These classes probably reflect different a g e s of deposition. Where d i f f e r e n t classes can be o b s e r v e d clearly in t h e field, i t i s useful t o note t h i s in t h e description. Recognition of different classes may a s s i s t in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e geological s t r u c t u r e of a site, a n d in a s s e s s i n g laboratory test r e s u l t s on matrix materials. Colluvium may b e difficult t o distinguish from o t h e r t y p e s of soil, particularly soils derived from insitu rock weathering and fill. Distinctive f e a t u r e s t h a t can help to distinguish between t h e s e soil t y p e s a r e shown in Table 18. One particular problem t h a t i s often encountered in t h e description of drillcore and small excavations (e.g. trial p i t s ) i s t h e definition of t h e boundary between t h e base of t h e colluvium a n d t h e underlying decomposed rock. The two most reliable distinguishing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e usually a c h a n g e in colour and t h e a b s e n c e of small-scale rock t e x t u r e in t h e colluvial matrix material. Examples a r e shown in Plate 10. An example of t h e description of colluvium i s given in Section 3.9. 3.7 FILL
Fill o r 'made ground' is a v e r y common t y p e of soil found in t h e developed a r e a s of Hong Kong. The e x t e n t and t h i c k n e s s of fill soils v a r y widely, r a n g i n g from relatively small fill platforms used f o r building developments on s t e e p slopes, t o l a r g e a r e a s of coastal reclamation. Characteristics of fills s u c h a s colour, compactness/consistency a n d grain size can v a r y o v e r a v e r y wide r a n g e , d e p e n d e n t mainly on t h e origin of t h e material, a n d t h e methods of placement a n d compaction. Good engineering descriptions a r e of g r e a t importance in fill materials, which may b e difficult t o sample a n d t e s t satisfactorily if t h e y a r e heterogeneous, o r if t h e y contain l a r g e fragments of 'foreign' materials. The description of fill should follow Sections 3.2 t o 3.4. However, t h i s t y p e of accompanied by additional information, where engineering project, on t h e following a s p e c t s (a) t h e recommendations given in r o u t i n e description should b e considered r e l e v a n t t o t h e :
origin of t h e fill material, w h e t h e r n a t u r a l e a r t h material o r otherwise (e.g. domestic ref use, pulverized fuel a s h , etc).
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(b) (c) (d)
p r e s e n c e of l a r g e 'foreign' objects, s u c h a s pieces of concrete, masonry. brick. wood, metal o r plastic, p r e s e n c e of voids o r collapsible hollow objects. p r e s e n c e of chemical waste, particularly if i t a p p e a r s t o
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contain d a n g e r o u s o r poisonous s u b s t a n c e s , (e) (f) (g) o r g a n i c matter c o n t e n t a n d a n y s t r o n g smell, s t r i k i n g colours, a n d d a t e s readable on buried newspapers, etc.
With r e g a r d t o item ( a ) in t h i s list. information a b o u t t h e origin of t h e fill i s often useful in major e a r t h w o r k s , e.g. in t h e assessment of laboratory t e s t r e s u l t s and field measurements of compaction performance. Concerning t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e soil ( s e e Section 3.4.1). i t i s important t o describe a n y layering t h a t may be p r e s e n t . On slopes, layering approximately parallel t o t h e original slope s u r f a c e indicates t h a t t h e fill has probably been e n d - t i p p e d a n d i s likely to b e in a loose condition. The boundaries between different fill l a y e r s , o r between fill a n d t h e underlying n a t u r a l soil, a r e often marked b y a b r u p t c h a n g e s in r o o t content of t h e soil a n d t h e presence of older, buried topsoils r i c h in organic matter. Fill t h a t does n o t contain obvious inclusions of foreign materials may b e difficult t o distinguish from o t h e r t y p e s of soil. The penultimate p a r a g r a p h of Section 3.6 and Table 18 should b e noted. An example of t h e description of fill i s given in Section 3.9.
3.8
ADDITIONAL G E O L O G I C A L INFORMATION
Once t h e material a n d mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been d e s c r i b e d , t h e final item in a complete soil description should b e a geological name which indicates t h e geological origin o r soil t y p e . Many of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e names a r e shown in t h e l e g e n d s on t h e geological maps produced b y t h e HKGS. The name should be written with capital initial l e t t e r s (e.g. Alluvium, Fill, Marine mud, Colluvium). A s a general rule, a geological name should only be added t o a description where t h e origin of t h e material i s reasonably certain; c o n j e c t u r e should b e avoided. However, if t h e o b s e r v e r wishes t o record doubtful interpretation. an acceptable alternative i s t o indicate t h e u n c e r t a i n t y b y u s e of a suitable qualifying term o r a question mark (e.g. 'probably Colluvium'. 'Residual soil?') 3.9 EXAMPLES
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Seven different soils a r e illustrated in Plate 11. The f i r s t f o u r a r e hand samples a n d t h e l a s t t h r e e a r e mass exposures. The full descriptions of t h e s e soils a r e listed below for guidance in t h e u s e of a p p r o p r i a t e terms. (a) Plate 11A. (Residual Soil). Loose, d r y . yellowish brown. with occasional r o u n d e d q u a r t z g r a i n s 2 t o 4 mm size, silty gravelly SAND (Residual soil, from field evidence probably derived from coarse a s h o r lapilli TUFF). Slakes readily in water. Plate 1l B . (Completely Decomposed Granite). Extremely weak, d r y , l i g h t yellowish brown s p o t t e d with g r e y , d a r k brown a n d white, completely decomposed, medium-
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grained GRANITE, with occasional, discontinuous. randomly-oriented microfractures. of a v e r a g e spacing 2 t o 5 mm, visible in several small a r e a s ( < 50 mm2) on s u r f a c e of sample, generally s e p a r a t i n g i n t a c t f e l d s p a r g r a i n s from s u r r o u n d i n g matrix. One prominent microfracture, a p e r t u r e 1 mm. length 20 mm, c r o s s e s c e n t r e of sample. Slakes readily in water. Hand penetrometer s h e a r s t r e n g t h index 180 kPa. (Loose, slightly silty/clayey, gravelly SAND). (Note : material i s described a s a decomposed rock, except f o r t h e compactness a n d particle size distribution applicable t o t h e remoulded condition, which a r e added in p a r e n t h e s e s ) . (c) Plate 11C. (Marine Mud). Stiff, moist, d a r k brownish g r e y , slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY (Marine mud). Shear v a n e s t r e n g t h index 120 kPa. Contains occasional small fragments of white shells. Plate 11D. (Marine Sand). Loose, moist, light brown, slightly gravelly fine t o c o a r s e SAND (Marine s a n d ) . Contains some a n g u l a r a n d s u b a n g u l a r shell fragments a n d whole shells u p to 30 mm in length. SPT N value of 8 recorded in borehole A1 a t t h e level of t h i s sample. Plate 11E. (Colluvium). For descriptive p u r p o s e s , t h e colluvial deposit is divided ( t o p downwards) into t h r e e l a y e r s , mainly on t h e basis of differing size a n d proportion of t h e v e r y coarse fragments a n d d e g r e e of cementation of t h e matrix. Layer 1 i s a b o u t 2 m thick a n d forms approximately t h e u p p e r half of t h e deposit. Layers 2 and 3 a r e both about 1 m thick.
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Layer 1. Dense. d r y , yellowish brown ( l a r g e cobbles and boulders a r e l i g h t g r e y ) , bouldery COBBLES with much f i n e r material (slightly gravelly, s a n d y silt/clay). (Colluvium). Very c o a r s e fraction comprises mostly a n g u l a r a n d s u b a n g u l a r cobbles of v e r y s t r o n g to moderately s t r o n g , slightly to moderately decomposed, fine a s h t u f f ; also contains some a n g u l a r a n d s u b a n g u l a r boulders u p t o 0.8 m diameter and s e v e r a l detached, partly fragmented blocks of rock (fine a s h t u f f ) u p t o 1.2 m diameter showing closely -spaced joints. The f i n e r material i s partially cemented; removed easily by hammer b u t crumbled b y hand only with difficulty. Layer 2. Very stiff, d r y . yellowish brown, slightly gravelly, sandy SILT/CLAY with many (approximately 30%) s u b a n g u l a r t o s u b r o u n d e d cobbles a n d small boulders of s t r o n g to mode r a t e l y s t r o n g , moderately decomposed. fine a s h tuff (Colluvium). The matrix i s
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partially cemented ( a s in l a y e r 1). (iii) Layer 3 . Very stiff, moist, d a r k brown ( b o u l d e r s a r e l i g h t g r e y ) , slightly s a n d y gravelly SILT/CLAY with many (approximately 40%) s u b a n g u l a r t o s u b r o u n d e d cobbles and occasional r o u n d e d boulders of v e r y s t r o n g t o moderately s t r o n g . slightly to moderately decomposed, fine a s h tuff (Colluvium). The matrix i s wholly cemented; r e q u i r e s firm blows of hammer t o remove a n d c a n n o t b e crumbled completely b y hand.
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Based on t h e d e g r e e of cementation of t h e matrix, l a y e r s 1 a n d 2 a r e probably much y o u n g e r t h a n l a y e r 3. (f) Plate 11F. (Alluvium). This small exposure i s described a s an i n t e r b e d d e d deposit because t h e scale of t h e individual l a y e r s is too small t o w a r r a n t a s e p a r a t e description f o r each layer. Loose, moist, l i g h t brown, slightly silty/clayey, gravelly SAND with i n t e r b e d d e d soft, moist. greyish brown. slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY (Alluvium). Thickness of s a n d b e d s in t h e r a n g e 80 t o 200 mm ; clay b e d s 20 t o 60 mm. I n t e r b e d boundaries generally planar a n d sub-horizontal. occasionally highly i r r e g u l a r a n d show slump s t r u c t u r e . Some s a n d b e d s have a thickly-laminated s t r u c t u r e . o t h e r s a r e homogeneous; clay b e d s a r e thinly-laminated. (g) Plate 11G. (Fill). Four distinct l a y e r s a r e visible in t h e t r i a l p i t and a r e described from t h e top downwards. The t h i r d , dark-coloured l a y e r i s much t h i n n e r t h a n t h e o t h e r t h r e e layers. (i) Layer 1. Soft, d r y , l i g h t yellowish brown. s a n d y SILT/CLAY with many a n g u l a r cobbles and small boulders of moderately s t r o n g t o moderately weak, moderately to highly decomposed, a s h tuff a n d occasional pieces of brick (Fill). Boulders concentrated a t t h e base of t h e l a y e r with occasional discontinuous voids u p t o 100 mm diameter. Roots u p t o 5 mm diameter a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e layer. Layer 2. Soft, moist, brownish r e d , slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY with some rootlets and small a n g u l a r cobbles of moderately s t r o n g t o moderately weak, moderately t o highly decomposed. a s h tuff (Fill).
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Layer 3. Soft to firm, wet, dark g r e y i s h brown, slightly gravelly sandy SILT/CLAY (Fill). Layer 4. Firm, wet. brown, slightly sandy SILTICLAY with occasional small subangular cobbles of moderately weak. highly decomposed. ash tuff (Fill).
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4. ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCKS AND SOILS

4.1
GENERAL
A complete rock o r soil description gives information on t h e characteristics of a specific sample, whether t h i s is a hand-sized piece of material, a length of drillcore o r a mass exposure. Few samples have identical descriptions. Engineering classification, on t h e o t h e r hand, involves placing t h e rock o r soil i n t o a limited number of broad g r o u p s , each of which can b e expected t o show reasonably distinctive engineering behaviour. I t is emphasised t h a t classification in t h i s s e n s e r e f e r s t o t h e overall grouping of r o c k s o r soils with r e g a r d t o general engineering behaviour. I t should b e distinguished from t h e HKGS geoloqical classification of r o c k s a n d superficial deposits (Table 5, see also Appendix A ) a n d from s ~ e c i f i c classifications of individual characteristics, s u c h a s t h e classification of rock material s t r e n g t h (Table 2) o r decomposition g r a d e (Table 4 ) .
The main value of broad engineering classifications i s to give a simple general guide t o t h e behaviour of t h e rock o r soil d u r i n g construction. Because of t h e emphasis on construction a s p e c t s , t h e s e classifications a r e usually established mainly with r e f e r e n c e t o mass behaviour. There a r e various methods of classifying t h e mechanical behaviour of rock masses. These a r e considered in Section 4.2. For soils, engineering classifications based on grading and plasticity can give a good guide a s to how t h e remoulded soil will behave when used a s a construction material. This i s considered in Section
4.3.
Engineering classifications of r o c k s a n d soils have not been applied extensively in Hong Kong. The text in t h e next two sections i s t h e r e f o r e deliberately s h o r t . The aim i s t o provide brief general guidance, and t o quote key r e f e r e n c e s a n d examples t h a t can be followed u p in g r e a t e r detail if required. 4.2 GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF R O C K MASSES
Geomechanical classifications of rock masses a r e based on combining s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e rock mass and rock material into g r o u p s which can b e used to a s s e s s t h e overall engineering behaviour of t h e rock mass. A general introduction t o t h i s topic is given by Bieniawski (1976). The best-known examples of t h e s e classifications come from t h e field of tunnelling a n d u n d e r g r o u n d excavations, in particular t h e Norwegian (NGI) system (Barton e t al, 1974) and t h e South African (CSIR) Rock Mass Rating system (Bieniawski. 1974). These systems were s e t u p by combining s u c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s drillcore quality ( R Q D ) , compressive s t r e n g t h of rock material, spacing a n d condition of discontinuities, and g r o u n d w a t e r conditions, t o give a n overall r a t i n g o r rock mass quality in relation t o t h e requirements for t u n n e l s u p p o r t . For example, t h e CSIR system has five rock mass classes r a n g i n g from v e r y good rock t o v e r y poor rock. o t h e r well-known classification schemes a r e t h e f r a c t u r e spacing/point load s t r e n g t h classification c h a r t s u s e d t o a s s e s s rippability o r e a s e of excavation (Franklin e t al, 1971). and t h e empirical s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a developed b y Hoek & Brown (1980) f o r a rock mass classification based on rock t y p e , joint spacing and d e g r e e of joint weathering. Rock mass weathering zones
( s e e Section 2.4.4.). when used in conjunction with o t h e r mass a n d material properties (e.g. discontinuities a n d s t r e n g t h ) , can also form t h e basis of a rock mass engineering classification. For example, Dearman e t a1 (1978) used t h e BSI (1981) mass weathering scheme t o make a six-fold classification of weathered g r a n i t e s a n d gneisses from t h e point of view of e a s e of excavation, t u n n e l s u p p o r t , foundation suitability, drilling r a t e s and o t h e r factors. A useful summary of seven different rock mass classifications developed f o r various engineering works in Japan has been compiled b y t h e Japan Society of Engineering Geology (1987). I n Hong Kong. rock mass classifications have been applied t o a limited e x t e n t in t h e field of tunnelling a n d l a r g e rock excavations. McFeat-Smith e t a1 (1985) used a simple five-fold classification based on mass weathering a n d joint spacing f o r t h e assessment of temporary t u n n e l s u p p o r t a n d f o r contractual t e n d e r i n g a n d payment purposes. Beggs & McNicholl (1986) examined t h e u s e of a simplified CSIR system d u r i n g t h e investigation a n d design s t a g e of l a r g e rock excavations for housing development a t Ap Lei Chau. Hong Kong Island. Six-fold weathering-based classifications were used b y Watkins (1979) f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n - s t a g e mapping of foundations a n d t u n n e l s f o r t h e High Island water scheme, a n d b y Powell & I r f a n (1986) for preliminary assessment of failure modes a n d design of remedial measures a t t h r e e landslide sites. Whiteside & Bracegirdle (1984) developed a five-fold classification, similar t o t h e NGI system, f o r a s s e s s i n g rock mass looseness a n d t h e requirements for u n d e r g r o u n d s u p p o r t in small excavations i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t Hong Kong rocks. The Hoek & Brown (1980) rock mass s t r e n g t h classification has also been applied in Hong Kong in s e v e r a l cases of slope stability design in d i s t u r b e d . closely jointed volcanic r o c k s (unpublished work b y t h e G C O ) . Hoek (1983, 1986) has commented on t h e practical application of t h i s approach to mass s t r e n g t h assessment. 4.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES
The aim of most engineering soil classifications i s t o place a soil i n t o a limited number of g r o u p s on t h e basis of t h e g r a d i n g and plasticity of a d i s t u r b e d sample. These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e particular condition in which a soil o c c u r s , a n d t h e y d i s r e g a r d t h e influence of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e soil mass. Therefore, t h e value of t h i s t y p e of classification i s t h a t i t gives a guide a s t o how t h e d i s t u r b e d soil will behave, a t d i f f e r e n t moisture c o n t e n t s , when u s e d a s a construction material. I t does not provide a n y guidance a s t o how t h e u n d i s t u r b e d soil mass will perform d u r i n g construction (e.g. in relation t o settlement u n d e r foundation loading o r stability of excavation faces).
A well-known example of a soil classification system i s t h e British Soil Classification System (BSCS), which i s described b y BSI (1981). This system, slightly modified in accordance with Table 15, i s summarised in Tables 19 a n d 20, and in Figure 8. The principal soil g r o u p s a r e t h e same a s those shown in Table 11, b u t t h e s u b g r o u p s a r e divided f u r t h e r on t h e basis of laboratory tests.
This classification i s c a r r i e d o u t on material nominally f i n e r t h a n 60 mm. Coarser material (boulders a n d cobbles) should b e removed a n d i t s proportion of t h e whole soil should be estimated a n d r e c o r d e d a s 'cobbles' a n d / o r 'boulders' ( s e e Section 3.3.4(2)). The g r a d i n g of t h e gravel a n d finer material,
a n d t h e plasticity of t h a t fraction of t h e material passing a 425 pm sieve, i s t h e n determined from laboratory t e s t s . Grading a n d plasticity characteristics a r e divided into a number of clearly defined r a n g e s , each of which may be r e f e r r e d t o by a descriptive name a n d a descriptive l e t t e r , a s shown in Table 19. The soil g r o u p s in t h e classification a r e formed from combinations of t h e r a n g e s of characteristics. Table 20 gives t h e names of t h e g r o u p s a n d t h e symbols t h a t should b e used. The l e t t e r describing t h e dominant size fraction should b e placed f i r s t in t h e symbol (e.g. CS, s a n d y C L A Y ; SC, v e r y clayey SAND; S-C, clayey SAND). Any g r o u p may be qualified a s 'organic' if o r g a n i c matter i s a significant constituent, in which case t h e l e t t e r '0' is suffixed to t h e g r o u p symbol (e.g. C H O , o r g a n i c C L A Y of high plasticity; CHSO, o r g a n i c s a n d y C L A Y of high plasticity). However, t h e most important g r o u p of organic soils i s t h a t which plots below t h e A-line, MO (Figure 8 ) , and which comprises most M-soils of high liquid limit a n d above. Particle size distribution can b e plotted on a grading c h a r t , a s shown in Figure 9. This a s s i s t s in designating t h e soils a s 'well-graded' o r 'poorlygraded'. a n d , if poorly-graded, whether 'uniform' o r 'gap-graded'. Typical examples of t h e g r a d i n g c u r v e s of t h e s e a n d o t h e r materials a r e shown in Figure 9. Many Hong Kong soils. particularly colluvium a n d soils d e r i v e d from insitu weathering of coarse-grained igneous r o c k s , a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a v e r y wide r a n g e of g r a i n sizes from gravel to clay (excluding v e r y coarse material) a n d can b e described a s 'widely-graded' ( F i g u r e 9). Soil classification systems have not been widely used in Hong Kong, b u t t h e y may have application in p r o j e c t s involving major earthfilling works o r t h e u s e of n a t u r a l o r s c r e e n e d soils a s road construction materials. However, caution i s needed in t h e u s e of t h e s e systems f o r soils derived from insitu rock weathering. The g r a d i n g a n d plasticity characteristics of saprolites a n d r e s i d u a l soils may be affected b y pretreatment methods o r variations in moisture c o n t e n t (e.g. w h e t h e r t e s t e d in an air-dried o r n a t u r a l condition). BS 1377 (BSI, 1975) draws attention t o t h e difficulty of t e s t i n g "certain tropical soils" and "highly a g g r e g a t e d soils", with r e g a r d to t h e u s e of dispersing a g e n t s and p r e t r e a t m e n t methods in grading t e s t s . and air-dried o r n a t u r a l moisture condition samples in A t t e r b e r g limit t e s t s . However, no explicit recommendations a r e given in BS 1377 f o r dealing with t h e s e problematical soils. Very little work has been done on t h i s topic i n Hong Kong. Useful background information a n d d a t a for saprolites a n d r e s i d u a l soils in o t h e r p a r t s of t h e world a r e given by Mitchell & Sitar (1982) a n d t h e Committee on Tropical Soils of t h e ISSMFE (1985). In addition t o normal g r a d i n g a n d plasticity t e s t s , dispersion t e s t s (ASTM, 1985b; Decker & Dunnigan, 1977; Flanagan & Holmgren, 1977; S h e r a r d e t al, 1976; S t a n d a r d s Association of Australia, 1980, 1984) may prove useful in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e likely engineering behaviour of t h e s e soils. I t is recommended t h a t t h e u s e of a n y p r e t r e a t m e n t methods o r d i s p e r s a n t s for grading and plasticity t e s t s should always b e r e c o r d e d in full on laboratory t e s t r e s u l t s s h e e t s a n d in r e p o r t s . Apart from t h e general difficulties which may be met in t h e classification of soils derived from weathered r o c k s , t h e u s e of t h e BSCS in particular has been criticised when applied t o coarse-grained granitic soils. The distinction between coarse a n d fine soils in t h e BSCS (i.e. 35% passing a 63 pm sieve), means t h a t a significant proportion of decomposed granitic soils would b e classified a s fine soil, according to t h e a v e r a g e g r a d i n g s given b y Lumb
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Granitic soils tend to be regarded as coarse soils in current Hong Kong practice as far as their general engineering behaviour is concerned. Therefore, other classification systems, such as the American U C S system (ASTM, 1985c), may be more appropriate for this type of soil.
(1962).
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5.
5.1
LEGEND FOR MAPS, PLANS AND DIAGRAMS
SYMBOLS FOR ROCKS AND SOILS
Recommended symbols a r e listed in Table 21 for t h e principal rock a n d soil t y p e s t h a t a r e likely t o b e encountered in Hong Kong. The symbols a r e simple a n d distinctive, a n d t h e y combine easily into symbols f o r composite t y p e s of r o c k s a n d soils. The symbols a r e based upon t h o s e given b y t h e Geological Society (1972), with some alterations; additional symbols a r e also given in t h e same publication. 5.2 5.2.1
O T H E R SYMBOLS
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Symbols f o r Borehole Records
Recommended symbols f o r borehole r e c o r d s a r e given in Table 22. Examples of completed borehole logs a r e given in Geoguide 2 : Guide t o Site Investigation ( G C O , 1987a). 5.2.2 Symbols f o r Geological S t r u c t u r e s a n d Boundaries
Recommended symbols f o r g e n e r a l planar s t r u c t u r e s a r e given in Table 23. For each s t r u c t u r a l t y p e , t h e long b a r of t h e symbol indicates t h e s t r i k e direction, and t h e s h o r t b a r indicates t h e dip amount in d e g r e e s measured from t h e horizontal. Formerly, t h e dip arrow was used exclusively t o indicate t h e direction a n d amount of dip of bedding planes. I t i s still used occasionally a n d provides a n acceptable a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e b a r symbol. Bedding, foliation, banding and cleavage in sedimentary a n d metamorphic r o c k s may b e c o r r u g a t e d o r undulating, although t h e general disposition may b e horizontal, inclined o r vertical. These conditions may b e indicated by sinuous strike bars. Recommended symbols f o r o t h e r geological s t r u c t u r e s a n d geological boundaries a r e given in Table 24. A distinction i s made on t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y maps between boundaries of superficial deposits a n d boundaries of solid rock. Some indication i s usually given of t h e a c c u r a c y of boundaries, broken lines denoting u n c e r t a i n t y in t h e positions of solid rock boundaries and faults. This principle may b e applied t o t h e t r e n d a n d , where a p p r o p r i a t e , to t h e position of t h e t r a c e s of o t h e r planar s t r u c t u r e s . On large-scale engineering geological plans, faults and fault zones d o not call for distinctive s t r u c t u r a l symbols. They a r e usually mapped a s zones. of which t h e margins a r e plotted a n d f o r which t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d filling materials a r e mapped in detail. The symbol on Table 22 may be used to indicate t h e margins of t h e fault, a n d t h e same principle may b e applied t o t h e details included in t h e borehole r e c o r d .
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REFERENCES
Addison, R . (1986). Geology of Sha Tin, 1:20 000 S h e e t 7. Geoloqical S u r v e v Memoir No. 1. Geotechnical Control Kong. 85 p. Hong Kong Office. Honq -
Allen, P.M. & S t e p h e n s , E.A. (1971). Report on t h e Geological S u r v e v of Hong Konq, 1967 - 1969. Hong Kong Government P r e s s , 116 p. plus 2 maps. ASTM (1985a). S t a n d a r d practice f o r description a n d identification of soils (visual-manual) p r o c e d u r e . T e s t Designation D2488-84. 1985 Annual Book of ASTM S t a n d a r d s . American Society f o r Testing a n d Materials, Philadelphia. vol. 04.08. pp 409-423. ASTM (1985b). S t a n d a r d t e s t method f o r d i s p e r s i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of clay soil by double hydrometer. Test Designation D4221-83a. 1985 Annual Book of ASTM S t a n d a r d s , American Society f o r Testing a n d Materials, Philadelphia, vol. 04.08, pp 733-735. ASTM ( 1 9 8 5 ~ ) . S t a n d a r d t e s t method f o r classification of soils f o r e n g i n e e r i n g purposes. T e s t Designation D2487-83. 1985 Annual Book of ASTM S t a n d a r d s . American Society f o r Testing a n d Materials, Philadelphia, vol. 04.08, pp 395-408.
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Barton. N . , Lien, R. & Lunde. J. (1974). Engineering classification of rock masses f o r t h e design of t u n n e l s u p p o r t . Rock Mechanics, vol. 6, p p 189-236. Baynes. F.J. & Dearman. W.R. (1978a). The relationship between t h e microf a b r i c a n d t h e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s of w e a t h e r e d g r a n i t e . Bulletin of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geoloqy, no. 18, p p 191-197. Baynes, F.J. & Dearman, W.R. (1978b). The microfabric of a chemically weathered g r a n i t e . Bulletin of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geology, no. 18. p p 91-100. Beggs, C.J. & McNicholl. D.P. (1986). Formation of a high rock slope at Ap Lei Chau. Hong Kong. Proceedinqs of t h e Conference on Rock Engineering a n d Excavation i n an U r b a n Environment, Hong Kong, p p 114. (Discussion. p p 480-481). Beggs. C.J. & Tonks, D.M. (1985). Engineering geology of t h e Yuen Long basin. Honq Konq Engineer. vol. 13. no. 3. p p 33-41. B e n n e t t , J.D. (1984a). Review of Superficial Deposits a n d Weathering i n Honq . -K G C O Publication No. 4/84, Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong. 51 p Bennett. J.D. (1984b). Review of Tectonic History. Structure and Metamorphism of Hong Kong. G C O Publication No. 6/84, Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong. 63 p. Bieniawski, Z.T. (1974). Geomechanics classification of rock masses a n d i t s application i n tunnelling. Proceedinqs of t h e Third I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of t h e International Society f o r Rock Mechanics, Denver, vol. 2A, pp 27-32.
Bieniawski, Z.T. (1976). Rock mass classifications in rock e n g i n e e r i n g . Proceedinqs of t h e Symposium on Exploration f o r Rock Engineering. J o h a n n e s b u r g , p p 97-106. B r a n d , E.W. (1988). Bibliography on the Geology a n d Geotechnical E n g i n e e r i n g of Honq Konq t o December 1987. G C O Publication No. 1/88. Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong. 150 p . B r a n d , E.W., Hencher, S.R. & Youdan. D.G. (1983). Rock slope e n g i n e e r i n g i n Hong Kong. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e Fifth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Societv f o r Rock Mechanics, Melbourne, vol. 1, p p C17-C24. (Discussion, vol. 3, p p G126). Brown. E.T. ( E d i t o r ) (1981). Rock Characterization Testing a n d Monitoring : ISRM S u g g e s t e d Methods. Pergamon P r e s s , Oxford, 211 p. BSI (1957). Site I n v e s t i g a t i o n s (CP 2001 : 1957). British S t a n d a r d s Institution. London. 123 p. BSI (1975). Methods of Test f o r Soil f o r Civil Engineering P u r p o s e s (BS1377 : 1975). British S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n . London. 144 p. British
BSI (1981). Code of Practice f o r Site I n v e s t i g a t i o n s (BS 5930 : 1981). S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n , London, 148 p.
B u r n e t t , A.D. & Lai, K.W. (1984). A review of t h e photo-geological lineaments a n d f a u l t s y s t e m of Hong Kong. P r o c e e d i n q s of t h e Conference on Geological Aspects of Site I n v e s t i g a t i o n , Hong Kong, p p 113-131. (Discussion, p p 135). (Published as Geological Society of Hong Kong, Bulletin no. 2, e d i t e d b y I. McFeat-Smith, 1985). Child. G.H. (1984). Soil d e s c r i p t i o n s - q u o v a d i s ? Proceedings of t h e 20th Regional Meeting of t h e Engineering Group of t h e Geological Society, Guildford, U K . p p 73-81. (Discussion, p p 82-84). (Published as Site Investigation Practice : Assessing BS 5930, e d i t e d b y A.B. Hawkins. Geological Societv. Enqineering Geoloqy Special Publication no. 2, 1986). (Also published in p r e p r i n t vol. 2, p p 131-150). Committee on Tropical Soils of t h e ISSMFE (1985). Peculiarities of Geotechnical Behaviour of Tropical Lateritic a n d Saprolitic Soils : P r o g r e s s Report (1982-1985). Brazilian Society f o r Soil Mechanics. Sao Paulo, 449 p. Dearman, W.R. (1981). General Report. Session 1 : Engineering p r o p e r t i e s of carbonate rocks. Proceedings of t h e Symposium on E n g i n e e r i n g Geological Problems of Construction on Soluble Rocks, I s t a n b u l . (Published i n Bulletin of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of E n g i n e e r i n g Geology. no. 24. pp 3-17). Dearman, W.R., Baynes, F.J. & Irfan. T.Y. (1978). Engineering g r a d i n g of w e a t h e r e d g r a n i t e . Engineering Geology, vol. 12. pp 345-374. Development a n d u s e of t h e Soil Decker, R.S. & Dunnigan, L.P. (1977). Conservation S e r v i c e Dispersion Test. Dispersive Clays, Related Piping, a n d Erosion i n Geotechnical P r o j e c t s . American Society f o r Testing a n d Materials. Special Technical Publication no. 623. pp 94-109.
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s f o r new town planning a t Tin S h u i Dutton, C. (1984). ~ e o l o g i c a l Wai, New T e r r i t o r i e s , Hong Kong. Proceedings of t h e Conference on Geological Aspects of Site Investigation. Hong Kong. p p 189-202. (Published a s Geoloqical Society of Hong Kong, Bulletin no. 2, e d i t e d by I. McFeat-Smith, 1985). Flanagan. C.P. & Holmgren, G.G.S. (19771. Field methods f o r determination of soluble s a l t s a n d p e r c e n t sodium from e x t r a c t f o r identifying d i s p e r s i v e clay soils. Dispersive Clays. Related Pipinq, a n d Erosion in Geotechnical P r o j e c t s . American Society f o r Testing a n d Materials. Special Technical publication no. 623, p p 121-134. Fookes, P.G. & A.B. Hawkins (1988). Limestone weathering : i t s e n g i n e e r i n g significance a n d a proposed classification scheme. Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of Engineering Geology, vol. 21. p p 7-31. Franklin, J.A., Broch, E. & Walton, G . (1971). Logging t h e mechanical c h a r a c t e r of r o c k . Transactions of t h e I n s t i t u t i o n of Mining a n d Metallurgy, vol. 80. pp A1-A9. Gamon, T.I. (1984). The u s e of t h e point load test f o r t h e determination of s t r e n g t h of w e a t h e r e d r o c k s in Hong Kong. Geological Society of Hong Konq Newsletter, vol. 2, no. 4, p p 9-16. Gamon. T.I. & Finn, R.P. (1984a). The s t r u c t u r e of t h e Hong Kong g r a n i t e - a preliminary appraisal. Geoloqical Society of Hong Konq Newsletter, vol. 2, no. 2, pp 5-10. Gamon, T.I. & Finn, R.P. (1984b). Simplified d e s c r i p t i v e scheme a n d classification s y s t e m f o r t h e logging of c u t slope faces. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 20th Reqional Meeting of t h e Engineerinq Group of t h e Geoloqical Society. Guildford. U K , pp 253-260. (Published a s Site Investigation Practice : Assessing BS 5930, e d i t e d by A.B. Hawkins. Geological Society, Engineering Geology Special Publication no. 2, 1986). (Also published i n p r e p r i n t vol. 1, 1984. p p 238-248). Gamon, T.I. & Szeto, P.L. (1984). The determination of t h e uniaxial compressive s t r e n g t h of rock material - a review of c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e in Hong Kong. Proceedings of t h e Conference on Geoloqical Aspects of Site Investigation, Hong Kong. pp 9-20. (Discussion. p p 69-72). (Published as Geoloqical Society of Hong Kong, Bulletin no. 2, e d i t e d by I. McFeat-Smith, 1985).
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(1982). Mid-levels S t u d y : Report on Geoloqv, Hydrology a n d Soil P r o ~ e r t i e s . Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong. 2 vols, 266 p, plus 54 d r g s . (Second edition). Geotechnical
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G C O (1986a). S h a Tin : Solid a n d Superficial Geology (1:20 000 map). Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Map S e r i e s HGM 20. S h e e t 7. Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 1 map. GCO
(1986b). Hong Konq a n d Kowloon : Solid a n d Superficial Geology (1:20 000 ma^). Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Map S e r i e s HGM 20. S h e e t 11. Geotechnical Control Office. Hong Kong, 1 map.
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G C O (1987a).
Guide t o Site Investigation (Geoguide 2). Office. Hong Kong. 362 p.
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G C O (1987b). Hong Kong South a n d Lamma Island : Solid a n d Superficial Geology (1:20 000 map). Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Map S e r i e s HGM 20, S h e e t 15. Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 1 map.
G C O (1988a). San Tin : Solid a n d Superficial Geology (1:20 000 map). Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Map S e r i e s HGM 20, S h e e t 2. Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 1 map.
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(1988b). Tsing Shan (Castle P e a k ) : Solid a n d Superficial Geologv (1:20 000 map). Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Map S e r i e s H G M 20, S h e e t 5. Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 1 map.
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G C O ( 1 9 8 8 ~ ) . Yuen Long : Solid a n d Superficial Geology (1:20 000 map). Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Map S e r i e s H G M 20, S h e e t 6. Geotechnical Control Office. Hong Kong, 1 map.
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Geological Society (1972). The p r e p a r a t i o n of maps a n d plans in terms of e n g i n e e r i n g geology. Geological Society Engineering Group Working P a r t y Report. Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of Engineering Geology, vol. 5, p p 295381. Geological Society (1977). The description of rock masses f o r e n g i n e e r i n g p u r p o s e s . Geological Society Engineering Group Working P a r t y Report, Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of Engineering Geology, vol. 10, p p 355-388. Harris, R . (1985). Mass o r massive : a t e c h n i q u e f o r jointed soils. Engineering, vol. 18, no. 5, p p 24-31. Ground
Hawkins, A.B. (1984). Rock d e s c r i p t i o n s . Proceedings of t h e 20th Regional Meeting of t h e Engineering Group of t h e Geological Society. Guildford, U K , p p 59-66. (Discussion. p p 66-72). (Published a s S i t e I n v e s t i g a t i o n Practice : Assessing BS 5930, e d i t e d by A.B. Hawkins. Geological Society, Engineering Geology Special Publication no. 2, 1986). (Also published i n p r e p r i n t vol. 2, pp 107-130). Head. K.H. (1980). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 1 : Soil Classification a n d Compaction Tests. Pentech P r e s s , Plymouth, UK. 339 p. Hencher, S.R. (1985). Limitations of s t e r e o - g r a p h i c projections f o r rock slope stability analysis. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 13, no. 7, p p 37-41. Hencher, S.R. & Martin, R.P. (1982). The d e s c r i p t i o n a n d classification of w e a t h e r e d r o c k s in Hong Kong f o r e n g i n e e r i n g p u r p o s e s . P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e S e v e n t h S o u t h e a s t Asian Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong. vol. 1, p p 125-142. (Discussion, vol. 2, p p 167-168). Hencher, S.R. & Richards, L.R. (1982). The b a s i c frictional r e s i s t a n c e of s h e e t i n g joints i n Hong Kong g r a n i t e . Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 11, no. 2, p p 21-25.
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Hoek, E. (1983). S t r e n g t h of jointed rock masses. pp 187-223.
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Hoek, E. (1986). Practical rock mechanics - developments o v e r t h e p a s t 25 years. Proceedings of t h e Conference on Rock Engineering a n d Excavation in an U r b a n Environment. Hong Kong, p p ix-xvi. Hoek, E. & Brown. E.T. (1980). Empirical s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i o n f o r rock masses. J o u r n a l of Geotechnical Enqineerinq, American Society of Civil E n g i n e e r s , vol. 106, p p 1013-1035. Rock S l o ~ e Enqineering. Hoek, E. & Bray, J.W. (1981). I n s t i t u t i o n of Mining a n d Metallurgy, London, 358 p. ( T h i r d edition).
Holt, J.K. (1962). The soils of Hong Kong's coastal waters. Proceedings of t h e Symposium on Honq Konq Soils. Hong Kong. p p 33-51. (Discussion. p p 141-148). Marine o r t e r r e s t r i a l ? The soils of Tai Tam Bay. Howat, M.D. (1984). Proceedinqs of t h e Conference on Geoloqical Aspects of Site Investiqation, Hong Kong, p p 151-165. (Published a s Geoloqical Society of Honq Konq. Bulletin no. 2, e d i t e d b y I. McFeat-Smith, 1985). Howat, M.D. (1986). Reply t o discussion by T.I. Gamon on "Completely w e a t h e r e d g r a n i t e - soil o r rock?" by M.D. Howat. Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of Enqineerinq Geoloqy. vol. 18, p p 199-206. (Discussion, vol. 19, p p 433437). (Reply t o discussion. vol. 19, p p 437). Hunt. T. (1982). S l o ~ e f a i l u r e s in colluvium overlying . - weak r e s i d u a l soils i n Hong Kong. Proceedings of t h e ASCE Specialty Conference on Engineerinq a n d Construction i n Tropical a n d Residual Soils. Honolulu, Huntley, S.L. & Randall. P.A. (19811. Recognition of colluvium i n Hong Kong. Honq Konq Enqineer, vol. 9. no. 12, p p 13-18. IAEG (1981). Rock a n d soil description a n d classification f o r e n g i n e e r i n g geological mapping. Bulletin of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geoloqy. no. 24. p p 235-274. The e n g i n e e r i n g p e t r o g r a p h y of a I r f a n . T.Y. & Dearman, W.R. (1978). w e a t h e r e d g r a n i t e i n Cornwall. England. Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of Engineering Geoloqy, vol. 11, p p 233-244. I r f a n , T.Y. & Powell, G.E. (1985a). Verification of f o u n d i n g d e p t h of l a r g e diameter piles on g r a n i t i c rock. Honq Konq Engineer, vol. 13, no. 8, p p 11-17. (Discussion, vol. 13, no. 12, pp 7-8). I r f a n , T.Y. & Powell. G.E. (1985b). Engineering geological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s f o r pile f o u n d a t i o n s on a deeply w e a t h e r e d g r a n i t i c r o c k i n Hong Kong. Bulletin of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geoloqy, no. 32. p p 67-80. ISRM (1978). S u g g e s t e d methods f o r t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of discontinuities i n rock masses. I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of Rock Mechanics a n d Mining Sciences & Geomechanics A b s t r a c t s , vol. 15, p p 319-368.
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(1985). Sug methods f o r determining point load s t r e n g t h . - g - ested I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of Rock Mechanics a n d Mininq Sciences & Geomechanics A b s t r a c t s . vol. 22. p p 51 -60.
J a p a n Society of Engineering Geology (1987). Rock Classification in J a p a n . The J a p a n e s e Group of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geology, J a p a n Society of Engineering Geology, Tokyo, 37 p. Koo. Y.C. (1982a). Relict joints in completely decomposed volcanics i n Hong Kong. Canadian Geotechnical J o u r n a l . vol. 19, pp 117-123. The influence of relict joints on slopes i n w e a t h e r e d , Koo, Y.C. (1982b). water-laid volcanics in Hong Kong. Proceedinqs of t h e S e v e n t h S o u t h e a s t Asian Geotechnical Conference. Hong Kong, vol. 1, p p 23-30. Lai, K.W. & Taylor, B.W. (1983). The classification of colluvium i n Hong Kong. Proceedinqs of t h e Meetinq on t h e Geology of Surficial Deposits i n Hong Kong, Hong Kong. p p 75-85. (Published as Geological Society of Hong Konq, Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d by W.W.S. Yim, 1984). Langford, R.L., Lai, K.W., A r t h u r t o n , R.S. & Shaw, R . (1988). Geoloqv of t h e Western New T e r r i t o r i e s . 1 : 20 000 S h e e t s 2. 5 a n d 6. Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Memoir No. 3, Geotechnical Control Office. Hong Kong, in p r e s s .
Liu, K.H. & Gammon, J.R.A. (19831. Q u a t e r n a r y geology, w e a t h e r i n g a n d geomorphology of Hong Kong. Proceedinqs of t h e Meetinq on t h e Geology of Surficial Deposits i n Hong Kong. Hong Kong. p p 49-59. (Published as GeoIosical Society of Hong Kong, Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d b y W.W.S. Yim, 1984). Lumb, P. (1962). The p r o p e r t i e s of decomposed g r a n i t e . GBotechnique, vol. 12, p p 226-243, p l u s 2 plates. Lumb, P. (1965). p p 180-194. The r e s i d u a l soils of Hong Kong. GBotechniaue, vol. 15, (Discussion, vol. 16, 1966, p p 78-81 a n d 359-360).
Lumb, P. (1977). The marine soils of Hong Kong a n d Macau. Proceedings of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on Soft Clay, Bangkok, p p 45-48. (Published u n d e r t h e t i t l e Geotechnical Aspects of Soft Clays, e d i t e d b y R.P. B r e n n e r & E.W. Brand, Asian I n s t i t u t e of Technology, Bangkok, 1977). Lumb, P. (1983). Engineering p r o p e r t i e s of f r e s h a n d decomposed i g n e o u s r o c k s from Hong Kong. Engineering Geoloqy, vol. 19, p p 81-94. Tunnelling McFeat-Smith, I.. T u r n e r , V.D. & Bracegirdle. D.R. (1985). conditions i n Hong Kong. Hong Konq Engineer, vol. 13, no. 6, p p 1325. (Discussion, vol. 13, no. 9, p 5 ) . McGown. A.. Marsland. A., Radwan, M. & Gabr, A.W.A. (1980). Recording a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g soil macrofabric data. GBotechniaue, vol. 30, p p 417-447. Martin, R.P. (1986). Use of index tests f o r e n g i n e e r i n g assessment of w e a t h e r e d r o c k s . Proceedings of t h e Fifth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geology, Buenos Aires, vol. 2. p p 433-450.
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Miller, D.R.. B a r r e t t . J.R. & Bamford, W.E. (1986). A field c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r uniaxial s t r e n g t h of diamond d r i l l c o r e u s i n g simple field i n d e x tests. A u s t r a l i a n Geomechanics News, no.11, J u n e , p p 14-18. Mitchell, J.K. & S i t a r , N. (1982). E n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t r o p i c a l r e s i d u a l soils. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e ASCE S p e c i a l t y C o n f e r e n c e on E n g i n e e r i n g a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n i n T r o p i c a l a n d R e s i d u a l Soils, Honolulu, p p 30-57. E n g i n e e r i n g g e o l o g y f o r t h e Snowy M o u n t a i n s s c h e m e . Moye, D.G. (1955). J o u r n a l of t h e I n s t i t u t i o n of E n g i n e e r s . A u s t r a l i a , vol. 27, p p 281-299. Munsell, A.H. (1941). A Color Notation : Munsell Soil Color C h a r t s . Color Co. I n c . , Baltimore, USA. Munsell
Nash, J . M . & Dale, M.J. (1983). Geology a n d h y d r o g e o l o g y of n a t u r a l t u n n e l e r o s i o n i n s u p e r f i c i a l d e p o s i t s i n Hong Kong. P r o c e e d i n q s of t h e Meeting o n t h e Geology of S u r f i c i a l Deposits i n Honq Kong, Hong Kong, p p 61-72. ( P u b l i s h e d as Geological S o c i e t y of Hong Kong. Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d b y W.W.S. Yim, 1984). Nash, J.M. & C h a n g . D.C.H. (1987). A p r o p o s e d e r o s i o n model f o r c u t s l o p e s i n Hong Kong. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e E i g h t h Asian Reqional C o n f e r e n c e o_n_ Soil Mechanics a n d F o u n d a t i o n E n q i n e e r i n q . Kyoto. vol. 1 . p p 477-482. Nau. P.S. (1984). J o i n t s y s t e m of Hong Kong g r a n i t e . P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e o n Geological A s p e c t s of S i t e I n v e s t i g a t i o n , Hong Kong, p p 89-98. ( P u b l i s h e d as Geological S o c i e t y of Hong Kong. Bulletin no. 2. e d i t e d b y I. McFeat-Smith. 1985). N o r b u r y , D.R.. Child. G.H. & S p i n k , T.W. (1984). A c r i t i c a l r e v i e w of S e c t i o n 8 (BS 5930) - Soil a n d Rock D e s c r i p t i o n . P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 2 0 t h Regional Meeting of t h e E n g i n e e r i n g Group of t h e Geological S o c i e t y . G u i l d f o r d , UK, p p 331-342. ( P u b l i s h e d as S i t e I n v e s t i g a t i o n P r a c t i c e : A s s e s s i n g BS 5930, e d i t e d b y A.B. Hawkins. Geological S o c i e t y , E n g i n e e r i n g G r o u p S p e c i a l P u b l i c a t i o n no. 2, 1986). (Also p u b l i s h e d i n p r e p r i n t vol. 2, p p 353-369). Pascall, D. (1987). C a v e r n o u s g r o u n d i n Yuen L o n g , Hong Kong. E n g i n e e r i n g , vol. 18, p p 205-221. Geotechnical
Powell. G.E. & I r f a n , T.Y. (1986). Slope r e m e d i a l w o r k s i n w e a t h e r e d r o c k s f o r d i f f e r i n g r i s k s . P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e o n Rock E n g i n e e r i n g a n d Excavation i n a n U r b a n E n v i r o n m e n t , Hong Kong, p p 347-355. ( D i s c u s s i o n , p p 466 a n d 469-470). R i c h a r d s , L.R. & Cowland, J.W. (1982). T h e e f f e c t of s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s o n t h e field s h e a r s t r e n g t h of s h e e t i n g j o i n t s i n Hong Kong g r a n i t e . Kong E n g i n e e r , vol. 10, no. 10, p p 39-43. Rodin, S., C o r b e t t , B.O., S h e r w o o d , D.E. & T h o r b u r n . S. (1974). P e n e t r a t i o n t e s t i n g i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom : S t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t r e p o r t . P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e E u r o p e a n Symposium o n P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t i n g , Stockholm, p p 140-146. Ruxton, B.P. (1984). T h e s t r u c t u r e of some d e b r i s flows i n Hong Kong. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e o n Geological A s p e c t s of Site I n v e s t i g a t i o n , Hong Kong. p p 105- 11 1. ( P u b l i s h e d as Geological S o c i e t y of Hong Kong, Bulletin no. 2. e d i t e d b y I . McFeat-Smith. 1985).
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Ruxton, B.P. (1986). I r o n cementation i n boulder colluvium matrix Kong city. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e S y m ~ o s i u mon t h e Role of U r b a n Development i n S o u t h e a s t Asia (Landplan 111). pp 359-372. (Published a s Geological Society of Hong Kong, 3, e d i t e d by P.G.D. Whiteside, 1987).
u n d e r Hong Geology i n Hong Kong. Bulletin no.
Ruxton, B.P. & B e r r y , L. (1957). Weathering of g r a n i t e a n d associated erosional f e a t u r e s in Hong Kong. Bulletin of t h e Geological Society of America. vol. 68, p p 1263-1291. p l u s 1 plate. Shaw, R., Zhou, K., Gervais, E. & Allen, L.O. (1986). Results of a palaeontological investigation of Chek Lap Kok borehole (B13/B13A) North Lantau. Geological Society of Honq Konq Newsletter, vol. 4, no. 2, pp 1-12.
S h e r a r d , J.L., Dunnigan. L.P.. Decker. R.S. & Steele. E.F. (1976). Pinhole test f o r identifying d i s p e r s i v e soils. J o u r n a l of t h e Geotechnical E n g i n e e r i n g Division, American Society of Civil Engineers. vol. 102. pp 69-85. Skempton, A.W. (1986). S t a n d a r d penetration test p r o c e d u r e s a n d t h e e f f e c t s i n s a n d s of o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e , r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , particle size, ageing a n d overconsolidation. Geotechnique, vol. 36, pp 425-447. S t a n d a r d s Association of Australia (1980). Determination of Emerson Class Number of a soil. Australian S t a n d a r d Methods of Testinq Soils f o r Engineering P u r p o s e s , no. AS 1289. C8.1-1980, S t a n d a r d s Association of Australia, S y d n e y . 3 p. S t a n d a r d s Association of Australia (1984). Determination of pinhole d i s p e r s i o n classification of a soil. Australian S t a n d a r d Methods of Testing Soils f o r Engineering P u r p o s e s . no. AS1289, C8.3-1984, S t a n d a r d s Association of Australia, S y d n e y , 5 p. S t r a n g e , P.J. (1984). Towards a simpler classification of t h e Hong Kong g r a n i t e s . Proceedings of t h e Conference on Geological Aspects of Site Investigation, Hong Kong, p p 99-103. (Published a s Geological Society of Honq Konq, Bulletin no. 2, e d i t e d b y I. McFeat-Smith, 1985). S t r a n g e , P.J. & Shaw, R . (1986). Geology of Hong Kong Island a n d Kowloon, 1:20 000 S h e e t s 11 a n d 15. Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Memoir No. 2, Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 134 p. Tovey. N.K. (1986a). Microanalyses of a Hong Kong marine clay. Engineering. vol. 17. p p 167-210. Geotechnical
Tovey, N.K. (l986b). Microfabric, chemical a n d mineralogical s t u d i e s of soils : t e c h n i q u e s . Geotechnical Engineering, vol. 17, p p 131-166. Wang, P. & Yim, W.W.S. (1985). Preliminary investigation on t h e o c c u r r e n c e of marine microfossils in a n o f f s h o r e drillhole from Lei Yue Mun Bay. Geological Society of Hong Kong Newsletter, vol. 2, no. 1, pp 1-5. Engineering geological mapping f o r t h e High Island Watkins, M.D. (1979). w a t e r scheme i n Hong Kong. Proceedings of t h e Symposium on Engineering Geological M a p ~ i n g , Newcastle-upon-Tyne. (Published in Bulletin of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geology, no.19. p p 166-1751,
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Whiteside, P.G.D. (1983). P a t t e r n of Q u a t e r n a r y sediments revealed d u r i n g piling works a t S h a Tin, Hong Kong. Proceedings of t h e Meeting on t h e Geoloqy of Surficial Deposits i n Honq Konq. Hong Kong. p p 153-159. (Published as Geological Society of Hong Kong, Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d by W.W.S. Yim, 1984). Whiteside, P.G.D. & Bracegirdle. D.R. ( 1984). Geological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of some Hong Kong r o c k s a n d t h e i r importance i n u n d e r g r o u n d excavation works. Proceedings of t h e Conference on Geological Aspects of Site Investigation, Hong Kong, pp 175-187. (Published a s Geological Society of Hong Konq, Bulletin no. 2, e d i t e d by I. McFeat-Smith, 1985). Willis, A.J. & Shirlaw. J.N. (1983). Deep alluvial deposits b e n e a t h Victoria P a r k , Causeway Bay. Proceedings of t h e Meetinq on t h e Geology of Surficial Deposits in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, pp 143-152. (Published a s Geoloqical Society of Honq Kong, Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d b y W.W.S. Yim, 1984). Yim, W.W.S. (1983). A sedimentological s t u d y of t h e seafloor sediments exposed d u r i n g excavation of t h e E a s t Dam Site. High Island. Sai Kung. Proceedings of t h e Meetinq on t h e Geology of Surficial Deposits i n Hong Kong, Hong Kong, p p 131-142. (Published a s Geological Society of Hong Kong, Bulletin no. 1. e d i t e d by W.W.S. Yim. 1984). Yim, W.W.S. & Li, Q . Y . (1983). Sea level c h a n g e s a n d seafloor surficial d e p o s i t s o f f Chek Lap Kok. A b s t r a c t s of t h e Meeting on t h e Geology of Surficial Deposits i n ~ ~ o n Kong, q Hong Kong, pp. 48-59. (Published a s Geological Society of Honq Konq, Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d by W.W.S. Yim, 1984).
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Table No. Page No. Guidance on Rock a n d Soil Description in Different ~ o c a t i o n s Classification of Rock Material S t r e n g t h Colour Description Scheme
73
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
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Classification of Rock Material Decomposition Grades Classification of Solid Rocks a n d Superficial Deposits in HOng Kong Spacing of Planar S t r u c t u r e s Discontinuity Spacing Unevenness (Small- Scale Roughness) of Discontinuities
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A p e r t u r e Size Classification of Rock Mass Weathering Zones P r o c e d u r e f o r Rapid Identification a n d Description of Soils Soil S t r e n g t h i n Terms of Compactness a n d Consistency Particle Form
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Particle Angularity Use of Secondary Constituents f o r t h e Naming of Composite Soils Methods f o r Naming Soils Containing Very Coarse Material Plasticity Terms Based on Liquid Limit Identification F e a t u r e s f o r Different Soil Types
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Names a n d Descriptive L e t t e r s f o r Grading a n d Plasticity Characteristics
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Table No.
20 21 22 23 24
Page No. British Soil Classification System for Engineering Purposes Symbols for Rocks and Soils Symbols for Borehole Records Symbols for General Planar Structures Symbols for Other Geological Structures and Boundaries
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Table
Guidance
on
Rock
and
Soil
Description i n D i f f e r e n t Locations
Location
Typical Sample
Field
Rock and Soil : Natural or man-made exposure (e.g. t r i a l pit or cutting)
Ground Investigation Drilling Rig
Laboratory
Rock : Core Rock : Pieces of core and irregular hand samples Soil : Samples from split triple-tube core-1 Soil : Samples from split triple-tube core-barrels. extruded thicklthin-wal!ed samplers, S.PT barrels. driven samplers and coreliners, hand-cut blocks. tr~mmedtest specimen! barrel cutting toes, SPT liners
lescriptive Scale
Material
Strength Colour TexturelFabric Weathered State Alteration State Rock Name Additional lnformation k g . results of index tests
Mass
Structure Discontinuities (nature, orientation, spacing, persistence. roughness, aperture, infilling, seepage) Mass Weathering Additional lnformation (e.g. representability of mass s a m ~ l e )
Material
Mass
Material
Strength Colour TextureIFabric Weathering State Alteration State Rock Name Additional lnformation (e.g. mineralogy, results of index tests)
Mass
(Normally not applicable 1
ltems for Rock Description
Strength (structure) Colour Discontinuities (nature. spacing, Texture /Fabric roughness, Weathered State aperture. infilling. Alteration State fracture indices) Rock Name Mass Weathering Additional Information (e.g. results of index t e s t s )
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Additional Geological lnformation (e.g. geological formation. age) Strength Colour Particle Shape / Composition Soil Name (based on rapid assessment of grading Iplasticity) Additional Information k g . results of index tests) Structure Discontinuities (items as in rock description list above Weathered State Additional Information (e.g. presence of voids, seepage not related to Strength (Structure) Colour (Discontinuities) (items a s in rock Particle Shape/ descrlptlon list Composition above) Soil Name Weathered State (based on rapid assessment of grading /plasticity) Additional lnformation (e.g. degree of sample disturbance, results of index tests) Strength Colour Particle ShapelComposition Soil Name (based on rapid or detailed assessment of grading1 plasticity ) Additional lnformation (e.g. degree of sample disturbance. mineral0 y. results of index tests? (structure) (Discontinuities) (nature, orientation. spacing, roughness, aperture, infilling) (weathered State)
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Items for Soil Description
Additional Geological Information (e.g. geological origm, type of deposit) Notes :
( 1 ) Less comprehensive descriptions may also be possible with lower quality samples (e.g. flushings, jar or bulk samples). ( 2 ) Main descriptive items marked in square brackets may often not be applicable, depending on sample size. ( 3 ) For soils derived from insitu rock weathering: if the original rock texture/structure i s retained (i.e. saprolites), they should be described in rock terms, supplemented by additional soil terms for compactnesslconsistency and grading; if the rock texturelstructure i s completely lost (i.e, residual soils), they should be described in soil terms. ( L ) Description of the orientation of discontinuities in drillcore may also be possible, depending on the ground investigation techniques used; see Geoguide 2 (GCO, 1987a). ( 5 ) This table provides general guidance only. For further details on particular descriptive items, refer to the relevant text section.
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Table 2 - Classification of Rock Material Strength
Approximate Point Load Uniaxial Descriptive Compressive Strength Index Values (ls(50)) for Granitic & Volcanic Rocks Term Strength ( MPa 1 (MPa1
I
I
Field Identification Tests
Extremely weak Very weak
Easily crumbled by hand; indented deeply by thumbnail.

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I Weak
I I
Generally not applicable
Crumbled with difficulty by hand; scratched easily by thumbnail; peeled easily by pocket knife. May be broken by hand into pieces; scratched by thumbnail; peeled by pocket knife; deep indentations up to 5mm made with point of geological pick; hand-held specimen easily broken by single light blow of geological hammer. May be broken with difficulty i n two hands; scratched with difficulty by thumbnail; difficult to peel but easily scratched by pocket knife; shallow indentations easily made w i t h point of geological pick; hand-held specimen usually broken by single light blow of geological hammer. Scratched by pocket knife; shallow indentations made by firm blow with point of geological pick; h a n d - h e l d specimen usually broken by single f i r m blow of geological hammer. Firm blows with point of geological pick cause only superficial surface damage; hand-held specimen requires more than one firm blow to break with geological hammer. Many blows of geological hammer required to break specimen. Specimen can only be chipped by blows of geological hammer.
Moderately weak
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Moderately strong
Strong
Very strong
L - 8
I
I
,
i
, Extremely
strong Note :
I
>8
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The very weak and extremely weak classes are applicable to soils derived from insitu weathering of r o c k s .
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Table 4 - Classification of Rock Material Decomposition Grades
Descriptive Term
Grade
G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r Granitic Volconic
8
Granite
Additional
Typical
Choracteristlcs
for
Speciflc
Rock
Types
;ymbol
Rocks 8
Strength
Other R o c k s o f the Fresh State Granodiorite Coarse Ash CryslallLith~c Tuf
Equivalent
in
Fine
Ash
Vitric
Tuff
Original rock texture complctcly destroyed Can be crumbled by hand and finger pressure mto constituent groins
Reddsh brawn Feldspars completely destroyed Quartz is only remolnmg prrmory mlnerol; vsvolly dull. etched or plttec and reduced in s i r e compared w i t h fresh condltlon Yellow#Sh brown to reddish brown Fe1d~p.r~ powdery to soft nand penetrometer Sheor strength mdc. < 250 kPa Zero rebound from N Schmidt h m m e r h l l o w # b h brown to reddish brown Plogiochse feldlpm5 powdwy to Soft very eoslly grooved by p#n O r t h ~ ~ I a sfeldspars e gutty, leS5 eo511 grooved Zero rebound from N Schmidt hommcl Yctlor~sh brown to y t l l a v n ~ horongel brown Plogioclose feldspars powdery 10 g i t t l N Schmidl rebound volue 15-30
Brown or rrddtsh brown Quartz only remamng prlmory mmerd
Yellowish brown
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3rngmol rock texture preserved Con be crumbled by hand and finger pressure m a conslltucnt 9'0l"S pick Eosbly mdentcd by point of g ~ o l o g ~ ~ ol Slakes whcn rmmerred I" water Completely discolaured compared wllh fresh rock
Brown to rcddlsh bmwn Slake5 Slowly In water Maf8c mmerols soft, dull. dark grew 10 brown, d#fficult to dlstlnguclh
Highly Decomwrrd
:en be broken by hond ~ n t osmdlcr pmrccs when struck by geolog8sol hommrr %kes s dull ~ u n d N O I eosbly indented by point of gcologicol p ~ k Doe5 not slake when immersed in w l e r 3ompletely discoloured compared with fresh rock
Y e l l o w ~ ~brown h 10 yellow8sh orangel brown Feldspars powdery Hand pcnelrometcr shear strength lndcx ,250 kPm mSdrvr N Schmidt rebound d u e < 2 5 Yellwish brown Feldspars grltty Bmtlte not shiny N Schmtdl rebound value 2 5 - L 5
Vellow~~b hrown Moflc mlneroll soft, dull. dark green
Yellowish grey Surface can be ssrotched by kntfc
Modemlcly Decomposed
Connot uruolly be broken by hond; cosily broken by geobgicol hommcr Makes a dull or slight ringlng sound whcn Struck by geologlcol hammer Completely slolned throughout
Yellowish brown plaglochse feldspars party decomposed to gritty small pieces N Schmidt rcbwnd value 2 5 - 5 0
Vellowlsh grey Moflc mmeralS generally not ~ h l n y , soft. black 01 51omed dark brown
White or hghl grey

Surfme cannot be scratched by knl
Slightly Decompascd
vat broken easily by geological hammer Uokrs a ringing sound whcn struck by geolog~col hammer 9e~h mck C D ~ D U ~ S generally retained but stained near jomt Lurfoces
Feldspars hard to Slqhtly grltty Orthoclase feldspars often pink B#ot#te slrghlly stornrd and dull oround edges N Sshmldt rebound value > 4 5
Plogioclose feldSparS ~18ghllygr8Ity BiMW ond hornblende ~ l i g h l i y s t a i m and dull N Schmidt rebound value L5-70
Light grey or greenish grey Mofic mlnerols shiny, hord, black. may be sightly stoiocd and dull around edges
Grey, lhght grey or greentsh grey Cloudy appearance
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Fresh
Overall rock colaur greylwhrte Feldspors hmrd and shmy Biotite Shiny. not stalncd Qvortr colourlcss or grey. g1055y
OverOll r o c k colour grey Feldspars hard and shiny Biotite and hornblende 5hmy, not 5 t a m Quartz solourless or grey. glossy N Sehmldt rebound volue >60
overall rock eatour ranges from l q h t greentsh grey IJSMI to grey IJSM, JYTl FeId5pors hard ond shiny Mofls mmerals shiny. hard black Qumtz colo~rle55or grey, glassy I61 Bared on unpubhshed work by the G C O 171 JYT =Y,m Tln Tram Farmotton JSMr Shlng Mun Formotion 15ee HKGS mops ond memo8rsI 181 M0f8c m~neralsreferred to are biotlfe and hornblende
Over~llrock colour block ~ l o s s yoppeormcc
General
Notes
I 1 Not 0 1 1 these generol chorocler#st#cs ore oppl~coble 131 Based on Moyc 119551. Henchet 6 n the fresh state 15 Martm 11982) ond unpublished work to rock5 whose strength 8 by the GCO modemtely strong or less (see Table 21 ~ l t c r n o t ~ a I L I A S S P S S ~ Cof ~ ~ m ~l n e r o l ~oppl~~able moy ~Iossvf~c~tbo n s be more appropriate for such t o med~umand cmrse grolned gronte moterloll (see S r c t m 2 3 L I may be dofflcult or mporstble t o 121 Use of geologrsal hammer oppl8coble momly to materds mnfcned m o fjeld ezooaure asserr 8n f w - g r a m e d g r m l t e s
191 Based on unpubhrhed work the GCO
bl
Note5
on Index Tests
It01 S h k ~ test' romplcr alreody close to raturotwn rn~rrture conlent a r e less likely to sloke. 1111 Feldspar altcrot8on i r r t : Hard= cannot be cut by knife or grooved by pin: Gritty: con be cut by knife or grooved by pin with prcz3urc; Powdery = easdy grooved by pro. can be crushed to silt frogmentr in fingers; Soll=eorily grooved by pin, con be moulded very easily to cloy m Imgcrr. 1121 N Schmldt hommer tert: rebound values ore for nomrnrr held pcrpendiculm to rock focc: take initial 'seating' blows to ensure good contact and record average value from a rnrncmum of flvc consecuflv< irnpocts. qnaring unusually low readfngs It31 HOM penefrometer test. press mstrumcnt hcod slowly and smoothly ,nto sample, take an overage of ten values and divide by two to gwe shear rtrength mdex: test may be improctlcol on very smoll samples I 1 0 Test r e s ~ l t s8 n general may be affected by sample moisture content and degree of mrsrofrosturmg
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Table 6
S p a c i n g of P l a n a r S t r u c t u r e s
Descriptive Term
Spacing
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Very thick
Thick
Medium
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Thin
Very thin
Thickly - Laminated (sedimentary 1

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Narrow ( metamorphic and igneous
Thinly- laminated
1 sedimentary 1
Very narrow (metamorphic and igneous 1
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Table 7 - Discontinuity Spacing
Descriptive Term
Spacing
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Extremely widely -spaced
Very widely -spaced
Widely -spaced
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Medium-spaced
Closely -spaced
Very closely-spaced
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Extremely closely-spaced
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Table 8
U n e v e n n e s s (Small-Scale R o u g h n e s s ) o f D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s
Class First Term Second Term
Illustration
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Rough
Stepped
Smooth
Stepped
Slickensided
Stepped
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Rough
Undulating
Smooth
Undulating
Slickensided
Undulating
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Rough
Planar
Smooth
Planar
Slickensided
Planar
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Notes :
<
( 1 ) Length of t h e illustrated profiles i s in t h e range 1 t o 10 metres. ( 2 ) Vertical a n d horizontal scales a r e e q u a l .
81
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Table 9 - Aperture Size
Aperture Distance between Disconlinuity Walls
0 - 2mm
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- - - - - Zero
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82
Table 10
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Classification of Rock Mass Weathering Zones
Zone Description
Zone Symbol
Zone Characteristics
Residual Soil
Residual soil derived from insitu weathering; mass structure and material texture / fabric completely destroyed : 100 % soil
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Less than 30 % rock Soil retains original mass structure and material texture / fabric ( i . e. saprolite)
0130 % Rock
Rock content does not affect shear behaviour of mass, but relict discontinuities in soil may do so Rock content may be significant for investigation and construction
Y
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U 0
( r
u
L
C
r
O
a, a ,
r"
ZI
A
30150% Rock
-
30 "loto 50 % rock
Both rock content and relict discontinuities may affect shear behaviour of mass
,0
C L
O a
50190% Rock
50 % to 90 'lo rock
Inter locked structure
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90 1100% Rock
Greater than 90 '10 rock

Small amount of the material converted t o soil along discontinuities
--
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Unweathered Rock
100 % rock
May show sllght d~scolourationalong discont~nultles
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Table 1 1
Particle Size
Imml BOULDERS COBBLES
Procedure f o r Rapid Identification a n d Description of Soils

Structure and Weathering
Ouantltotlve Scales
h s i c Soil Type
Visual ldentif ication
Particle Shape and Plasticity

Partlcle Shape Form Equidlmmsionl Flat Elongotr F l a t and clongote Angulor!ly
I
Colour
Only seen complete ~n pots or exposurer
- 200 + . .
Often daffisult to rcswrr from boreholes Easily visible t o naked eye; w r t i c l r be descr~bed Well-graded: wide range ot grain sizes.
S m k of Ycmdary with Coarse Soil5
By inspection of voids and porticle pocking
Homo gmCOus
dtermt8ng layers of w i n g typer or w i t h andr or lenses of ther motermlr.
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GRAVELS
particles lies between narrow l t m i t s ; or gap-graded: on intwmedimtr size o f portisle is markedly under represented. I Visible t o caked ere: , . rrrv l i t t l e or no c o h c s m when dry: grading can be described.
Angular Subangular Svbrrrunded Rounded Surfose Tcxtvri Smooth ROU* Glassy Hmeycornbed Pltted Striated
Fine
m.,.r
SANDS
Mcd,um 0.6
:omse fraction may o l r o be

ICCO~~O~ constituent Y
Requires pick for
where
I
rraks into polyhedral rogmentr d o n g i'lsures umtitotive x a l e I , spasmg of iscontinuities may used.
Thinlylaminated
<
'
Hue
-0 2
Fine
Well-graded: wide rsnge of groin s i r e s Poorly-graded- not well grodcd. l M o y INCS be ~ n i t o l m : IIZC of most p o r l l s l e ~ between norrow limits; or gap-grodcd. 00 mtcrmcdmtc slzc of partlslr 1s markedly under-rrprcsenlcd.1
For composite types dcacribed or: : M y q ' f i n e s are plortic.cohcsive;
I
-
- -Cmrre
-0.02 Only soarsc r l l t barely visible to naked eye; e l h i b m l i t t l e pdslticity m d rmrkcd dilotonsy: slightly granular or silky t o the touch. Oismtcgroter tn w d e r . lumps dry quickly; possess cohesion but can be pnvdcrcd easily betwee' fingers ory l u m p ~ can be broken but not pow&wd between fingers; lhey a k a dlsmtcgrotc under mtn but more s l m l y than silt; smooth l o lhc touch; erhibttr plusticity but no dilatonsy; sticks to fingns ond drws slowly, shrmks appveciably on drying, urually showing cracks. Intermediate and high plasticity CIOYS show the% prowrthes l o a modcmte and hlgh degree, rcrpedlvely. Cmtalns s u b ~ t o n t l domountr of organfs vegetable matter Often has nolicroblc smell and chmgcr colour on modation. Predominantly plant remains; u l u ~ l l y dark brown or bhck in colwr. often with di5llnnlve smell; low bulk density
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SILTS
Mcd,um
-0
c 3 Flne
006
Non - p l s s t a or LOW plostisity
Gravel or
CloselySpaced
Moltled Streaked
CLAYS
'ull explanmion of the use of ieconchry eonstttuents m :ompOste Soils IS g w r n ~n loblcs 15 and 16.
I I
Stiff
f rnger p t e r r u r r Cannot be moulded by Cg,e;ibe M e n l e d
Homo OLneour Interstlotitied

0,
eposit con3ists sscntblly of one type l t n m t i n g layers of orling typer. 1t~rv.1 S m k for u c k n e r r of layerr lay be used.
D r r c m t # n u # t # eI rGeneral I
select one
ORGAN lC CLAY, SlLT or SAND PEATS
Varies
High plasticity I Fat clay
Intellaminated
I I
Spongy
Weathering
q u a l i t l e d by a term for
COmwcl Fibre5 already compressed together very c o m ~ c l s i b l e and open structure. Con be moulded m hand. and smears fingers Fibrous ~ ~ . Ian1 rema,ns :cognizable and :tam some rtrcnalh ~ ~ h ~ ~ ! In warre soils : &scribe overall dissolourot~onof soil and dcgree of decompositi& of grovel and larger fragmcntr
Varies
Plasl,s
..... ..
.pp,.pr~otc.
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See
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Table 12 - Soil Strength in Terms of Compactness and Consistency
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Table 13
Particle Form
Descriptive Term
lllustration
Equidimensional
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Flat
0
@
Table 1 4
ELongate
Flat and ELongate
&
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Particle Angularity
Descriptive Term
Illustration
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Subangular
Subrounded
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Rounded
86
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Table 1 5 - Use of Secondary Constituents for the Naming of Composite Soils
Terminology Sequence
Term for Secondary Constituent
'ercentage 01 Secondary Constituent
With a little Secondary + constituents after principal

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With some With much
Slightly ( s i l t y , clayey or siltylclayey *I
Secondary constituents before principal (excluding cobbles and boulders 1 Very
( s i l t y , clayey or siltylclayey
*)
[silty, clayey or silty /clayey*] AND I OR
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Slightly [gravelly or sondy*
Very
(gravelly or sandy* (gravelly or sandy
*
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Secondary constituents before principal (excludinc cobbles a n d boulders
Slightly (gravelly or sandy or b o t h * )
(gravelly or sandy
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Examples : Slightly siltylclayey, sandy GRAVEL Slightly clayey, gravelly SAND Very gravelly SAND Sandy SILT Slightly gravelly, slightly sandy SlLTlCLAY
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T a b l e 16
M e t h o d s f o r N a m i n g Soils C o n t a i n i n g V e r y Coarse M a t e r i a l
Rapid Method for Naming Very Coarse Soils
-I
1
Principal Soil Type

BOULDERS COBBLES
Term
Estimated Boulder or Cobble Content of Very Coarse Fraction
> 50% is of boulder

size (> 200mml
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Very coarse soils (BOULDERS & COBBLES] i.e. >50% of material is very coarse ( >60mm)
> 50%
is of cobble size ( 6 0 - 200mm I
BOULDERS may be qualified COBBLES a s ' bouldery '
a s 'cobbly' and
Full Method for Naming Composite Soils Containing Very Coarse Material Principal Soil Type
Term
Composition
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BOULDERS (or COBBLES)
BOULDERS (or COBBLES] with a little finer material BOULDERS (or COBBLES] with some finer material BOULDERS (or COBBLES] with much finer material FlNER MATERIAL with many boulders ( o r cobbles I FlNER MATERIAL with some boulders ( o r cobbles FlNER MATERIAL with occasional boulders ( or cobbles)
< 5% finer material

5% -20% finer material
BOULDERS (or COBBLES1
BOULDERS (or COBBLES)
20%- 50% finer material
FlNER MATERIAL
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50%-20% boulders ( o r cobbles I 20% - 5% boulders ( o r cobbles)
FlNER MATERIAL
FlNER MATERIAL
< 5% boulders (or cobbles)
Note :
When t h e f u l l method i s used, the name of the finer material should be given i n parentheses w h e n it i s t h e minor constituent, a s shown below 1.
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Examples : Sandy GRAVEL with occasional boulders Cobbly BOULDERS w ~ t hsome fmer material (slightly gravelly sand ) BOULDERS with much flner mater~al [siltylclayey, very sandy gravel 1
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Table 17
Plasticity Terms Based on Liquid Limit
Descriptive Term for Plasticity
Range of Liquid Limit

('la 1
Low plasticity
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Intermediate plasticity High plasticity Very high plasticity Extremely high plasticity
Note :
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Ctassification in terms of plasticity is based on Liquid limit, in accordance with BS 5930 I1981 ) .
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> h T a b l e 18
Identification Features for D i f f e r e n t
Soil Types
Feature
Soil T v ~ e
Weathered
.. Soils
D e r i v e d from Insitu Rock Weatherin
Group
Fill
b"uv'um
Co~~uvium Residual Soi I
Saprolits
Rock Type of Boulders and Cobbles
a. Foreign, but present upslope
b. Totally foreign or man-made 1 brick, etc. ) a. Joints and veins i n boulders b. Joints and veins persistent through matrix c. Remnants of disrupted veins Id. Layering
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Relict Structure
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Texture1 Fabric
controlled by original joint pattern b. Jumbled arrangement of rock fragments with some point contact c. Gradational change in strengtt and grc~ding from rock fraoments t o matrix d. Sharp change in strength and grading from rock fragments t o matrix e. Matrix mineralogyltexture different f rom rock fragments
Stratigraphic Profile
a. Overlies boulder-free zone or layer a. Topsoil Layer
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Basal Features b. Particle alignment
Springs
(a. At contacts with other soils
a. Fan- or lobe-shaped Geomorphology b. Anomalous topography Legend :
*
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Feature indicates soil type, but soil type does not always show a particular feature Table adapted f r o m Huntley & Randall 11981 1 .
Note :
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Table 19
Names a n d D e s c r i p t i v e L e t t e r s f o r G r a d i n g a n d Plasticity Characteristics
Soil
Components
Terms
Descriptive Name
Letter
I n
C
Main terms
GRAVEL
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0,
SAND
C 0 P 0
@ J
Qualifying terms
WelI- graded Poorly-graded Uniform Gap - graded
11
0 0
Main terms
FINE SOIL, FINES may be differentiated i n t o M or C

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SILT ( M - SOIL) plots below A - l i n e o f plasticity chart of Figure 8 (of restricted plastic range]
C
a l
C
V) C
CLAY plots above A - line ( f u l l y plastic 1 Qualifying terms Low plasticity Intermediate plasticity High plasticity Very high plasticity Extremely high plasticity Upper plasticity range incorporating groups I , H , V and E
8
.-
E
E
U .
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U .-
m ..-
Main term
PEAT
Pa 0 E
0 U
Qualifying term
Organic may be suffixed t o any group

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Legend :
See Note 5 in Table 20 This term i s a useful guide when it is not possible or not required to designate the range of liquid Limit more closely, e. g. during the rapid description of soils
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Table 20
British Soil Classification System for Engineering Purposes

(11
Soil Groups
Subgroups and Laboratory ldentif ication

Group Symbol 121131 Subgroup (% l e s s L i q u i d Symbol than Limit 121 0 . 0 6 m m ) 1%)
GRAVEL ar S A N D may b e q u a l i f i e d I an additional s e c o n d a r y c o ~ Ltituent f o r coarse f r a c t i o n w !re appropriate I1 ble 151 Slightly s i l t y or clayey GRAVEL S i l t y GRAVEL clayey GRAVEL Very s i l t y GRAVEL Very clayey GRAVEL
Fines
Name
GW P
G-F
G-M GWM GPF G-C GWC GPC
IGW
GPu GPg
Well-graded GRAVEL Poorly-gradedluniform /Gap-graded GRAVE Well-groded1Poorly-graded s i l t y GRAVEL

Well-gradedIPoorly-graded clayey GRAVE1
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Very s i l t y GRAVEL : subdivide as for GC GF GC G M IGML, GCL etc Very clayey GRAVEL I clay of low, intermediate. high. very high. extremely high p l o s t i c ~ t yI Well-graded SAND Poorlv-araded /Uniform I GOD-araded SAND Well-graded /Poorly-graded s i l t y SAND Well-graded /Poorly-qraded clayey SAND Very s i l t y SAND : subdivide as for SC Very clayey SAND I c l o y o f low. intermediate. high. very high, extremely high plasticity I Gravelly SlLT : subdivide as for CG Gravelly CLAY I of low. intermediate. high, very h l g h . extremely high p l a s t i c i t y
Sl~ghtly s i l t y or clayev SAND Silty SAND Clayey SAND Very s i l t y SAND Very clayey SAND SC H SC v SCE Gravelly SILT Gravelly CLAY 14)
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Sandy SILT ( 4 1 Sandy CLAY l 4 1 SlLT I M - s o i l 1 CLAY 151 I 6 1 171
Sandy SlLT : subdivide as for CG Sandy CLAY : subdivide as for CG
M C
ML, CL CI CH Cv CE
etc
SlLT : subdivide as for C CLAY l o f low, intermediate, high. very h ~ g h . extremely high p l a s t i c i t y l
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l r g a n i c Soils Peat Notes :
Descriptive Letter ' any group or s u b - g r o u p symbol. Pt
:ti ?d t o be a significant constituent Example MHO : Organic: SILT of high p l a s t i c i t y .
Peat soils consist predominantly of plant remains w h ~ c hmay b e f i b r o u s or amorphous.
L
(1 1 The name of the soil group should always be given when describing soils, supplemented. i f required, by the group symbol. although for some applicottons 1e.g. diagrams1 i t moy be convenient to u s e the group symbol alone. (21 The group symbol or sub-group symbol should be placed i n brackets ~f Laboratory methods have n o t been used for identification, e . g. (GC I . (31 The designation FINE SOIL or FINES. F may be used i n place of SILT. M , or CLAY. C, when i t is not possible or not required t o distingu~shbetween them (41 Gravelly i f more than 50 % of coarse material i s o f gravel s i z e . Sandy i f more than 50 % o f coarse m a t e r i a l i s o f sand s i z e . 151 SlLT iM-soil). M is material that plots below the A-line, and h a s a restricted plastic ronge in r e l a t ~ o n to i t s liquid limlt. and relatively low cohesion. Fine soils of this type include c l e a n s i l t - s i z e d moteriak and rock flour, micaceous and diatomaceous soils, pumice, and volcanic soils, and s o i l s conta~nlngh a l l o y s ~ t e .The a l t e r n a t ~ v e term ' M - s o i l ' avoids confusion w i t h materials of predom~nantly s i l t size, which form only a p a r t of the group. Organic solls also usually plot below the A - l i n e on the p l a s t ~ c i t yc h a r t , when they are designated ORGANIC SILT, MO. 161 CLAY. C i s material t h a t plots above the A-line, and i s fully plastic i n relation to its liquid limit. I71 SlLT and CLAY may be q u a l ~ f i e das slightly sandy. or s l i g h t l y gravelly, or both, where appropriate [Table 151.
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Table 21
Symbols f o r Rocks a n d Soils
ROCKS Igneous Rocks

Granite
Pyroclastic Rocks
I : : : : I Granodiorite, Monzonite
Syenite.
Gabbro, Lamprophyre
T - I I L l
ovo o v a
vOvoV ,
Pyroc1astic breccia Coarse ash tuff, Lapilli tuff

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"'..V..
Fine ash tuff
;i..+:~'-.* .* jc'.'*'.'X
Dacite, Latite. Andesite, Trachyte, Trachyandesite Basalt
E y
,
Sedimentary Rocks
Conglomerate Sedimentary breccia Sandstone Siltstone
Metamorphic Rocks
[ M I regional
Schist
................. ...............
Metamorphic rocks
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A A A A
Phyllite, Mylonite
........... ........... I ........... . . . . . . . . . . (
...........
Gneiss Quartzite Marble Metamorphic rocks contact le.p. H o m f e l s l

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..... -::: ..........I

......
Shale Limestone
SOILS
Fill (made ground] clay Peat
1-1 1-1
. .. ... . . .
,
Boulders and cobbles Gravel

. . . .
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Note :
S O ,d
Composite soil types to be signified by combined symbols, e. g.
silt
. .I .I
.....
.I. I .
Silty sand
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Table 22
Symbols for Borehole Records
-a-Q--
Fault
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Slip surface
Shell band
Examples :
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Granite faulted against gneiss
Fault in sandstone
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I.................I
Slip surface in sandstone
Slip surface in shale

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Table 23
Symbols f o r General Planar S t r u c t u r e s
Horizontal stratum
Inclined stratum with dip in degrees (long axis is strike direction 1
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Vertical stratum (Long axis is strike direction )
Foliation or cleavage, horizontal
Foliation or cleavage. inclined, with dip in degrees ( Long axis is strike direction)
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Foliation or cleavage, vertical [long axis is strike direction)
Joint, horizontal
Joint, inclined, with dip in degrees ( Long axis is strike direction )

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Joint, vertical (long axis is strike direction)
Flow fabric, horizontal
Flow fabric, inclined, with dip in degrees (Long axis is strike direction )
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Flow fabric, vertical (long axis is strike direction)
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Table 24 - Symbols for Other Geological Structures and Boundaries
Geological boundary, superficial deposit
Geological boundary, solid rock
Mineral vein
broken lines denote uncertainty
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Axial trace of anticline
Axial trace of syncline
Fault, crossmark on downthrow side, with dip in degrees and throw in metres
Fault, with horizontal component of relative movement
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broken lines denote uncertainty
Photogeological lineament
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FIGURES
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99
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
1 2 3
Page No. Example of a Discontinuity Data Sheet Shape of Rock Blocks i n a Discontinuous Rock Mass Scales of Discontinuity Roughness Schematic Illustration of F r a c t u r e Logging Terms Mass Weathering Profiles a n d Zonal Weathering Classification of a Mass Exposure Quantitative Classification of Particle Form Types of Bedding Plasticity Chart f o r Classification of Fine Soils a n d t h e Finer P a r t of Composite Soils Grading Chart f o r Soils with Grading Curves of Selected Soil Types
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4
5 6 7 8 9
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GENERAL INFORMATION
lecord No.
1 ? , 1 1
site
N Y W
E R E
1 Oate~IOperatOr~
Day
Month
Year
Discontinuity Data Sheet No.
Of
F l
Location : Chainage ; n ; r ; or, N
r;
Dip direction
Dip
Persistence
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1,7,8 012,6 2,3,5 1,7,6
5,6 2,7
8,6 6,6
13;s 11;s
I
I
I
1
i9 i7
2,4,6 8,4 1 , 4 , 9 5,5

O16,L LIL l 1 4 ( 4 g10
I I
14i3
12i4
,2,5;0
1 1 i 9
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I I I
2, 3 , 4 8,2
13i3
2,3,2 8,l 1,LI4 6,2 2 , 6 , 3 8,O

Type
Dip direction, Dip
0.Fault zone Expressed in 1.Fault degrees 2. Joint 3. Cleavage 4.Schislosily 5. Shear plane 6. Fissure 7. Tension crack 8. Folialion O. Bedding
i 4
11i3
Aperture
I. Wide 1>200mml
2.Mod. wide (60-200mml 3. Mod. narrow(20-60mm) 4.Narrow ( 6 - 2 0 m m l 5. Very narrow ( 2 6mml 6. E l l . narrow b 0 -2mml 7. Tight (zero1
,1;0
;015
,5,0 1
I
I
,1 ,8;0
Nature of Infilling
0. Clean 1 . Surface staining 2. Deromposcd/disintegrated rock 3. Non-cohesive soil L . Cohesive roil 5. Quartz 6. Calcite 7. Manganese 8. Kaolin 9.Other -specify
age estimate 5 litreslmin

Consistency of Infilling
Soil strength 1 Very SOH 2. Soft 3. Firm 4. Stiff 5. Very stiff or hard Rock strength 6. Extremely weak 7. Very weak 8. Weak 9. Moderately weak 10. Modcrotcly strong 11. Strong 12. Very strong 13. Extremely strong
Persistence
Maximum dimenwon of trace length m exposed face expressed in metres
Unewness I Small-scale roughness1

1. Rough stepped 2. Smooth stepped 3. Slickensided stepped L Rough undulatmg 5.Smooth undulating 6. Slickensided undulating 7. Rough planar 8. Smooth planar 9. Slickensided planar
Waviness - W a t ~
[large-scale roughness1 Express wavelength & amplilude in metres
I.Dry 2. Damplwet 3. Seepage present (estimate quantity separately in lilres/se o r Iitreshn.
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Figure 1
Example of a Discontinuity Data Sheet
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Tabular Blocky
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Columnar Note :
Polyhedral
Numbers i n diagrams refer t o discontinuity s e t s .
Figure 2
Shape o f Rock B l o c k s i n a Discontinuous Rock Mass

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Small-scale uneveness <
Notes :
( 1 I Waviness can be described by estimation Imeasurement of wavelength and amplitude. ( 2 ) Uneveness can be described using the terms given in Table 8 .
Figure 3
Scales o f D i s c o n t i n u i t y Roughness
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Figure 4 - Schematic Illustration of Fracture Logging Terms
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Figure 5 - Mass Weathering Profiles and Zonal Weathering Classification of a Mass Exposure
I:
.-
-. -- . - --. -.
Sti
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Flat
Equidimensional
Flat and Elongate
Elongat
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i6
Legend : Particle diameters x Y z Longest diameter Intermediate diameter Shortest diameter
z Flatness Rotio = Y
Figure 6
- Quantitative Classification of Particle Form
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Regular Bedding
Cross Bedding
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Graded Bedding
Slump Bedding
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Lenticular Bedding
Wavy Bedding
Figure 7
Types o f Bedding
4 - line
&4
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Liquid Limit Notes:
(%I
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(1 The letter 0 is added to the symbol of any material containing a significant proportion of organic matter e.g. MHO. ( 2 ) Plasticity measurements are made on material passing L25 p m BS sieve.
Figure 8 - Plasticity Chart for Classification of Fine Soils and the Finer Part of Composite Soils
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Percentage Retained
Figure 9 - Grading Chart for Soils with Grading Curves of Selected Soil Types
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PLATES
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate
NO.
Page N O . Rock Textures Microfractures Decomposition Grades of Rock Material Rock Material Examples Rock Planar Structures Corestones Complex Rock Mass Exposures Rock Mass Examples Contrasts between Unweathered Marine and Weathered Alluvial Sediments Colluvium/Insitu Decomposed Rock Boundaries Soil Examples
113 114 115
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
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117 119 121 122 123 124
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A : Equigranular
B : lnequigranular
C : Megacrystic
D : Aphanitic
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I
I
I
G : Cryptocrystalline
Natural smk
Note :
Porphyritic texture represents a special case of rnegacrystic texture (see Glossary l . I t is rarely possible to distinguish between the two by observation alone; additional geological information on the composition of the large grainslcrystals relative to the matrix is usuaiiy required.
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Plate 1
Rock Textures
mm
A : Microfractures Caused by General Mechanical Weathering in Highly Decomposed Gronite at Kwai Chung , ritories
I
New Territories
C : Curved Microfroctures Caused by Mechanical Weathering ( Exfoliation 1 i n a Granite Corestone ot Lung Kwu Chou Island. New Territories
Note :
D : Microfractures Caused by Tectonic Activity in Slightly Decomposed Granite at Siu Lam. New Territories
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For further information. see Section 2. 3. 3 Plate 2
Microfractures
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Descriptive Term & Grade Symbol
Coarse-grained Granite
Medium-grained Granite
Fine-grained Granite
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Completely Decomposed
Highly Decomposed
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Moderately Decomposed
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Slightly Decomposed
Fresh
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Natural scale
Plate 3
Decomposition Grades o f Rock Material (Sheet 1 of 2)
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Descriptive Term
& Grade Symbol
Granodiori t e
Coarse Ash
Tuff
Fine Ash Tuff
7
Residual Soil Completely Decomposed Highly Decomposed Moderately Decomposed Slightly Decomposed
1
Fresh
Natural scale
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Plate 3
Decomposition Grades o f Rock Material (Sheet 2 of 2)
A : Igneous Rock from Lai King, New Territories

B : Pyroclastic Rock from Chai Won. Hong Kong Island

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Note :
For full descriptions, see Section 2 . 3 . 7 .
plate 4
Rock Material Examples (Sheet 1 of 2)
D : Sedimentary Rock from M a Liu Shui. New Territories

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Note :
For full descriptions. see Section 2.3.7.
Plate 4
- Rock Material Examples (Sheet 2 of
2)
at Sai Kung Hoi. New Territories

C : Massive (Lapilli tuff with impersistent joints at Ting Kou. New Territories)
D : Flow -banded (Rhyolite ot Clear Water Bay Peninsula. New Territories
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Plate 5
Rock Planar Structures (Sheet 1 of 2)
F : Foliated ( Schist from Tuen Mun. New Territories as seen in drillcore)

G : Cleaved ( Phyllite a t Tuen Mun, New Territories, showing slightly undulating cleavage )
H : Banded (Schistose andesite at Tuen Mun. New Territories, showing alternating Layers of different grain size I mineralogy I
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Plate 5
Rock Planar Structures (Sheet 2 of 2)
A : Corestones in a Natural Coast01 Exposure of Quartz Syenite at Tai Miu Wan, CLear Water Bay Peninsula, New Territories
Plate 6
- Corestones
, . Sranite Cutslope at Jat's Incline. East Kowloon. Showing a Partially Weathered PW 30150 Rock Mass Zone with Large Corestones Overlying a Partially Weathered P W 0130 Rock Mass Zone
B:
I . uav~s, nong KOng Islano. rt M wrs(ope In Coarse nsn ~ u r a Showing Voriotion in Degree of Rock Mass Weathering and Spacing I Orientation of Major Discontinuities ( Vegetation and chunam surfacing obscure the relatively more weathered zones
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Plate 7
Complex Rock Mass Exposures
--
A : Pyroc Hong
ck Mass Exposed in an Excavation at Choi Wan,

B : Igneous Rock Moss Sampled by Drilling at Tsim Sha Tsui. Kowloon

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Note :
For full descriptions, see Section 2 . 4 . 6
Plate 8
- Rock Mass Examples
A : Uniform Grey or Greenish Grey Marine Muds Deposited in a Reducing Environment I i. e. have not been exposed to sub-aerial weathering l
Plate 9
Contrasts between Unweathered Marine and Weathered Alluvial Sediments
A : Boundary in Split Mazier Samples from Borehole a t Peak Rood, near Magazine Gap, Hong Kong Island I Light brown. structureless colluvium containing occusional cobbles of highly decomposed ash t u f f overlying darker, variably coloured, completely decomposed ash t u f f with prominent black-stained and kaolin (?I- inf illed relict joints 1
B : Boundary in a Trial Pit at Ngou Chi Wan, East Kowloon (Variably coloured I mottled 1, volcanic colluvium containing large decomposed boulders of ash tuff overlying uniform, light pinkish grey, completely decomposed medium-grained granite 1
Plate 10
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C o l l u v i u m / I n s i t u Decomposed Rock B o u n d a r i e s
A : Hand Sample of Residual Soil from Chai Wan, Hong Kong Islond
3: Hand Sample of Completely Decomposed Granite from Ho Man 7

Kow loon
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Note :
For full descriptions, see Section 3 . 9 .
Plate 11
Soil Examples (Sheet 1 o f 4 )
C: Hand Sample of Marine Mud from Junk Bay, New Territories

Note :
For full descriptions. see Section 3 . 9
Plate 11
Soil Examples (Sheet 2 of 4 )
Chau ,
Hang Kong Island -
' ~ e l dExposure of Alluvlurn in Stream Bonk neor Tong Yon Son Tsuen. New T e r r ~ t o r ~ e s
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Note :
For full descriptions. see Section 3.9
I
I
Plate 1 1
Soil Examples (Sheet 3 of 4 )
G : Exposure of Layered Fill in o Trial Pit a t Peak Rood, near Magazine Gap, Hong Kon! Island
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Note :
For full descriptions, see Section 3. 9 .
Plate 1 1
Soil Examples (Sheet 4 of 4)
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NATURE AND OCCURRENCE OF HONG KONG ROCKS AND SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS APPENDIX A
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CONTENTS
Page NO.
TITLE PAGE
CONTENTS
A.1 A.2 INTRODUCTION
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IGNEOUS ROCKS A.2.1 Nature A.2.2 Occurrence A.2.3 Composition A.2.4 Chemical T y p e s A.2.5 Textures A.2.6 Alteration A.2.7 Named Varieties PYROCLASTIC ROCKS A.3.1 Nature A.3.2 Composition A.3.3 Types SEDIMENTARY ROCKS A.4.1 Nature A.4.2 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks A.4.2.1 Types A.4.2.2 Rudaceous Rocks A.4.2.3 Arenaceous Rocks A.4.2.4 Argillaceous Rocks A.4.3 C h e m i c a l and B i o c h e m i c a l S e d i m e n t a r y R o c k s A.4.3.1 Types A.4.3.2 Limestone a n d Dolomite A.4.3.3 Chert A.4.3.4 Evaporities METAMORPHIC ROCKS A.5.1 Nature A.5.2 Contact Metamorphism A.5.3 Dynamic Metamorphism A.5.4 Regional Metamorphism SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS A.6.1 Types A.6.2 Mass Wasting Deposits A.6.3 Fluvial Deposits A.6.4 Marine Deposits A.6.5 Organic Deposits S T R U C T U R A L GEOLOGY A.7.1 General Aspects A.7.2 Faults and Other Fractures A.7.3 Folds
A.3
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A.4
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A.5
A.6
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A.7
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Page NO. A.8 WEATHERING A.8.1 General A s p e c t s A.8.2 Mechanical Weathering A.8.3 Chemical W e a t h e r i n g A.8.4 Weathering F e a t u r e s REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.9 A.10
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L I S T OF TABLES L I S T OF FIGURES L I S T OF P L A T E S
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A.l
INTRODUCTION
~ o c k sand soils may b e described f o r engineering p u r p o s e s by t h e methods given in Chapters 2 and 3 respectively. The p u r p o s e of t h i s Appendix i s t o explain t h e n a t u r e a n d o c c u r r e n c e of Hong Kong r o c k s a n d superficial deposits from t h e geological viewpoint. Geological classifications of n a t u r a l e a r t h materials a r e b a s e d o n characteristics s u c h a s lithology, chemistry, mode of formation a n d occurrence, a n d age. On t h e geological maps of t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y , a distinction i s made between t h e solid lithified r o c k s , which include t h e i r insitu weathered mantles, a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t e d superficial deposits. To most geologists, soil i s t h e n a t u r a l material which o c c u r s above t h e lower limit of biological activity, and i t i s not included on t h e geological maps; a n e n g i n e e r t e n d s t o r e f e r t o t h i s material a s 'topsoil'. The differences between t h e engineering a n d geological u s e s of t h e terms 'rock'. 'soil' a n d 'superficial deposits' a r e discussed in Section 1.2.1. Solid r o c k s a r e classified into t h e following f o u r broad t y p e s , based on t h e i r mode of formation : Igneous, which a r e crystalline o r glassy r o c k s t h a t a r e formed by t h e solidification of molten material known a s 'magma'. They a r e e i t h e r i n t r u s i v e , solidifying beneath t h e earth's surface, o r extrusive, erupting a t t h e surface before cooling. Sedimentary, which a r e formed e i t h e r from fragmented rock o r material particles t h a t h a v e been t r a n s p o r t e d by g r a v i t y , water, wind o r ice, o r from chemical precipitates from solutions o r secretions b y organisms. Sediments a r e often well stratified o r have s t r u c t u r e s which indicate t h e i r mode of deposition. Pyroclastic, which a r e formed of fragments a n d particles of magma a n d pre-existing r o c k s t h a t a r e e j e c t e d explosively from a volcano a n d which s e t t l e a t t h e s u r f a c e by sedimentation t h r o u g h a i r o r water. These r o c k s s h a r e some f e a t u r e s of both sedimentary r o c k s (i.e. t h e y a r e fragmental a n d may b e stratified) a n d igneous r o c k s (i.e. t h e y a r e e r u p t e d a t t h e s u r f a c e ) . Metamorphic, which a r e d e r i v e d from pre-existing r o c k s b y mineralogical, chemical a n d s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s . Metamorphism is caused b y t h e effects of changing temperature. p r e s s u r e , s h e a r i n g s t r e s s and chemical environment acting on solid rocks. Superficial deposits commonly mantle a n d o b s c u r e t h e solid rocks. Most superficial deposits a r e sediments which, geologically v e r y young, have not y e t been lithified t o form rocks. Both solid r o c k s a n d superficial deposits can weathering. underlying, older because t h e y a r e solid sedimentary be modified b y
The following sections give a brief account of each of t h e f o u r broad rock t y p e s a n d of t h e superficial deposits, plus some g e n e r a l information o n s t r u c t u r a l geology and weathering. More detailed information of specific
relevance to Hong Kong can b e obtained from Bennett (1984a. 1984b. 1 9 8 4 ~ ) a n d from numerous o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s given b y Brand (1988). The most detailed accounts of t h e distribution and n a t u r e of geological materials in Hong Kong a r e given in t h e s e r i e s of maps and memoirs produced b y t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y . The geological classification of r o c k s a n d superficial deposits used in t h e maps a n d memoirs i s given in Table A l . All t h e rock t y p e s found in Hong Kong a r e illustrated in Plate Al. Additional information on geological processes, a n d on t h e geological a n d engineering classifications of r o c k s and soils, can b e found in t h e s o u r c e s listed in Sections A.9 and A.lO. In particular, t h e importance of geological processes in engineering has been well reviewed by Blyth & d e Freitas (1984) a n d Leggett & Karrow (1983).
A s with t h e remainder of t h i s Geoguide, t h e meanings of all t h e specialised geological terms u s e d in t h e following sections a r e given in t h e Glossary. Most of t h e e n t r i e s in t h e Glossary a r e based on t h e definitions given by Bates & Jackson (1980).
A.2 A.2.1
IGNEOUS ROCKS Nature
Igneous r o c k s a r e formed by t h e solidification of magma. They may b e e x t r u s i v e o r i n t r u s i v e , a n d t h e s e two t y p e s a r e distinguished by t h e largescale form of t h e rock mass a n d i t s relationship t o a d j a c e n t rocks. A s t h i s form may not always b e readily a p p a r e n t , t h e rock names used a r e not d e p e n d e n t on mode of o c c u r r e n c e (e.g. i t i s possible t o h a v e a basalt intrusion o r a basalt extrusion). The normal methods of classifying igneous r o c k s a r e based on t h e relative a b u n d a n c e of selected minerals and t h e chemical composition. This i s often supplemented b y s t u d i e s of t h e t e x t u r e , a s s e e n in t h e field a n d u n d e r a microscope. A.2.2 Occurrence
I n t r u s i v e igneous r o c k s , which a r e v e r y common in Hong Kong, a r e usually markedly crystalline. The grain size can v a r y from v e r y fine ( < 0.06 mm) t o coarse ( > 6 mm), and may be pegmatitic ( > 20 mm). The i n t r u s i o n s of g r a n i t e found in Hong Kong usually display a wide r a n g e of g r a i n sizes, indicating a complex cooling history. In t h e simplest cases, t h e cooling of a n intrusion r e s u l t s i n a finer-grained margin n e a r t h e contacts with o t h e r rocks. Minor i n t r u s i o n s , which a r e usually v e r y fine-grained. may occur a s d y k e s , which a r e n e a r vertical, o r a s sills, which a r e roughly flat-lying. These small i n t r u s i o n s c u t t h e o l d e r r o c k s in which t h e y a r e found. Extrusive igneous r o c k s , more generally described a s 'lavas', have flowed from a volcanic v e n t o r fissure. Lavas may occur a s a single flow o r a succession of flows, a n d may b e i n t e r b e d d e d with sediments. A.2.3 Composition
The composition of igneous r o c k s , which i s t h e basis f o r t h e i r classification, can b e described in terms of t h e minerals p r e s e n t o r t h e chemical composition. Most igneous r o c k s a r e d e r i v e d from magma r i c h in
silica, s o nearly all t h e minerals a r e silicates. The commonest a r e q u a r t z a n d f e l d s p a r (felsic), which a r e l i g h t in colour, b u t distinctive d a r k minerals (mafic), s u c h a s biotite, can a l t e r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a rock when p r e s e n t in small amounts. Thus, a simple division of t h e igneous r o c k s based on mineral c o n t e n t c a n b e made in t e r m s of colour : leucocratic (light), mesocratic (medium) a n d melanocratic ( d a r k ) . The most widely-used classification of t h e crystalline igneous r o c k s (Streckeisen, 1974) is based on t h e relative proportions of q u a r t z ( Q ) , alkali f e l d s p a r ( A ) a n d plagioclase f e l d s p a r ( P ) , from which s u c h common names a s granite, granodiorite a n d g a b b r o a r e defined. The proportions of t h e s e minerals a r e obtained b y modal analysis, i.e. b y measuring t h e actual percentage mineral composition, and t h e r e s u l t s a r e plotted on a QAP t r i a n g u l a r diagram ( F i g u r e A l ) . The v e r y fine o r glassy igneous r o c k s , whose individual c r y s t a l s cannot b e distinguished, a r e classified on t h e basis of chemical composition (Cox e t al, 1979). The rock t y p e s defined, s u c h a s rhyolite, dacite a n d basalt, have t h e i r equivalents in t h e QAP classification (Streckeisen, 1980). These equivalents a r e given in Figure Al, b u t , because different methods of classification a r e used. t h e correspondence with t h e chemical classification i s not exact. A.2.4 Chemical Types
Igneous r o c k s can b e grouped t o g e t h e r in related families based o n t h e i r chemical composition. If t h e composition is not known in detail, t h e following simple system of classification can b e u s e d f o r Hong Kong r o c k s : (a) Basic r o c k s , which a r e melanocratic, with usually more t h a n a b o u t 30% d a r k minerals, a n d 4 4 t o 54% silica (e.g. gabbro). Intermediate r o c k s , which a r e usually mesocratic, with l e s s t h a n 50% d a r k minerals. a n d 54 t o 62% silica (e.g. a n d e s i t e a n d syenite). Acid r o c k s , which a r e often leucocratic. with l e s s t h a n 20% d a r k minerals a n d more t h a n 62% silica (e.g. g r a n i t e a n d granodiorite).
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A.2.5
Textures
The t e x t u r e of an igneous rock i s concerned with t h e size, s h a p e and disposition of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t minerals. I n t r u s i v e r o c k s a r e predominantly crystalline, with grain boundaries interlocked, while e x t r u s i v e r o c k s , which have cooled rapidly a t t h e s u r f a c e , a r e partly o r dominantly glassy. The textural f e a t u r e of most importance in igneous rock classification i s t h e dominant grain size of t h e groundmass. The v e r y fine-grained rocks, (aphanitic), with a g r a i n size of less t h a n 0.06 mm. have c r y s t a l s t h a t cannot be distinguished with t h e naked eye. For l a r g e r grain sizes, t h e r e i s a division i n t o fine-, medium-, a n d coarse-grained rock (Table A l ) . The v e r y coarse-grained (pegmatitic) r o c k s have g r a i n s l a r g e r t h a n 20 mm. Within t h e groundmass, t h e r e a r e often significantly l a r g e r c r y s t a l s , termed 'megacrysts'. There i s a wide v a r i e t y of megacrystic t e x t u r e s , each
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indicating a different mode of o c c u r r e n c e of t h e megacryst, f o r example p o r p h y r i t i c and xenocrystic. Megacrysts may b e aligned parallel t o t h e flow direction in a rock; t h i s i s commonly s e e n in t h e s y e n i t e s and monzonites, a n d also in lavas and narrow d y k e s . Where t h e s e textural differences r e s u l t in a visible layering o r banding, a n igneous rock is said t o have a 'flow-banded' structure. A.2.6 Alteration
A t a late s t a g e in t h e crystallization of a n igneous rock, t h e release of accumulated hot liquids and g a s e s may a l t e r t h e rock extensively. A typical example i s kaolinization of granite, in which t h e f e l d s p a r is a l t e r e d t o kaolinite. Alteration i s usually controlled b y existing discontinuities in t h e rock mass, and t h e r e may b e a gradation from, f o r example, completeiy altered g r a n i t e a d j a c e n t t o a discontinuity o u t w a r d s into f r e s h granite.
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A.2.7
Named Varieties
The varieties of igneous r o c k s found in Hong Kong a r e listed below. These notes a r e i n t e n d e d t o highlight t h e differences between varieties. (a) Granite, which i s t h e most widespread igneous rock t y p e , is a leucocratic, silica-rich (acid), crystalline rock composed of q u a r t z , f e l d s p a r a n d d a r k biotite mica. The dominant f e l d s p a r is usually alkali. Granite forms major a n d minor i n t r u s i o n s , including v e r y narrow dykes. Aplite d y k e s a r e generally granitic in composition, a n d a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a n e q u i g r a n u l a r fine-grained t e x t u r e . Pegmatite i s also usually granitic in composition, b u t i s characteristically v e r y coarse-grained. Granodiorite i s a mesocratic, silica-rich (acid), crystalline rock composed of q u a r t z , f e l d s p a r and a b u n d a n t biotite (which r e s u l t s in a d a r k e r colour t h a n g r a n i t e ) . The dominant f e l d s p a r i s plagioclase. Granodiorite forms major i n t r u s i o n s , typically s e e n a t Tai Po, a n d sometimes forms dykes. Q u a r t z s y e n i t e i s a leucocratic t o mesocratic crystalline rock with intermediate silica content. in which t h e r e is l e s s t h a n 20% q u a r t z . The rock i s mostly f e l d s p a r , with alkali f e l d s p a r dominant. The rock o c c u r s a s i n t r u s i o n s , for example a t D'Aguilar Peak, a n d a s l a r g e d y k e s , f o r example a t Wong Chuk Hang. Q u a r t z monzonite i s related t o q u a r t z syenite, b u t plagioclase and alkali f e l d s p a r a r e p r e s e n t in roughly equal amounts. Examples can b e found a t Tai Wai, Sha Tin. Rhyolite i s t h e v e r y fine-grained equivalent of granite. The megacrysts of q u a r t z ( q u a r t z p h y r i c ) o r f e l d s p a r ( f e l s p a r p h y r i c ) give t h e different rhyolites t h e i r character. Rhyolite i s found a s narrow d y k e s , f o r example a t Kwai Shing a n d t h e Lower Shing Mun Reservoir, a n d a s lava flows in t h e Clear Water Bay Peninsula a n d t h e Sai Kung Country Park.
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Dacite is the mesocratic, very fine-grained equivalent of granodiorite. There a r e usually megacrysts of quartz and feldspar, and biotite is often clearly seen. Dacite is either associated with the rhyolite as narrow dykes. a s on Tsing Yi, o r forms the margin to t h e granodiorite. Rocks which cannot be distinguished a s either rhyolite o r dacite a r e called 'rhyodacite', and can be seen on Mt. Stenhouse. Lamma Island. Q u a r t z trachyte is t h e mesocratic, very fine-grained equivalent of quartz syenite. The rock is characterised by alkali feldspar megacrysts. I t occurs as dykes, for example a t Aberdeen, and on the margins of quartz syenite intrusions, as a t Cape D'Aguilar. Quartz latite, t h e very fine-grained equivalent of quartz monzonite, is a related rock. Trachyandesite is intermediate, usually melanocratic and is very fine-grained. Megacrysts of alkali feldspar a r e common. I t is found a s lava flows in the Clear Water Bay area. Andesite is .intermediate, usually melanocratic o r mesocratic, and is v e r y fine-grained. Megacrysts of feldspar and mafic minerals a r e common. Andesite is found as lava flows within t h e tuffs, as a t Ma W o (Tai Po) and Tuen Mun, and a s dykes, as a t Tsing Lung Tau. Gabbro and i t s very fine-grained equivalent, basalt, a r e basic, melanocratic rocks composed of an intergrowth of plagioclase feldspar and mafic minerals. These rocks a r e commonly found as narrow dykes; for example, gabbro a t Diamond Hill and basalt a t Siu Lam. Lamprophyre is a basic, melanocratic rock characterised by t h e abundance of mafic minerals, with feldspar only present in t h e groundmass. I t is occasionally found a s narrow dykes. for example a t Rennies Mill.
A.3 A.3.1
PYROCLASTIC ROCKS Nature
Pyroclastic rocks a r e formed by t h e lithification of material which has been ejected explosively from a volcanic vent. Materials from non-explosive volcanic eruptions a r e lavas, which a r e classified as igneous rocks (see Section A.2.2). Pyroclastic rock material is composed of glass and pumice, broken crystals and rock fragments. The rock fragments may be solidified magma from the vent, or material which formed t h e sides of o r choked t h e vent. The majority of the material in a pyroclastic rock is of igneous origin, b u t since t h e rock is composed of fragmental material and is sedimented. i t is classified in a manner similar to t h a t used for sedimentary rocks.
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A.3.2
Composition
The normal method of classifying pyroclastic r o c k s is on t h e basis of composition a n d size r a n g e of t h e individual components o r pyroclasts ( F i g u r e s A2 and A3). Pyroclastic r o c k s may contain sedimentary material. Rocks with roughly equal amounts of pyroclastic a n d primary sedimentary material a r e 'tuffites', a n d a r e usually given t h e sedimentary rock name with 'tuffaceous' a s a prefix (e.g. tuffaceous sandstone). The l a r g e s t pyroclasts a r e blocks a n d bombs, a n d , when lithified, become Lapilli, 'pyroclastic breccia' a n d 'agglomerate' respectively (Figure A3). equivalent in sediment g r a i n size t o gravel, a r e lithified t o a 'lapilli tuff', less commonly called 'lapillistone'. Ash, which is equivalent in grain size t o s a n d a n d mud, is lithified t o 'coarse a s h tuff' a n d 'fine a s h tuff' respectively. I t is v e r y common t o find poorly-sorted r o c k s containing a mixture of differentsized pyroclasts, a n d t h e s e a r e covered b y t h e names 'tuff-breccia', 'lapilli-ash tuff' and 'ash-lapilli tuff'. When t h e composition is known in g r e a t e r detail. i t is possible t o refine t h i s nomenclature t o give such rocks a s 'lapilli-coarse a s h tuff' a n d 'coarse ash-fine a s h tuff'. Pyroclastic rock names a r e qualified b y a term which reflects t h e composition of t h e dominant variety of pyroclast. This is e i t h e r 'vitric' ( g l a s s ) , 'crystal' o r 'lithic', b u t in r o c k s older t h a n Tertiary (c. 60 million y e a r s ) i t i s v e r y unlikely t h a t glass will s u r v i v e , as i t rapidly becomes s t a b l e a n d microcrystalline. Therefore, in t h e pyroclastic rocks of Hong Kong, which a r e J u r a s s i c in a g e (much older t h a n t h e Tertiary), t h e term 'vitric' is u s e d t o describe fragments t h a t a r e recognized from t h e i r s h a p e a n d t e x t u r e t o have been glass when t h e rock was f i r s t deposited. An example of s u c h a rock is eutaxite, a variety of v i t r i c t u f f , which is f o u n d , f o r example, on M t Kellett a n d Razor Hill. The terms 'crystal' and 'lithic' r e f e r t o pyroclasts composed of c r y s t a l s ( o r c r y s t a l fragments) a n d rock fragments respectively. A.3.3 Types
Pyroclastic fragments a r e created b y t h e explosive expansion of g a s e s in a magma, b y fragmentation of adjacent magmatic r o c k s from previous volcanic e r u p t i o n s , o r by t h e b r e a k - u p of t h e basement r o c k s u n d e r t h e volcanic v e n t o r fissure. On ejection from t h e v e n t o r f i s s u r e , t h e fragments become e i t h e r 'fallout deposits' o r 'pyroclastic flow deposits', a s follows : (a) Fallout deposits have many s t r u c t u r e s t h a t resemble those of sedimentary rocks. They a r e generally well-sorted when deposited in water, with well-defined, rapidly alternating beds. Such deposits a r e found in Hong Kong. b u t t h e y a r e r a r e , only being seen a t Lai Chi Chong, Sham Chung a n d Clear Water Bay. Pyroclastic flow deposits a r e formed of hot, gaseous, d e n s e masses of material t h a t move rapidly away from a volcanic vent. The material is usually a highly concentrated mixture of g a s e s a n d solids. The r e s u l t a n t deposit may be stratified, b u t in Hong Kong i t more usually forms massive, poorly-sorted units of g r e a t thickness. Most of t h e thick sequences of poorly-sorted t u f f s in Hong Kong originated a s pyroclastic flow deposits. However, t h e process of welding, in which
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t h e r e is viscous deformation of v i t r i c fragments, can r e s u l t in marked planar f a b r i c s , which is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of eutaxite. When water has de-stabilised a n existing unlithified pyroclastic deposit. t h e resulting w a t e r t r a n s p o r t e d , poorly-sorted material i s known a s a 'laharic' deposit. Both pyroclastic flows a n d , to a l e s s e r e x t e n t , l a h a r s a r e found in Hong Kong; t h e l a t t e r , f o r example, a t Hong Lok Yuen. A.4
A.4.1
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Nature

Sediment i s produced b y t h e weathering a n d erosion of pre-existing r o c k s , o r b y chemical o r biochemical precipitation. Sedimentary r o c k s produced by t h e lithification of t h e t r a n s p o r t e d p r o d u c t s of weathering a r e termed 'detrital' sedimentary rocks. Those produced b y chemical precipitation o r biochemical action a r e 'chemical' a n d 'biochemical' sedimentary rocks; f o r example, s a l t deposits and limestone. Generally, when a sediment h a s been deposited b u t n o t lithified, it i s called a 'superficial deposit' (see Section A.6). Sediments, a n d t h e r o c k s produced from them, a r e classified on t h e basis of t h e size of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t particles, mineralogical composition a n d origin. The system adopted b y t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y i s based on t h e 2-6 g r a i n size divisions which a r e commonly u s e d f o r t h e engineering description of soils (Table A l ) . A.4.2 A.4.2.1 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks Types
Detrital sedimentary r o c k s a r e divided on t h e basis of grain size into 'rudaceous' (gravelly), 'arenaceous' ( s a n d y ) a n d 'argillaceous' (clayey a n d silty). A.4.2.2 Rudaceous Rocks
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Lithified deposits of gravel, which may include cobbles a n d boulders, a r e called 'conglomerate' when t h e particles a r e r o u n d e d , a n d 'sedimentary breccia' when t h e y a r e a n g u l a r . The c o a r s e particles may all b e o n e t y p e of r o c k , o r t h e y may b e derived from more t h a n one s o u r c e rock. The matrix, which i s subordinate, i s e i t h e r s a n d o r silt and may be cemented. Conglomerates can b e found a t Harbour Island a n d a t Brides Pool, and sedimentary breccias on Yim Tin Tsai in Tolo Harbour. Sedimentary breccia i s so-called t o distinguish i t from f a u l t breccia, pyroclastic breccia a n d o t h e r genetic t y p e s . A.4.2.3 Arenaceous Rocks
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Lithified deposits of material in which s a n d i s t h e dominant g r a i n size a r e sandstones. T h e r e i s commonly fine material (silt o r clay) between t h e s a n d grains. a n d when t h e amount of t h i s f i n e r matrix i s less t h a n 15%, t h e s a n d s t o n e i s called a n 'arenite'. When t h e matrix exceeds 15%. t h e rock i s a 'wacke'. The cement which binds t h e s a n d particles t o g e t h e r t o form a rock i s e i t h e r silica, i r o n oxides, clay o r carbonates.
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Arenaceous rocks in Hong Kong can be split into the following four main types : (a) Quartzose sandstone is nearly all quartz, cemented by silica. I t is generally well-sorted, well-rounded and clayfree, probably being composed of material t h a t has travelled a long way from t h e source rock. Examples can be seen on Bluff Head. Feldspathic sandstone contains many feldspar grains, indicating relatively rapid erosion and deposition close to the source. Examples can be seen a t The Chinese University and Tai Po Kau. Lithic sandstone is very variable, containing recognizable fragments of other rocks. Although usually associated with rivers, i t can be deposited in any environment. Examples can be seen a t Sham Chung and on Yim Tin Tsai. Calcareous sandstone is a sandstone cemented by calcareous material in which the clasts a r e not themselves calcareous. An example is the beach rock containing tuff clasts and calcareous cement found a t Tau Chau. Repulse Bay.
A.4.2.4
Argillaceous Rocks
Both siltstone and claystone can be recognized in Hong Kong, but, because of t h e difficulty in distinguishing grain sizes of lithified material, i t is usual to restrict the term 'siltstone' to rocks composed of the coarser silt grains, and t o use 'mudstone' o r 'shale' for all finer mixes. Mudstones a r e non-fissile, while shale is fissile; shale should not be confused with slate, which has a metamorphic fissility (cleavage). Apart from fissility, t h e important characteristics of t h e argillaceous rocks a r e colour, sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s and non-clay material (e.g. sand grains, organic matter, fossils). Good examples of siltstones a r e found on Ping Chau. Mudstones can be seen a t Fei Ngo Shan. and graphite-bearing mudstones can be found on M o To Chau. A.4.3 A.4.3.1 Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks Types
The dominant types of chemical and biochemical rocks a r e limestones (calcium carbonate) and dolomites (calcium magnesium carbonate). There a r e also siliceous rocks and evaporites in this group. A.4.3.2 Limestone and Dolomite
Although essentially chemical o r biochemical in origin, these rocks may contain fragmented material, e.g. broken calcareous fossils. Non-carbonate material, such a s sand grains and chert, may also be present in small amounts. Limestone occurs in Hong Kong beneath t h e alluvium in the Yuen Long area.
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Most of t h e limestone has been metamorphosed t o marble. Dolomite is found offshore from Ma Shi Chau a n d possibly in t h e Ma On Shan mine. A.4.3.3 Chert
Chert is a n o r g a n i c o r inorganic precipitate of silica; t h e silica is mostly cryptocrystalline q u a r t z , b u t may be amorphous i n p a r t (opal). Impurities in c h e r t give i t different colours, and flint is synonymous with one of t h e d a r k e r varieties. Chert is e i t h e r bedded o r nodular; nodular c h e r t i s common in limestone, a n d bedded c h e r t can be found on Ping Chau. Chert lenses associated with pyroclastic rocks a r e found o n t h e western s h o r e s of J u n k Bay. A.4.3.4 Evaporites
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Evaporites include gypsum, a n h y d r i t e a n d halite. They a r e often associated with mudstones and siltstones, forming in shallow basins which a r e periodically flooded and dried out; t h i s association can be seen on Ping Chau, although only evaporite mineral pseudomorphs can be seen. A.5
A.5.1
METAMORPHIC ROCKS Nature

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Metamorphism describes t h e process of production of new minerals. s t r u c t u r e s a n d t e x t u r e s in pre-existing rocks, excluding t h e processes of weathering. There a r e t h r e e t y p e s of metamorphism, based on t h e variables of p r e s s u r e d u e t o d e p t h of burial, temperature, s t r a i n resulting from stress applied d u r i n g deformation, a n d fluid p r e s s u r e : (a) (b) (c) thermal o r contact metamorphism. characterised b y high temperature, low p r e s s u r e a n d low s t r a i n , dynamic metamorphism, characterised b y high s t r a i n and high fluid p r e s s u r e , a n d
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regional metamorphism, characterised by high temperat u r e a n d high p r e s s u r e .
These t h r e e t y p e s overlap considerably, b u t thermal a n d dynamic metamorphism a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o localised a r e a s , respectively, along t h e e d g e s of l a r g e i n t r u sions a n d on narrow t h r u s t s and faults. A.5.2 Contact Metamorphism
Both heat a n d hot fluids from a l a r g e intrusion of igneous rock affect a narrow belt of c o u n t r y rock s u r r o u n d i n g t h e intrusion. Thermal metamorphism t a k e s place within t h i s contact aureole, affecting different c o u n t r y r o c k s in different ways. Mudstones and impure carbonates show t h e g r e a t e s t mineralogical c h a n g e s , e.g. t h e mudstones a t The Chinese University which have been affected by t h e major g r a n i t e intrusion in t h e Sha Tin area. The least affected a r e t h o s e possessing mineral assemblages which a r e stable a t t e m p e r a t u r e s a s high a s those of t h e i n t r u d i n g granite, e.g. s a n d s t o n e s a n d vitric t u f f s on Victoria Peak.
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In mudstones, t h e s e c h a n g e s s t a r t a s spotting of t h e rock, often caused b y new mineral g r o w t h , while close t o t h e intrusion complete recrystallisation gives a hornfels, a h a r d glassy rock with no fabric. Thermally metamorphosed limestones become marbles, a s a t Yuen Long, a n d s k a r n s (calcium-bearing silicate minerals), a s r e p o r t e d in t h e Ma On Shan mine. Sandstones become quartzite, e.g. a t S a n d y Bay, b u t impurities in t h e sediment can give small quantities of new minerals s u c h a s sillimanite, andalusite a n d muscovite, e.g. behind Belcher's S t r e e t , Kennedy Town. A.5.3 Dynamic Metamorphism
The high s h e a r s t r e s s in fault zones r e s u l t s in c r u s h i n g of t h e wall rocks. allowing mobile fluids t o develop high fluid p r e s s u r e s . Temperatures can b e raised locally, b u t t h e r e i s no regional heating. The processes a n d rock t y p e s associated with faulting can be s p l i t into t h r e e t y p e s : Brittle faults, which give cataclasites s u c h a s fault breccia a n d f a u l t gouge. These r o c k s a r e non-foliated, a n d can b e s e e n in places s u c h a s Lai Chi Kok a n d northwest Tai Lam Country Park. Ductile faults, which give mylonites, i.e. finely crystalline r o c k s containing s u r v i v o r megacrysts. These r o c k s a r e generally foliated, a n d can b e s e e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e g r a n i t e of t h e Castle Peak area. When g r e e n (chloriter i c h ) a n d s h i n y , t h e y a r e called 'phyllites'. e.g. in t h e Lok Ma Chau Formation sediments of Mouse Island. Tuen Mun. Ductile flow, which gives metamorphic r o c k s c h a r a c t e r ised b y a penetrative foliation s u c h a s s c h i s t . Examples of s c h i s t can b e s e e n within t h e metatuffs of t h e n o r t h e r n New Territories. Although t h r u s t s a n d f a u l t s a r e limited in width, often a l a r g e number of them can b e found in belts s e v e r a l kilometres wide. Shear s t r e s s e s a n d fluid p r e s s u r e s in t h e s e belts can lead t o t h e formation of s u c h minerals a s sericite (fine muscovite), p y r i t e a n d calcite. All t h e s e f e a t u r e s can b e found in t h e n o r t h e r n New Territories. A.5.4 Regional Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism i s achieved by ductile flow u n d e r high t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e in broad belts of folded o r s h e a r e d rocks. A broad belt of metamorphic r o c k s , which includes s c h i s t s , metatuffs and phyllites, o c c u r s in t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of Guangdong Province a n d e x t e n d s i n t o t h e n o r t h e r n New Territories. A.6 A.6.1 SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS Types
Superficial deposits a r e t h o s e sediments t h a t have not been lithified t o form rocks. The classification of superficial deposits a n d sedimentary r o c k s i s
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essentially t h e same. The most important t y p e s of superficial deposits i n Hong Kong a r e mass wasting deposits o r colluvium ( s e e below), fluvial deposits, a n d marine deposits. Some small quantities of o r g a n i c deposits a r e also found. A.6.2 Mass Wasting Deposits
In Hong Kong, mass wasting deposits (commonly called 'colluvium') a r e predominantly d e b r i s flow deposits a n d comprise heterogeneous mixtures of sediment a n d rock. They a r e formed b y t h e rapid downslope movement of s a t u r a t e d masses of material, predominantly by flow (i.e. t h e moving mass does not contain d i s c r e t e s h e a r o r slide s u r f a c e s a n d has t h e general a p p e a r a n c e of a body t h a t has behaved a s a fluid). Other t y p e s of slope movement (e.g. rock slides. d e b r i s slides) and slow soil c r e e p also c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e formation of mass wasting deposits. These deposits usually collect i n valleys a n d a t t h e bases of slopes, f o r example in t h e Mid-levels area. The deposits f r e q u e n t l y g r a d e into r i v e r deposits (alluvium) o r marine deposits a t t h e foot of a slope. Some o t h e r , l e s s common. t y p e s of mass wasting deposit a r e boulder fields a n d s c r e e s . Boulder fields a r e accumulations of boulders on a slope, which r e s u l t from l a r g e pieces of rock being weathered a n d eroded from outcrops higher upslope, o r by t h e eluviation of fines from a weathered mantle o r from s h e e t s of boulder-rich d e b r i s flow deposits. Boulder fields commonly g r a d e downslope i n t o boulder streams along valleys and depressions. Examples can be seen a t Cape D'Aguilar a n d Lin Fa Shan. 'Talus' o r 'scree' i s coarse material which h a s weathered and fallen from a rock face a n d accumulated on o r a t t h e base of a slope; good examples can be seen below Lion Rock. A.6.3 Fluvial Deposits
These deposits a r e collectively known a s 'alluvium'. In Hong Kong two a g e s of fluvial deposition a r e recognized; Holocene alluvium, found next t o existing r i v e r s a n d stream c o u r s e s , a n d older alluvium, found in higher t e r r a c e s a n d offshore beneath t h e Holocene marine deposits. Both a r e composed of similar materials, dominantly silt, b u t with significant amounts of s a n d , g r a v e l a n d clay. The older alluvium is evidence of a more extensive floodplain. Examples can be seen a r o u n d Yuen Long a n d Shek Kong. A widespread development of t h i s older alluvium o c c u r s offshore, beneath marine deposits. which indicates a much lower sea-level a t t h e time of i t s deposition. Small patches of alluvium can also be found on high g r o u n d , where a n a t u r a l constriction in an upland valley has r e s u l t e d in t h e valley being infilled b y locally reworked colluvial debris. A.6.4 Marine Deposits
Marine superficial deposits in Hong Kong have accumulated on older alluvial deposits a n d t h e pre-Holocene eroded rock surface. The commonest material is a light o r d a r k g r e y , o r greenish g r e y , mud. Deposits of s a n d a r e also found on t h e floors of contemporary deep-water channels a n d in o t h e r a r e a s of s t r o n g c u r r e n t s . Older s a n d deposits can also b e found buried beneath mud. Close t o t h e p r e s e n t coastline, t h e most distinctive marine deposits a r e sand beaches, which a r e accumulations of fluvially-derived s a n d washed onto t h e s h o r e b y waves and c u r r e n t s . Storm beaches a n d raised beaches a r e two o t h e r beach t y p e s , b u t t h e s e a r e much less common. The former a r e t h e r e s u l t of unusually high waves (e.g. d u e t o typhoons) a n d t h e
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l a t t e r a r e remnants of older beaches associated with periods of h i g h e r s e a level. Estuarine f a n s a n d deltas of s a n d a n d silt a r e o t h e r t y p e s of distinctive marine deposit. Examples of beach deposits, e s t u a r i n e f a n s a n d a delta can b e found a t Lung Kwu Tan. Tai Po a n d Nim Wan respectively. A.6.5 Organic Deposits
The main t y p e of o r g a n i c deposit in Hong Kong is peat. which is a d a r k accumulation of organic material t h a t has not fully decayed because of i t s v e r y high moisture content. Peat is derived from organic d e b r i s which has accumulated in poorly-drained level sites. There i s usually some sediment within t h e peat, a n d t h e depositional environment is often similar t o t h a t of r i v e r deposits. Peat can b e found i n t e r b e d d e d with sediments south-west of Yuen Long. A.7 A.7.1 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY General Aspects
Geological s t r u c t u r e s in rocks a n d superficial deposits can be divided into faults a n d o t h e r f r a c t u r e s , a n d folds. Associated with folds a r e minor s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s foliations, lineations a n d mineral fabrics. A.7.2 Faults a n d Other F r a c t u r e s
Rock f r a c t u r e s (discontinuities) a r e t h e commonest of geological s t r u c t u r e s , and can be defined as s u r f a c e s in a rock mass across which t h e cohesion of t h e rock material is lost. The two most important t y p e s of f r a c t u r e a r e faults a n d joints. Where t h e r e has been visible movement along t h e s u r f a c e , t h e f r a c t u r e i s a 'fault', otherwise i t is a 'joint'. This distinction i s somewhat a r b i t r a r y , since nearly all f r a c t u r e s involve some movement. however slight.
A t o r near t h e s u r f a c e , faults can be classified into t h r e e t y p e s , depending on t h e orientations of t h e principal stresses :
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(a) (b)
normal f a u l t s , with vertical,
t h e maximum compressive stress
low-angle r e v e r s e f a u l t s o r t h r u s t s , with t h e maximum compressive s t r e s s horizontal, a n d t h e minimum vertical. and strike-slip o r wrench faults, with t h e maximum a n d minimum compressive s t r e s s e s both horizontal.
(c)
Faults a r e often found a r r a n g e d i n sets (i.e. in g r o u p s with similar orientation). Major faults may have associated minor faults. Fault planes v a r y from single s h e a r planes, which may be polished a n d smoothed, t o fault zones i n which t h e associated r o c k s a r e broken t o fault breccia o r fault gouge, o r converted t o a mylonite ( s e e Section A.5.3). Another f e a t u r e associated with faulting is 'slickensiding'. Slickensides a r e polished a n d finely s t r i a t e d s u r f a c e s t h a t r e s u l t from friction along a fault
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plane. Although slickensides a r e used a s movement direction indicators, t h e y a r e not reliable. A t b e s t t h e y only indicate t h e direction of movement d u r i n g t h e i r formation, which may not b e t h e main movement phase. Joints commonly develop in regularly-spaced s e t s , which may be geometrically related t o tectonic stress a n d t h e form of t h e rock body. However. i t is virtually impossible t o establish t h e relative a g e s of joints of different orientations, which makes systematic analysis difficult. The following t h r e e main t y p e s of jointing can be recognized : (a) Tectonic joints, which a r e r e g u l a r s e t s produced b y regional compression o r extension. Their orientation can give an indication of t h e s t r e s s field. They a r e related in origin t o faults o r folds, a n d t h e r e i s often a symmetrical arrangement of t h e s e t h r e e features. In Hong Kong, such joints a r e well displayed in t h e g r a n i t e s , particularly a t Castle Peak. Cooling joints, which r e s u l t from t h e contraction of a n igneous, pyroclastic o r o t h e r heated rock body. These joints may form polygonal columns which have t h e i r axes perpendicular t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e hot rock mass, b u t t h e y may also be parallel t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e body. A well-known example i s t h e marked columnar jointing in t h e trachyandesites a n d welded t u f f s in t h e High Island a r e a of t h e Sai Kung peninsula. Unloading o r sheeting joints, which r e s u l t from expansion of t h e rock mass a s t h e confining p r e s s u r e is reduced. usually b y erosion. These joints a r e usually parallel o r near-parallel t o t h e erosional surface, a n d a r e well displayed on Po Toi Island, at Cape D'Aguilar a n d a t Siu Lam.
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(b)
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(c)
The s u r f a c e s of joints c a n v a r y widely in t e x t u r e a n d may have been altered, weathered, o r coated with minerals. Individual joints a r e usually reasonably s t r a i g h t , b u t may be c u r v e d o r show s h a r p c h a n g e s in direction. Joints close t o t h e s u r f a c e may be opened b y weathering a n d infilled by superficial deposits o r t h e p r o d u c t s of insitu weathering.
A.7.3
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Folds
A fold is a c u r v e o r bend in t h e rock s t r u c t u r e , a n d i t s recognition r e q u i r e s t h e presence of a planar f e a t u r e s u c h a s rock stratification. foliation o r cleavage. Although a relatively homogeneous rock mass, s u c h a s a g r a n i t e intrusion, may be folded, if t h e r e a r e no planar m a r k e r s within t h e rock mass t h e fold cannot be seen. Fold s t r u c t u r e s may be complex when t h e r o c k s have been affected b y more t h a n one period of folding.
Folds a r e classified b y a t t i t u d e into t h r e e main t y p e s : (a) (b) synclines, which a r e folds t h a t close downwards, with t h e b e d s younging towards t h e centre. anticlines, which a r e folds t h a t close upwards, with t h e b e d s younging away from t h e c e n t r e , and
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(c)
n e u t r a l folds, which a r e folds t h a t close sideways.
The geometry of folds can be described f u r t h e r b y t h e angle of dip of t h e axial plane from vertical t o horizontal (using t h e terms ' u p r i g h t ' , 'inclined'. 'overfolded' a n d 'recumbent'), a n d b y t h e angle between t h e opposing fold limbs from O0 t o over 120 (using t h e terms 'gentle'. 'open'. 'close', 'tight' and 'isoclinal'). These terms a r e defined in t h e Glossary. Major folds may b e many kilometres a c r o s s , a s i s t h e Tolo Channel Anticline, o r h u n d r e d s of metres across, a s a r e t h o s e found on Victoria Peak. Minor folds. visible in small exposures, often mirror t h e form of t h e major folds a n d a r e t h e n called 'parasitic' folds. Good examples of t h e s e folds can b e seen on Ma Shi Chau.
A.8
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WEATHERING General Aspects
A.8.1
Weathering is t h e process responsible f o r t h e breakdown a n d alteration of materials near t h e e a r t h ' s surface. I n igneous, pycroclastic a n d metamorphic rocks. i t i s t h e response of r o c k s t o lower t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d s t r e s s e s t h a n t h o s e t h a t prevailed at t h e time t h e y were formed. In most sedimentary rocks, whose c o n s t i t u e n t minerals have previously been weathered t o some extent, i t i s chiefly t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e cementing a g e n t in t h e rock t o atmospheric conditions (i.e. t h e presence of oxygen a n d weak acids). I n superficial deposits, t h e weathering of individual minerals may still be continuing a t t h e p r e s e n t . The weathering process can be divided into t h e two main categories :
(a)
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mechanical weathering ( o r disintegration), which is caused b y s t r e s s e s , from both within t h e rock a n d as applied externally, t h a t d i s r u p t t h e rock fabric, a n d chemical weathering ( o r decomposition), which involves chemical reactions t h a t transform minerals t o more s t a b l e forms in t h e new environment.
(b)
The susceptibility of different rock t y p e s t o disintegration a n d decomposition may differ markedly. Where two o r more rock t y p e s a r e p r e s e n t t o g e t h e r , e.g. where t h e r e is a n igneous intrusion i n t o a n o t h e r rock, relatively more weathered rock may o c c u r beneath o r a d j a c e n t t o less weathered rock. and s u c h a sequence may be repeated. Weathering profiles may be of considerable a g e on a geological time scale. Consequently, t h e y do not necessarily reflect t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e r o c k s t o t h e p r e s e n t climate. Also, t h e y may have been partly removed b y s u b s e q u e n t erosion. Rock exposed in a r e c e n t excavation may be affected b y s u b s e q u e n t mechanical o r chemical weathering effects, o r both. u n d e r prevailing climatic conditions. A.8.2 Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering is b r o u g h t a b o u t chiefly b y c h a n g e s of stress a n d t e m p e r a t u r e a t o r n e a r t h e exposed rock s u r f a c e . The important physical processes involved a r e expansion of water on freezing in rock pores o r c r a c k s ,
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reduction in confining stress b y erosion of overlying material, a n d differential expansion of t h e rock o r rock minerals when s t r o n g l y heated by insolation. The expansion of certain minerals in joints is also caused by chemical reactions s u c h a s hydration a n d oxidation, s o t h a t i n some r e s p e c t s mechanical a n d chemical weathering a r e not easily s e p a r a t e d a n d produce similar effects. A common form of mechanical weathering is exfoliation, which is t h e scaling o r peeling-off of flakes a n d c u r v e d shells of rock blocks. a s can be seen a t To Kwa Wan. The biological components of mechanical weathering include breakdown of r o c k s b y plant roots a n d animals.
A.8.3
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is b r o u g h t a b o u t mainly b y t h e action of s u b s t a n c e s dissolved in rainwater a n d circulating groundwater. The intensify of chemical weathering is controlled by t h e r a t e s of decomposition of individual minerals a n d t h e removal of decomposed minerals from t h e rock. Silicate minerals, t h e most important rock-forming group, a r e broken down b y hydrogen ion introduction, oxidation of f e r r o u s to f e r r i c ions, a n d hydration. Clay minerals a r e t h e chief residual p r o d u c t s of f e l d s p a r decomposition. while clay, chlorite a n d limonite a r e produced from t h e decomposition of mafic minerals s u c h a s biotite. These p r o d u c t s a r e commonly removed by eluviation a n d erosion. which allows t h e process of chemical weathering t o progress. The biological components of chemical weathering include c h a n g e s in soil pH a n d t h e formation of complex organic-mineral s u b s t a n c e s . In limestone o r marble, solution is t h e dominant a s p e c t of chemical weathering. Distinctive landforms a r e produced, notably ' k a r s t ' topography. This is characterised by sinkholes, caves and u n d e r g r o u n d drainage, a n d has been found buried beneath superficial deposits a t Yuen Long.
A.8.4
Weathering Features The following examples of weathering f e a t u r e s a r e found in Hong Kong : Weathered mantle, which is t h e e n t i r e d e p t h of t h e weathering profile, excluding a n y t r a n s p o r t e d material at t h e top. Weathering f r o n t , which is a n essentially planar s u r f a c e a t t h e downward limit of active weathering within t h e rock mass. A s h a r p well-defined weathering f r o n t i s a relatively r a r e feature, b u t good examples can be seen on Tai Tam Reservoir Road. Colour banding, and weathering, which a r e a n d depletion of iron s e e n in sediments on Cove. t h e more s t r u c t u r e d spheroidal caused by alternating enrichment oxides. Colour banding can be t h e west side of Three Fathoms
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Joint hardening. caused b y t h e migration a n d deposition of ferromagnesian minerals, which makes t h e joints s t a n d o u t on erosional surfaces. Examples can be seen a t Ma Shi Chau a n d on t h e e a s t side of Deep Bay.
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Weathering pits, caused by t h e preferential weathering of different lithologies, e.g. mudstone lapilli in t u f f , o r of different c r y s t a l s in homogeneous r o c k s such a s granite. Examples c a n b e seen in t h e t u f f s north of Tsuen Wan a n d i n g r a n i t e on Hammer Hill. Mineral boxwork, which is similar t o joint hardening, b u t in t h i s case t h e h a r d s u b s t a n c e is a n unaltered iron mineral deposit. This can be seen in t h e granodiorite of Cape D'Aguilar. Tors a n d corestones, which a r e piles of jointed r o c k s ( t o r s ) , f o r example a s a t To Kwa Wan. o r single blocks (corestones). However, t h e t e r m 'corestone' should be applied only t o blocks within t h e weathered mantle which a r e not in contact with solid rock. Solution grooves and basins, which a r e normally associated with soluble r o c k s s u c h as limestone, b u t may also develop on siliceous rocks. Examples can b e seen in g r a n i t e on Hammer Hill a n d in tuff in t h e Tai Po Kau Nature Reserve. Karst topography, described u n d e r chemical weathering in Section A.8.3. A.9 REFERENCES American
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Leggett, R.F. & Karrow, P.F. (1983). Handbook of Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, 50 c h a p t e r s .
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Streckeisen, A. (1974). Classification a n d nomenclature of plutonic r o c k s : IUGS Subcommission on t h e Systematics of Igneous Rocks. Geologische Rundschau, vol. 63, pp 773-786. Streckeisen, A. (1980). Classification a n d nomenclature of volcanic rocks. lamprophyres, carbonatites a n d melilitic r o c k s : IUGS Subcommission on t h e Systematics of Igneous Rocks. Geologische Rundschau, vol. 69. pp 194-207.
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A.10
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blatt, H., Middleton, G.V. & Murray, R.C. (1980). Origin of Sedimentary Rocks. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New J e r s e y , 782 p. F r y , N. (1984). The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks. P r e s s , Milton Keynes. U K , 110 p. Open University
Gillen, C. (1982). Metamorphic Geoloqy : An Introduction t o Metamorphic a n d Tectonic Processes. George Allen & Unwin, London, 144 p. Holmes, A. (1965). Principles of Physical Geoloqv. Karst Geomorphology. Nelson, London, 1288 p.
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Jennings. J.N. (1985).
Basil Blackwell, Oxford. 293 p.
Mackenzie, W.S., Donaldson. C.H. & Guildford, C. (1982). Atlas of Igneous Rocks a n d t h e i r Textures. Longman, Harlow, U K , 148 p. Middlemost, E.A.K. (1985). Magmas a n d Magmatic Rocks : An Introduction t o Igneous Petrology. Longman, London. 266 p. Nockolds, S.R.. Knox. R.W.OIB. & Chinner, G.A. (1978). Petrology f o r S t u d e n t s , Cambridge University P r e s s , Cambridge, 435 p.
Oilier. C.D.
Park. R . G .
(1975). (1983).
Weathering.
Longman Group, London, 304 p Blackie. Glasgow,
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Foundations of S t r u c t u r a l Geology. Sedimentary Rocks.
135 p.
Pettijohn, F.J. (1975).
Harper & Row, New York, 628 p.
Fault a n d Joint Development in Brittle a n d Semi-Brittle Price. N . J . (1966). Rock. Pergamon P r e s s . Oxford. 176 p. Ramsay, J.G. (1967). York, 568 p. Folding a n d F r a c t u r i n g of Rocks. McGraw-Hill, New
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Thorpe. R.S. & Brown, G.C. (1985). The Field Description of Igneous Rocks. The Open University P r e s s , Milton Keynes. UK, 154 p. Tucker, M.E. (1982). The Field Description of Sedimentary Rocks. University P r e s s , Milton Keynes, U K . 112 p.
The Open
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Twidale, C . R . (1982). Granite Landforms. Amsterdam, 372 p.
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co,
Wise, D . U . . Dunn. D.E.. Engelder, J.T., Geiser, P.A., Hatcher, R.D., Kish, S.A., Odom, A.L. & Schomel. S. (1984). Fault-related r o c k s : s u g g e s t i o n s f o r terminology. Geoloqy. vol. 12, p p 391-394.
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Table A1 - Classification of Solid Rocks and Superficial Deposits in Hong Kong
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LIST OF FIGURES
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A1 A 1
Page No. Classification of Hong Kong Igneous Rocks Pyroclastic Rock Composition
P yroclastic Rock Names
A A2 2
A3 A 3
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Legend :
Q
A
Silica minerals Alkali feldspar Plagioclase feldspar
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Notes :
( 1 Plutonic in capitals; volcanic in lower case 1 2 ) Classification after Streckeisen ( 197L. 1980).
Figure A 1
Classification of Hong Kong Igneous Rocks
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Pumice, glass
VlTRlC TUFF
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CRYSTAL TUFF
LITHIC TUFF
Crystals, crystal fragments
Rock trogmcnts
Figure A 2 - Pyroclastic Rock Composition
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Blocks ond bombs Over 60mm
PYROCLASTIC
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TUFF- BRECCIA TUFF- AGGLOMERATE
ASH- LAPlLLl Lopilli
2 60mm
75 50 25 [Coarse ash 0.06-2mn Fine ash under 0.06mm
~~~~~
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Note :
Figure adapted from Fisher and Schmincke l 1 9 8 L ) .
Figure A 3
Pyroclastic Rock Names
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NO. NO.
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Hong Kong
Rock Types
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A : Fine- grained Granite
8 : Medium grained Granite
C: Coorse - grained Granite
[intruding gmnodiorite 1
E: Pegmatite
F: Granodiorite
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G: Rhyolite
H: Rhyodacite
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Natural scale
Plate A1
- Hong Kong Rock Types (Sheet 1 of 4 )
K: Quartz Syenite
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N: Trachyandesite
0 : Andesite
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P : Gabbro
Q : Basalt
R: Lamprophyre
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- Hong Kong Rock Types (Sheet 2 of
4)
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T : Co
Ash Tuff
U: Lapilli Tuff
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V : Pyroclastic Breccia (~112)
W : Mudstone
X : Sandstone
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Y : Conglomerate
Z : Sedimentary Breccia
A A : Chert
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Natural scale
Plate A1
Hong Kong Rock Types (Sheet 3 of 4 )
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AB: Limestone
AC: Dolomite
AD: Evaporite
AE: M y l o n i t e
AF: Phyllite
AG: Schist
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A1 : Quartzite
AJ:
F a u l t arec
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Rock Types (Sheet
o f
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GLOSSARY
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Acid.
Chemical term f o r an igneous rock containing more t h a n 62% silica a n d usually less t h a n 20% d a r k minerals. ( C o n t r a s t with 'intermediate' a n d 'basic').
Agglomerate. Pyroclastic rock composed predominantly of r o u n d e d bombs of material g r e a t e r t h a n 60 mm a v e r a g e dimension. ( C o n t r a s t with ' p y r o clastic breccia'). Alkali feldspar. Group of f e l d s p a r s composed of mixtures, o r mixed c r y s t a l s , of potassium f e l d s p a r (KAlSi,O,) a n d sodium f e l d s p a r (NaA1Si30,). (See 'feldspar'). Alluvium. Detrital material of a n y grain size t r a n s p o r t e d and deposited d u r i n g comparatively r e c e n t geological time by a r i v e r o r stream. Amorphous. Term for a mineral o r o t h e r s u b s t a n c e t h a t lacks crystalline s t r u c t u r e a n d has no c h a r a c t e r i s t i c external form. S t r u c t u r a l t e r m f o r an organic soil with no recognizable plant remains. Andalusite. Brown, yellow, g r e e n , r e d o r g r e y silicate mineral which o c c u r s i n thick, nearly s q u a r e prisms in schists. gneisses and hornfelses. Andesite. Dark-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, intermediate igneous rock. Often o c c u r s in t h e form of lava flows. Commonly contains m e g a c r y s t s of plagioclase f e l d s p a r a n d mafic minerals. Angular. Shape t e r m f o r a rock particle with s h a r p e d g e s a n d c o r n e r s .
Anhydrite. White o r light-coloured mineral consisting of calcium s u l p h a t e (CaS04). Essentially a slightly h a r d e r a n d less soluble form of gypsum. Anticline. Fold in t h e form of a n a r c h whose c o r e contains t h e s t r a t i graphically o l d e r rocks. Aphanitic. Textural term for a rock in which t h e individual c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e n o t visible t o t h e naked eye. Aplite. Light-coloured, e q u i g r a n u l a r , fine-grained igneous rock of granitic composition. Very uniform and smooth-textured appearance. Commonly o c c u r s in t h e form of narrow dykes.
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Arenaceous. Term f o r a sedimentary rock composed wholly o r predominantly of sand-sized g r a i n s . Arenite. Arenaceous sedimentary rock containing l e s s t h a n 15% silt a n d clay material. ( C o n t r a s t with 'wacke'). Argillaceous. Term f o r a sedimentary rock composed wholly o r predominantly of silt- a n d / o r clay-size particles. Ash. Pyroclastic rock material of s a n d - , silt- a n d clay-size (i.e. < 2 mm), subdivided i n t o coarse a s h for s a n d - s i z e a n d fine a s h f o r silt- a n d claysize. Descriptive term f o r tuff composed wholly o r predominantly of t h e s e g r a i n sizes.
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Aureole. Zone s u r r o u n d i n g a n igneous i n t r u s i o n in which t h e c o u n t r y rock shows t h e e f f e c t s of thermal o r contact metamorphism.
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Axial plane. Plane t h a t connects t h e points of maximum c u r v a t u r e of t h e bedding planes o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l rock s u r f a c e s in a fold. Banded. S t r u c t u r a l term for a rock with alternating l a y e r s of material of differing colour o r t e x t u r e , possibly of differing mineral composition also. Basal. Pertaining to. situated a t , o r forming t h e base of a geological s t r u c t u r e . 'Basal layer' r e f e r s t o t h e lowest l a y e r in a layered rock o r soil. Dark coloured, v e r y fine-grained igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase f e l d s p a r a n d mafic minerals. Often o c c u r s in t h e form of lava flows. The v e r y fine-grained equivalent of gabbro.
Basalt.
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Basic.
Chemical term f o r an igneous rock containing 44 t o 54% silica a n d usually more t h a n 30% d a r k minerals. (Contrast with 'acid' and 'intermediate').
Bedded. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r a sedimentary rock o r superficial deposit formed, a r r a n g e d o r deposited in l a y e r s o r beds > 20 mm thick. Biotite. Black, d a r k brown o r dark g r e e n mineral of t h e mica group. Forms distinctive s h i n y thin prisms o r flakes. Very common in crystalline igneous a n d metamorphic rocks.
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Block.
Rock fragment derived from t h e s i d e s of a volcanic vent. Commonly a n g u l a r o r s u b a n g u l a r . Restricted t o pyroclasts > 60 mm diameter. Also a more general term f o r individual pieces of rock bounded by discontinuities in a rock mass.
Blocky. Shape term f o r a rock mass with t h r e e approximately orthogonal a n d equally-spaced joint s e t s , s u c h t h a t individual rock blocks t e n d t o be roughly equidimensional. Bomb. Partly molten material from a volcanic v e n t which solidifies i n flight o r s h o r t l y a f t e r landing. Restricted t o pyroclasts > 60 mm diameter.
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Boulders.
Rock fragments g r e a t e r t h a n 200 mm in size.
Breccia. Coarse-grained rock composed of a n g u l a r broken rock fragments held t o g e t h e r b y a mineral cement o r in a fine-grained matrix. (Contrast with 'conglomerate'). May be of sedimentary o r pyroclastic origin, o r may be formed b y c r u s h i n g of a n y t y p e of rock in a fault zone. Cataclastic. Term f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e of a rock which has been broken u p severely b y s t r o n g dynamic metamorphism o r faulting. Common f e a t u r e s a r e bent, broken o r g r o u n d - u p minerals. 'Cataclasite' is t h e name f o r a n y rock showing cataclastic s t r u c t u r e . Calcareous. Term applied t o a rock containing an appreciable amount of calcium carbonate, e.g. calcareous sandstone. Calcite. White, light g r e y . yellow o r blue, common carbonate mineral : t h e carbonate of calcium (CaCO,). Glassy appearance. Effervesces in hydrochloric acid. The principal c o n s t i t u e n t of chalk a n d most limestones.
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Carbonate. Term applied t o a mineral compound c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a n ionic s t r u c t u r e of C0,-2. Calcite a n d dolomite a r e examples of c a r b o n a t e minerals. Also applied t o a rock consisting chiefly of c a r b o n a t e minerals. Limestone and dolomite a r e examples of carbonate rocks. (See also 'calcareous'). Cemented. Term f o r a sedimentary rock whose g r a i n s a r e bound t o g e t h e r in a c o h e r e n t mass by mineral cements. Most cements a r e chemically p r e cipitated. The most common cements a r e iron oxides. silica ( q u a r t z . opal, chalcedony), carbonates (calcite, dolomite) and clay minerals. Chalcedony. Silica mineral which i s t h e cryptocrystalline v a r i e t y of q u a r t z . Has a wide r a n g e of colours. Several varieties used a s semi-precious s t o n e s (e.g. j a s p e r , carnelian. agate. onyx). Chert. Hard, d e n s e , dull t o slightly s h i n y , cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock consisting of o r g a n i c o r inorganic precipitates of silica. Occurs commonly a s small i r r e g u l a r lumps in limestones a n d dolomites, b u t may also form extensive bedded deposits.
Chlorite. Group of platy micaceous minerals, usually g r e e n in colour a n d containing much f e r r o u s iron. Often associated with a n d resembling biotite; c r y s t a l s cleave into small t h i n flakes. Widely d i s t r i b u t e d i n lowg r a d e metamorphic rocks, o r found a s alteration p r o d u c t s of ferromagnesian minerals in a n y rock t y p e . Chroma. Brilliance o r i n t e n s i t y of a colour.
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Clastic. Term f o r a rock composed of b r o k e n fragments t h a t a r e derived from pre-existing r o c k s o r minerals a n d t h a t have been t r a n s p o r t e d from t h e i r places of origin. Clay. Soil particles smaller t h a n 0.002 mm in size.
Claystone. Sedimentary rock composed predominantly of clay -size particles. Texture a n d composition similar t o shale, b u t lacks fine lamination o r fissility. (See also 'mudstone').
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Cleavage. P r o p e r t y o r t e n d e n c y of a rock t o s p l i t easily along aligned, usually closely-spaced f r a c t u r e s produced b y metamorphism o r deformation. Cleavage planes a r e secondary f e a t u r e s a n d may differ in spacing and orientation from primary rock s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s bedding. Also used t o describe t h e b r e a k i n g of a mineral along i t s c r y s t a l planes. Close fold. Cobbles. Fold with a n inter-limb angle between 30 and 70.
Rock f r a g m e n t s 60 t o 200 mm in size.
Cohesion. P r o p e r t y of a soil which exists b y v i r t u e of n a t u r a l attraction between some fine soil particles, and which enables t h e soil t o form a c o h e r e n t mass, a n d t o remain a s s u c h without t h e application of external forces. Cohesive. Term 'granular'). for a soil which possesses cohesion. ( C o n t r a s t with
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Colluvium. Deposits formed b y t h e downslope movement of e a r t h materials essentially u n d e r t h e action of gravity. Typical colluvial deposits in Hong Kong a r e s t r u c t u r e l e s s , mixed accumulations of soil and rock fragments originally deposited on a n d a t t h e base of n a t u r a l slopes. Columnar. Shape term f o r a rock mass with typically five t o s e v e n joint s e t s of similar dip t h a t combine t o form parallel columns of rock. (See also 'columnar jointing'). Columnar jointing. Parallel prismatic rock columns, polygonal (often six-sided) in cross-section, caused b y contraction d u r i n g cooling. Common in basic lavas b u t also found in o t h e r igneous a n d pyroclastic rocks.
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Conglomerate. Coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of r o u n d e d t o s u b a n g u l a r fragments l a r g e r t h a n 2 mm a v e r a g e dimension s e t in a sand o r finer-grained matrix which i s often cemented. ( C o n t r a s t with 'sedimentary breccia'). Consistency. Degree of resistance of a fine-grained deformation in general. soil t o flow o r t o
Cooling joint. Joint formed b y t h e cooling of a n igneous, pyroclastic o r o t h e r heated rock body. Country rock. Rock i n t r u d e d b y a n d s u r r o u n d i n g a n igneous intrusion. Cross bedding. S t r u c t u r e formed b y a s e r i e s of bedding planes inclined a t a n angle t o t h e main planes of stratification in a sedimentary deposit. Planes a r e usually c u r v e d a n d t r u n c a t e d in cross-section b y overlapping sets. Cryptocrystalline. Textural term f o r a rock consisting of c r y s t a l s t h a t a r e too small t o be recognized a n d distinguished separately u n d e r a n o r d i n a r y microscope. Crystal. Homogeneous solid chemical element o r compound having a r e g u l a r atomic s t r u c t u r e expressed by symmetrically-arranged external plane faces. Term f o r a pyroclastic rock composed predominantly of pyroclasts in t h e form of c r y s t a l s o r c r y s t a l fragments. Crystallinity. Degree t o which c r y s t a l s are developed in a r o c k , especially in igneous rocks. Dacite. Medium-coloured. v e r y fine-grained, acid igneous rock. The v e r y fine-grained equivalent of granodiorite. Often contains megacrysts of q u a r t z and feldspar.
Dappled. T e r m f o r non-uniform colour distribution of a rock or soil w h e r e t h e secondary colour constituent forms irregularly-shaped blotches o r marks of widely differing size. Decomposition grade. Class assigned to rock material on t h e basis of i t s d e g r e e of decomposition (chemical weathering), in terms of physical characteristics s u c h a s s t r e n g t h , discolouration. slakeability, presence o r absence of original rock t e x t u r e , a n d decomposition state of individual minerals.
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Detrital. Term f o r a rock o r sediment formed of fragmental material which i s d e r i v e d from older r o c k s a n d moved from its place of origin b y weathering a n d erosion. Dolerite. Dark-coloured, medium-grained, basic igneous rock with t h e same composition a s basalt a n d g a b b r o , b u t with a t e x t u r e of intergrown plagioclase a n d pyroxene. Dolomite. Generally white, sometimes slightly yellow. brown, pink o r g r e y c a r b o n a t e mineral : t h e c a r b o n a t e of calcium a n d magnesium (CaMg(CO,),). Forms c u r v e d , saddle-like c r y s t a l s . Also, t h e term f o r a c a r b o n a t e sedimentary rock of which more t h a n 50% consists of t h e mineral dolomite. ( C o n t r a s t with 'calcite' a n d 'limestone'). Dyke. Sheet- o r table-like body of i n t r u s i v e igneous rock which c u t s across t h e bedding o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l planes of t h e c o u n t r y rock.
Elongate. Shape term f o r a rock particle in which t h e l o n g e s t diameter i s much g r e a t e r t h a n t h e intermediate o r s h o r t e s t diameter. Expressed quantitatively a s 'flatness ratio' > 0.66 and 'elongation ratio' < 0.66. Elongation ratio. Ratio of t h e intermediate t o longest diameters of a particle. Eluviation. Downward movement of soluble o r s u s p e n d e d material in a soil o r superficial deposit b y g r o u n d w a t e r percolation. Equidimensional. Shape term f o r a rock particle in which t h e t h r e e diameters a r e of approximately equal l e n g t h . Expressed quantitatively a s 'flatness ratio' > 0.66 a n d 'elongation ratio' > 0.66. Equigranular. Textural term f o r a rock c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y c r y s t a l s o r g r a i n s of t h e same size o r approximately t h e same size. Eutaxitic. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r some pyroclastic r o c k s c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a s t r e a k e d o r banded appearance, d u e t o pumice clasts o r o t h e r material being s t r e t c h e d o u t whilst still in a hot viscous s t a t e , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y p r e s e r v e d by welding.
Evaporite. Sedimentary rock consisting evaporation of saline water.
of minerals r e s u l t i n g
from t h e
Exfoliation. Process b y which t h i n , curvilinear scales o r shells of rock a r e successively spalled o r s t r i p p e d away from t h e b a r e s u r f a c e of a rock mass o r boulder u n d e r t h e action of mechanical a n d / o r chemical weathering a n d release of confining p r e s s u r e by erosion. Often r e s u l t s in a r o u n d e d rock mass. Commonly s e e n in g r a n i t e corestones. Extrusive. Term f o r a n igneous rock t h a t has been e r u p t e d onto t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e (e.9. r o c k s formed from lava flows). Also applies t o all pyroclastic rocks. ( C o n t r a s t with 'intrusive'). Fan. Gently-sloping mass of d e t r i t a l material deposited a t locations of a b r u p t d e c r e a s e in slope gradient. Forms a part-cone s h a p e in c r o s s - section a n d is f a n - s h a p e d in plan. Of alluvial o r colluvial origin.
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Feldspar. Group of a b u n d a n t alumino-silicate rock-forming minerals of general composition MAl(A1,Si),Os where M is commonly potassium, sodium o r calcium. Crystals a r e usually white o r nearly white ( b u t f r e q u e n t l y coloured by impurities), t r a n s l u c e n t , and possess good cleavage in two directions i n t e r s e c t i n g a t o r near 90". They o c c u r commonly in many rock t y p e s a n d decompose readily t o clay. Feldsparphyric. Textural term f o r a rock containing l a r g e megacrysts of feldspar. e.g. f e l d s p a r p h y r i c rhyolite. Feldspathic. General term f o r a n y rock o r o t h e r mineral a g g r e g a t e containing feldspar. Felsic. General term f o r light-coloured minerals (e.g. q u a r t z , feldspars. muscovite), o r a n igneous rock composed chiefly of t h e s e minerals. (Contrast with 'mafic'). Term f o r a n y rock-forming minerals containing iron o r
Ferromagnesian. magnesium.
Fibrous. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r organic soils like peat which contain recognizable f i b r e s , i.e. plant remains composed generally of elongated stems a n d roots. (Contrast with 'amorphous'). Fissility. P r o p e r t y possessed by some rocks, s u c h a s shale, of splitting easily i n t o thin l a y e r s along closely-spaced, approximately planar, parallel surfaces. I t s presence distinguishes shale from mudstone. Fissure. Open crack o r f r a c t u r e in a rock o r soil mass. Also used t o describe a volcanic v e n t in t h e form of a crack. Flat. Shape term f o r a rock particle in which t h e s h o r t e s t diameter is much smaller t h a n t h e intermediate o r longest diameter. Expressed quantitatively a s 'flatness ratio' < 0.66 a n d 'elongation ratio' > 0.66.
Flat and elongate. Shape term f o r a rock particle in which t h e longest. intermediate a n d s h o r t e s t diameters a r e all of significantly different size. Expressed quantitatively a s 'flatness ratio' < 0.66 a n d 'elongation ratio' < 0.66. (Contrast with 'equidimensional'). Flatness ratio. Flint. Ratio of t h e s h o r t e s t t o intermediate diameters of a particle.
Dark g r e y o r black variety of c h e r t .
Flow-banded. S t r u c t u r a l term for a rock formed by alternating l a y e r s of different colour, composition a n d / o r t e x t u r e a s a r e s u l t of t h e flow of molten rock. Most common in igneous r o c k s , b u t sometimes visible in pyroclastic flow deposits. Foliated. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r t h e layered, planar arrangement of t h e constit u e n t g r a i n s of a rock formed b y flattening of minerals d u e t o metamorphism. Friable. Term f o r a soil t h a t crumbles v e r y easily in t h e hand.
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Gabbro. Dark-coloured, fine- t o coarse-grained, basic i n t r u s i v e igneous rock composed principally of plagioclase f e l d s p a r a n d mafic minerals.
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Gentle fold.
Fold with an inter-limb angle between 120 a n d 180.
Glassy. Shape term f o r a rock particle with a s u r f a c e t e x t u r e t h a t looks and feels like glass o r q u a r t z . Surface i s typically s h i n y , s t r a i g h t o r smoothly c u r v e d a n d lacks d i s t i n c t c r y s t a l shapes. Gneiss. Coarse-grained foliated rock formed b y regional metamorphism, in which b a n d s of g r a n u l a r minerals a l t e r n a t e with b a n d s of flattened. elongated minerals showing p r e f e r r e d orientation parallel t o t h e banding. Gouge. Fine-grained (silt- a n d clay-size) material formed of rock g r o u n d down b y s e v e r e e a r t h movement. Commonly found in fault zones a n d known a s 'fault gouge'. Also known a s 'rock flour'. Does not behave a s a silt/clay if t h e original r o c k s a r e not argillaceous. Graded bedding. S t r u c t u r e e v i d e n t in a bedded sedimentary deposit in which each l a y e r shows a g r a d u a l a n d p r o g r e s s i v e change in particle size. usually from relatively coarse a t t h e base of t h e bed t o relatively fine a t t h e top (e.g. fine s a n d g r a d i n g t o clay, cobbles g r a d i n g to coarse sand). Grading. Particle size distribution, defined a s t h e p e r c e n t a g e s of t h e various g r a i n sizes p r e s e n t in a soil a s determined by sieving a n d sedimentation (BSI. 1975).
Granite. Light coloured, fine- t o coarse-grained, acid igneous rock composed principally of alkali f e l d s p a r , q u a r t z a n d biotite, with some plagioclase feldspar. Commonly forms both major i n t r u s i v e bodies a n d minor i n t r u sions s u c h a s d y k e s . Granodiorite. Medium-coloured, fine- t o coarse-grained, acid igneous rock composed principally of plagioclase f e l d s p a r , q u a r t z a n d a b u n d a n t biotite. with some alkali f e l d s p a r a n d hornblende. Typically contains more mafic minerals t h a n granite. Granular. Engineering term f o r a cohesionless soil, i.e. one which c a n n o t form a c o h e r e n t mass. (Contrast with 'cohesive'). Geological term f o r t h e t e x t u r e of a rock t h a t consists of mineral g r a i n s of approximately equal size. Graphite. Grey t o black, opaque, s h i n y , six-sided mineral. A naturallyo c c u r r i n g crystalline form of carbon. Common a s c r y s t a l s o r t h i n flakes in veins a n d in many metamorphic rocks. Gravel. Soil particles 2 t o 60 mm in size.
Groundmass. Relatively fine-grained glassy o r crystalline material between t h e megacrysts in a megacrystic igneous rock. Also known a s t h e 'rock matrix'. Gypsum. White o r colourless soft mineral composed of h y d r o u s calcium s u l p h a t e (CaS0,.2HZO). The commonest s u l p h a t e mineral. Often forms extensive beds of evaporite i n t e r s t r a t i f i e d with limestone, shale and clay. Halite. Evaporite mineral composed of sodium chloride (NaC1). Also known a s 'rock salt' o r 'common salt'.
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Halloysite. Clay mineral made u p of v e r y small hollow t u b e s , a s shown by t h e electron microscope. Holocene. Most r e c e n t p a r t of geological time, from t h e e n d of t h e Pleistocene (approximately 8 000 t o 10 000 y e a r s ago) t o t h e p r e s e n t . Honeycombed. Shape term f o r a rock particle with a v e r y uneven s u r f a c e t e x t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by visible pores o r cavities. Commonly caused by preferential weathering and erosion of different minerals. Hornblende. Black, d a r k g r e e n o r greenish black, ferromagnesian silicate mineral. Crystals may b e g r a n u l a r , f i b r o u s o r columnar. Primary constituent of many acid and intermediate igneous r o c k s , and a common metamorphic mineral in gneiss and schist. Hornfels. Glassy, generally v e r y fine-grained, rock produced by contact metamorphism. Shows no cleavage, schistosity o r alignment of minerals. Hue. Basic colour o r a mixture of basic colours.
Hydration. Chemical reaction t h a t r e s u l t s in t h e t r a n s f e r of water from t h e fluid phase into t h e s t r u c t u r e of a mineral. Hydrothermal activity. Circulation of hot fluids a n d g a s e s , usually associated with movement of magma. Fluids often contain various minerals in solution which precipitate in rock joints a n d f i s s u r e s . Igneous. General term f o r a n y rock formed b y t h e solidification of magma.
Inclined fold. Fold whose axial plane i s inclined from t h e vertical. One fold limb i s commonly s t e e p e r t h a n t h e o t h e r , b u t t h e s t e e p e r limb i s not overfolded. Inequigranular. Textural term for a rock c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a mixture of c r y s t a l s o r g r a i n s of significantly different sizes. Insitu. Originally two Latin words (in s i t u ) meaning 'in place' o r 'in i t s original position'. Compressed h e r e t o a single word f o r convenient English usage. Distinguishes r o c k s a n d soils found in t h e i r original position of formation, a s opposed t o t r a n s p o r t e d materials. I n t e r b e d d e d . S t r u c t u r a l term for beds in a sedimentary deposit with mean spacing > 20 mm lying between, o r alternating with, o t h e r b e d s of different c h a r a c t e r (e.g. s a n d with i n t e r b e d d e d clay). Interlaminated. S t r u c t u r a l term similar t o 'interbedded', except applied t o v e r y thin beds with mean spacing < 20 mm. Intermediate. Chemical term f o r an igneous rock containing 54 t o 62% silica a n d usually l e s s t h a n 50% d a r k minerals. (Contrast with 'acid' a n d 'basic'). Interstratified. General s t r u c t u r a l term f o r sedimentary deposits consisting of alternating l a y e r s of different c h a r a c t e r . Covers both 'interbedded' a n d 'interlaminated'.
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I n t r u s i v e . Term f o r an igneous rock t h a t has been forced into pre-existing rocks and solidified from magma u n d e r g r o u n d . ( C o n t r a s t with 'extrusive'). Isoclinal fold. Fold whose limbs a r e parallel (i.e. t h e inter-limb a n g l e is O D ) .
Isotropic. Term f o r rock and soil with t h e same physical p r o p e r t i e s in all directions. Jurassic. Period of geological time between approximately 190 a n d 135 million y e a r s ago. Kaolin. Group of clay minerals derived mainly by alteration of alkali f e l d s p a r s and micas. Appearance i s t h a t of a s o f t , white o r nearly white nonplastic clay. Commonly o c c u r s a s a t h i n coating o r filling in joints in igneous r o c k s , b u t extreme alteration may c o n v e r t whole rock mass t o kaolin. Kaolinized. Alteration term f o r a rock containing minerals, especially f e l d s p a r s a n d micas, replaced b y , o r a l t e r e d t o , kaolin a s a r e s u l t of h y d r o t h e r m a l activity. Karst topography. Topography c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y sinkholes, c a v e s , solution f e a t u r e s a n d l a r g e u n d e r g r o u n d d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s . Common in limestones, r a r e in o t h e r rocks. Lahar. Mudflow in volcanic material. Caused b y water s a t u r a t i o n (e.g. by intense rainfall) of unlithified lava o r pyroclastic deposits on t h e flanks of a volcano.
Laminated. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r a sedimentary rock o r superficial deposit formed, a r r a n g e d o r deposited in v e r y t h i n l a y e r s < 20 mm thick. Lamprophyre. Dark-coloured, v e r y fine- t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d , basic rock c h a r a c terised by high p e r c e n t a g e s of rnafic minerals which often form megacrysts in a f i n e r matrix of similar minerals plus a l t e r e d f e l d s p a r s . Lapilli. Pyroclastic rock material of g r a v e l s i z e (i.e. 2 t o 60 mm). Descriptive term for tuff composed wholly o r predominantly of t h i s g r a i n size. Laterite. Residual soil, usually r e d d i s h in colour, r i c h in s e c o n d a r y oxides of iron a n d / o r aluminium. A p r o d u c t of i n t e n s i v e insitu rock weathering t h r o u g h leaching of more soluble elements. Common in tropical a r e a s with s t r o n g seasonal rainfall. Lava. General term f o r molten e x t r u s i v e magma e r u p t i n g non-explosively from a volcanic v e n t o r f i s s u r e . Also, t h e t e r m f o r t h e rock solidified from t h i s magma.
Leaching. Separation and removal of t h e soluble c o n s t i t u e n t s in a rock by t h e natural action of percolating g r o u n d w a t e r . Lenticular bedding. Beds in a sedimentary rock o r superficial deposit formed by discontinuous lens-shaped bodies of o n e material s u r r o u n d e d by a n o t h e r t y p e of material, e.g. s a n d l e n s e s in a clay deposit. Lenses a r e usually double convex in c r o s s - s e c t i o n .
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Leucocratic. Light-coloured a s applied to igneous rocks. Most fine- to c o a r s e - g r a i n e d acid r o c k s a r e leucrocratic. (Contrast with 'mesocratic' and 'melanocratic'). Limb. One flank o r side of a fold.
A simple fold has two limbs
Limestone. Sedimentary rock composed wholly o r predominantly of calcium carbonate, mainly in t h e form of t h e mineral calcite. Limonite. Usually dark brown o r yellowish brown (may b e yellow, r e d o r nearly black), amorphous h y d r a t e d iron oxide material ( f e r r i c oxide). A v e r y common weathering (oxidation) p r o d u c t of all iron-bearing minerals.
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Lineation. General term f o r a n y rock s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e d in lines. Also, t h e term for t h e appearance of s t r e t c h e d - o u t , flattened minerals in metamorphic r o c k s . Liquid limit ( L L ) . Moisture content a t which a soil passes from t h e plastic to t h e liquid s t a t e , a s determined by t h e liquid limit t e s t ( B S I . 1975). Lithic. Relating t o o r made of existing rock fragments. Term f o r a tuff composed predominantly of f r a g m e n t s of previously-formed rocks.
Lithified. Term f o r a rock which has been c o n v e r t e d into a c o h e r e n t solid mass from a newly-deposited loose sediment by s u c h processes a s cementation, compaction, and crystallization. Lithification may occur c o n c u r r e n t with, soon a f t e r o r long a f t e r deposition. Lobate. Term for a long, r o u n d e d , tongue-like shape. s h a p e of colluvial deposits. Often applicable t o t h e
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Macrostructure. S t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of a soil mass which can be identified by t h e naked e y e . (Contrast with ' m i c r o s t r u c t u r e ' ) . Mafic. General term f o r dark-coloured, ferromagnesian minerals, o r an igneous rock composed chiefly of t h e s e minerals. ( C o n t r a s t with 'felsic').
Magma. Molten rock material formed within t h e e a r t h . Solidifies a t o r near t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t t o produce e x t r u s i v e a n d i n t r u s i v e igneous rocks. Extrusive magma becomes 'lava'. Marble. Generally l i g h t coloured (often s t a i n e d by impurities), fine- t o c o a r s e grained crystalline metamorphic rock consisting mainly of recrystallized calcite a n d / o r dolomite. Metamorphosed limestone. Massive. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r an igneous o r metamorphic rock with homogeneous t e x t u r e o v e r l a r g e a r e a s , i.e. with no layering, foliation o r o t h e r planar s t r u c t u r e s . May also b e applied t o sedimentary r o c k s with no evidence of stratification (i.e. no bedding o r lamination).
Matrix. Finer-grained material enclosing, o r filling t h e s p a c e s between, t h e l a r g e r g r a i n s o r particles in a mixed sedimentary rock o r superficial deposit. Synonymous with groundmass in a n igneous rock. Megacryst. Any c r y s t a l o r grain in a n igneous o r metamorphic rock t h a t is A significantly l a r g e r t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g groundmass o r matrix. general, non-genetic term.
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M e g a c r y s t i c . General t e x t u r a l t e r m f o r a r o c k c o n t a i n i n g m e g a c r y s t s . also 'porphyritic' and 'xenocrystic').
(See
Melanocratic. D a r k - c o l o u r e d , a s a p p l i e d t o i g n e o u s r o c k s . All b a s i c r o c k s a r e melanocratic. ( C o n t r a s t with 'leucocratic' a n d ' m e s o c r a t i c ' ) . Mesocratic. Medium-coloured (i.e. composed of r o u g h l y e q u a l a m o u n t s of l i g h t a n d d a r k c o n s t i t u e n t s ) , a s a p p l i e d t o i g n e o u s r o c k s . Most i n t e r m e d i a t e r o c k s a r e mesocratic. ( C o n t r a s t with 'leucocratic' a n d 'melanocratic'). Meta-. P r e f i x u s e d with a n i g n e o u s , p y r o c l a s t i c o r s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k name t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r o c k h a s b e e n partially m e t a m o r p h o s e d , e . g . m e t a t u f f .
Metamorphic. General t e r m f o r a n y r o c k formed b y mineralogical, chemical, a n d s t r u c t u r a l a d j u s t m e n t of p r e - e x i s t i n g r o c k s d u e t o c h a n g e d p h y s i c a l a n d chemical c o n d i t i o n s ( e x c l u d i n g n e a r - s u r f a c e w e a t h e r i n g a n d cementation effects). Microcrystalline. Textu'ral t e r m f o r a c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k with c r y s t a l s t h a t a r e t o o small t o b e s e e n b y t h e n a k e d e y e , b u t which c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y u n d e r a n o r d i n a r y microscope. M i c r o f r a c t u r e s . General t e r m f o r all small-scale d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s in t h e r o c k f a b r i c . I n c l u d e s c r a c k s , f i s s u r e s a n d p l a n e s of s e p a r a t i o n t h r o u g h o r between individual grains. M i c r o s t r u c t u r e . S t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e of a soil m a s s which c a n n o t be i d e n t i f i e d completely b y t h e n a k e d e y e ; t h e u s e of a microscope i s r e q u i r e d f o r full assessment. (Contrast with 'macrostructure'). Mineral. Naturally o c c u r r i n g i n o r g a n i c e l e m e n t o r compound with a n o r d e r l y i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e , a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c chemical composition a n d p h y s i c a l properties. Mineral boxwork. Weathering f e a t u r e r e s u l t i n g from h a r d mineral d e p o s i t s f o r m e d in r o c k j o i n t s s t a n d i n g o u t prominently o n a w e a t h e r e d s u r f a c e . Mineralised. Alteration t e r m f o r a r o c k c o n t a i n i n g new m i n e r a l s formed e i t h e r b y c o n v e r s i o n of e x i s t i n g m i n e r a l s , o r b y filling of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s with new s u b s t a n c e s . Mottled. Term f o r n o n - u n i f o r m c o l o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n of a r o c k o r soil w h e r e t h e s e c o n d a r y c o l o u r c o n s t i t u e n t f o r m s b l o t c h e s o r m a r k s of approximately e q u a l size. Mudstone. S e d i m e n t a r y r o c k composed p r e d o m i n a n t l y of s i l t - a n d / o r c l a y s i z e p a r t i c l e s . A more g e n e r a l t e r m t h a n ' s i l t s t o n e ' o r ' c l a y s t o n e ' . Muscovite. Colourless, yellow o r l i g h t b r o w n mineral of t h e mica g r o u p . Forms d i s t i n c t i v e s h i n y t h i n p r i s m s o r f l a k e s . Very common i n g n e i s s e s a n d s c h i s t s , a n d some a c i d i g n e o u s r o c k s . Mylonite. V e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d c r y s t a l l i n e metamorphic r o c k with s t r e a k e d o r b a n d e d t e x t u r e p r o d u c e d b y s h e a r i n g a n d f r a c t u r i n g of o r i g i n a l g r a i n s d u r i n g i n t e n s e dynamic metamorphism.
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Neutral fold. Fold with i t s axial plane more o r less horizontal. anticline nor a syncline.
Neither an
Nodule. A small, i r r e g u l a r , r o u n d e d lump of a mineral o r rock, usually cont r a s t i n g in composition with t h e material in which i t i s embedded e.g. nodular c h e r t in limestone. Normal fault. Dipping fault in which t h e overlying face o r wall a p p e a r s t o have moved downward relative to t h e underlying face. The angle of t h e f a u l t is usually 4 5 O to 90. Opal. Amorphous silica mineral. Softer, less d e n s e , less t r a n s p a r e n t and lacks crystalline s t r u c t u r e compared with q u a r t z . Occurs in nearly all colours. T r a n s p a r e n t coloured varieties used a s gemstones: Open fold. Fold with an inter-limb angle between 70 and 120
Overfolded. Term f o r a fold, o r t h e limb of a fold, t h a t has tilted beyond t h e perpendicular. Oxidation. Chemical weathering process involving t h e reaction between r o c k s a n d atmospheric oxygen, t h e oxygen usually being dissolved in water. The main p r o d u c t s a r e oxides and hydroxides. Iron i s t h e mineral most obviously affected; iron oxidation p r o d u c t s a r e characteristically brown. r e d and yellow in colour. (Contrast with 'reduction'). Parasitic fold. Small fold on t h e limb of a l a r g e r fold.
Pegmatite. Light coloured, v e r y coarse-grained igneous r o c k , generally of granitic composition. Commonly o c c u r s a s i r r e g u l a r d y k e s o r veins. especially a r o u n d t h e e d g e s of l a r g e i n t r u s i o n s . P hyllite. Fine-grained metamorphic rock with well-developed slightly undulating cleavage. Commonly g r e e n , g r e y o r r e d d i s h , brown in colour. Chlorite and sericite c r y s t a l s often form a distinctive s h i n y , smooth s u r f a c e on cleavage faces. Pitted. Shape term for a rock particle with a n uneven s u r f a c e t e x t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by numerous small depressions. Commonly caused b y preferential weathering and erosion of different minerals. Plagioclase feldspar. Group of sodium-calcium f e l d s p a r s of general composition (Na,Ca)Al(Si,Al)Si,O.. (See 'feldspar'). Plasticity. P r o p e r t y which enables a soil o r o t h e r material to be deformed continuously and permanently without r u p t u r e . Plastic limit (PL). Moisture c o n t e n t a t which a soil becomes too d r y to b e in a plastic condition, a s determined by t h e plastic limit t e s t (BSI, 1975). Pleistocene. Geological time period between approximately 2 million a n d t o 10 000 y e a r s ago. i.e. immediately prior t o t h e Holocene.
8 000
Plutonic. Pertaining to, o r t h e general term f o r , a n y rock formed a t considerable d e p t h below t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e by crystallization of magma a n d / o r by chemical alteration.
Polyhedral. Shape term for a rock mass with no consistent joint s e t s , s u c h t h a t individual rock blocks usually v a r y widely in s h a p e and size. Porphyritic. Textural term f o r an igneous rock containing l a r g e c r y s t a l s ( p h e n o c r y s t s ) t h a t a r e compatible in composition and mode of formation with t h e groundmass o r matrix in which t h e y occur. (Contrast with 'xenocrystic'). Pseudomorph. Mineral which o c c u r s in t h e c r y s t a l form of a n o t h e r mineral a s a r e s u l t of alteration, o r solution and replacement, within t h e same crystal shape. Pumice. Light-coloured glassy rock formed from acid lava. Contains a b u n d a n t voids o r cavities, which means i t is often sufficiently buoyant to float on water. Pyrite. Light brown o r d a r k yellow i r o n s u l p h i d e mineral (FeS,). Often forms c u b e - s h a p e d , s t r i a t e d c r y s t a l s with a b r i g h t metallic surface. Common in veins and fault-zone rocks. Often mistaken f o r gold. Pyroclast. Individual rock fragment o r particle ejected explosively from a volcanic v e n t . Classified by size into f i n e a s h , coarse a s h , lapilli. blocks and bombs. Pyroclastic. General term f o r any rock composed of material ejected explosively from a volcanic v e n t . Pyroxene. Groups of mafic silicate minerals. Commonly a p p e a r a s dark g r e e n o r black prismatic c r y s t a l s displaying cleavage in two directions parallel to t h e c r y s t a l faces a n d i n t e r s e c t i n g a t approximately 90. Quartz. Colourless (often coloured b y impurities), glassy, composed of crystalline silica (SiO,). Commonly a p p e a r s sided t r a n s p a r e n t c r y s t a l s o r a s a d e n s e crystalline distinctive s h a p e . Very common in all t y p e s of r o c k s and hard mineral either a s sixmass lacking mineral veins.
Quartzite. A non-foliated metamorphic rock consisting mainly of quartz. Formed by recrystallization of s a n d s t o n e d u e to contact or regional metamorphism. Q u a r t z latite. Medium-coloured, v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d , intermediate igneous rock. The v e r y fine-grained equivalent of q u a r t z monzonite. Q u a r t z monzonite. Medium-coloured, fine- t o coarse-grained, intermediate igneous rock containing roughly equal amounts of plagioclase and alkali feldspar. Q u a r t z p h y r i c . Textural term for a rock containing l a r g e megacrysts of quartz. e . g . q u a r t z p h y r i c rhyolite.
Q u a r t z syenite. Medium-coloured, fine- to coarse-grained, intermediate igneous rock. Feldspar component is predominantly alkali feldspar. Q u a r t z t r a c h y t e . Medium-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, intermediate igneous rock. The v e r y fine-grained e q u i v a l e n t of q u a r t z syenite.
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Q u a t e r n a r y . Geological time period from approximately two million y e a r s ago up to t h e p r e s e n t . Split into two p a r t s : t h e Pleistocene and t h e Holocene. Recrystallization. Formation of new crystalline mineral g r a i n s in a rock d u e t o metamorphism o r processes involving percolating groundwater. New c r y s t a l s may have t h e same o r a d i f f e r e n t composition from t h e original crystals. Recumbent fold. horizontal. Overturned fold whose axial plane is horizontal o r nearly
Reduction. Chemical process whereby oxygen is removed in r o c k s and t h e leached p a r t s of soils. Related t o t h e continuous p r e s e n c e of water. which makes oxygen scarce, e.g. b y r e d u c i n g f e r r i c iron (Fe,O,) to f e r r o u s iron (FeO). Characteristic colours of reduced soils a r e g r e e n s and g r e y s . Often associated with s t r o n g bacterial activity in t h e soil. ( C o n t r a s t with 'oxidation'). Regular bedding. Alternating l a y e r s of materials of different g r a i n size in a bedded sedimentary deposit. Grain size within each l a y e r i s essentially uniform. Residual soil. Soil derived from insitu rock weathering in which all t r a c e of t h e original rock t e x t u r e , f a b r i c a n d s t r u c t u r e has been destroyed. ( C o n t r a s t with 'saprolite'; r e p r e s e n t s a more advanced s t a g e of weathering t h a n saprolite). Reverse fault. Dipping fault i n which t h e overlying face o r wall a p p e a r s to have moved upward relative t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g face. Fault plane usually dips a t a low angle. Rhyodacite. Medium-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, acid igneous rock. I n t e r mediate in composition between rhyolite a n d dacite. Contains less alkali f e l d s p a r t h a n rhyolite a n d less plagioclase f e l d s p a r t h a n dacite. Often contains m e g a c r y s t s of q u a r t z a n d feldspar. Rhyolite. Medium-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, acid igneous rock. The v e r y fine-grained equivalent of granite. Often contains m e g a c r y s t s of q u a r t z and feldspar. Rind. Discoloured, relatively t h i n , often loose a n d flaky o u t e r layer on t h e s u r f a c e of a boulder o r rock block caused b y weathering.
Rough. Shape t e r m for a rock particle with a s u r f a c e t e x t u r e t h a t feels uneven, c o r r u g a t e d o r lumpy, i.e. t h a t lacks smoothness. Rounded. Shape t e r m for a rock particle with markedly r o u n d e d e d g e s and corners. Rudaceous. Term f o r a n y sedimentary rock composed wholly o r predominantly of g r a v e l a n d larger-sized g r a i n s . Sand. Soil particles 0.06 to 2 mm in size. Sedimentary rock composed predominantly of s a n d - s i z e particles.
Sandstone.
Saprolite. Soil d e r i v e d from insitu rock weathering which r e t a i n s evidence of t h e original rock t e x t u r e , f a b r i c a n d s t r u c t u r e . ( C o n t r a s t with 'residual soil'). Schist. Medium- t o coarse-grained, foliated, crystalline metamorphic rock. Splits readily into flakes o r slabs d u e t o parallel a r r a n g e m e n t of most of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t minerals. Coarser and more undulating foliation compared with 'phyllite'; f i n e r a n d often not banded compared with 'gneiss'. Schistocity. Foliation in s c h i s t o r o t h e r coarse-grained crystalline metamorphic r o c k s d u e t o t h e parallel, p l a n a r a r r a n g e m e n t of platy a n d prismatic mineral g r a i n s (e.g. mica). Sedimentary. General term f o r a n y rock formed b y t h e deposition of sediment, i.e. solid, fragmented material t r a n s p o r t e d by g r a v i t y , wind, water o r ice, o r material accumulated by chemical precipitation o r secretion by organisms. Sericite. White, fine-grained mineral of t h e mica group. Similar composition to muscovite. Common in fault gouge and o t h e r r o c k s associated with dynamic metamorphism. Shale. Mudstone with a finely-laminated depositional s t r u c t u r e t h a t gives t h e rock fissility, o r t h e t e n d e n c y t o break i n t o t h i n l a y e r s parallel t o t h e lamination planes.
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Shear plane. S u r f a c e along which differential movement has t a k e n place parallel t o t h e surface. Shear zone. Belt of rock of significant t h i c k n e s s t h a t has been c r u s h e d a n d contorted b y s h e a r movement. Sheeting joint. Joint formed by p r e s s u r e release d u e to removal of overlying rock by weathering a n d erosion. Also called an 'unloading joint'. Silica. Silicon dioxide (SiO,). Occurs naturally a s c r y s t a l s (e.g. q u a r t z ) , in c r y p t o c r y s t a l l i n e form (e.g. chalcedony) a n d in amorphous form (e.g. opal). Combined in silicates a s an essential c o n s t i t u e n t of many minerals.
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Silicate. Compound material consisting of one silicon and f o u r oxygen atoms a r r a n g e d in t r i a n g u l a r pyramids, e i t h e r isolated o r joined t h r o u g h one o r more of t h e oxygen atoms t o form chains, s h e e t s o r three-dimensional s t r u c t u r e s with metallic elements s u c h a s aluminium. Silicate minerals a r e t h e most common rock-forming compounds a n d make up approximately 95% of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t . Siliceous. Sill. Term f o r a rock containing a b u n d a n t silica.
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Table-like body of i n t r u s i v e igneous rock t h a t conforms t o t h e bedding o r o t h e r planar s t r u c t u r e s of t h e c o u n t r y rock in which i t i s i n t r u d e d .
Sillimanite. Brown, g r e y , light g r e e n o r white silicate mineral. Forms long needle-like c r y s t a l s . Often found in high t e m p e r a t u r e , contactmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks.
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Silt.
Soil particles 0.002 t o 0.06 m m in size.
Siltstone. Sedimentary rock composed predominantly of silt-size particles. (See also 'mudstone'). S k a r n . Thermally metamorp hosed impure limestone characterised by p r e s e n c e of silicate minerals containing calcium. Slaking. Breaking-up o r disintegration of a rock o r soil when s a t u r a t e d with o r immersed in water. Slate. Fine-grained metamorphic rock with a v e r y well-developed parallel cleavage. Splits i n t o v e r y thin plates o r flakes. Most slates a r e metamorphosed shales.
Slickenside. Smooth s t r i a t e d s u r f a c e caused b y friction d u r i n g relative movement of rock along t h e s u r f a c e (e.g. along a f a u l t plane). Striations a r e normally low linear grooves a n d ridges parallel t o t h e direction of movement. Surface often a p p e a r s shiny o r polished. Slump bedding. Beds in a sedimentary deposit which have been d i s t u r b e d o r deformed by slumping of t h e newly-deposited sediment u n d e r w a t e r , usually on a sloping s u r f a c e . Smooth. Shape t e r m f o r a rock particle with a s u r f a c e t e x t u r e t h a t feels e v e n , with no lumps o r c o r r u g a t i o n s , i.e. lacks r o u g h n e s s . Results from, f o r example, being water-worn o r t h e clean f r a c t u r e of v e r y fine-grained rock. Solution. Chemical weathering process in which minerals a r e dissolved b y percolating o r s t a t i c groundwater, e.g. removal of calcium c a r b o n a t e in limestone o r chalk b y carbonic acid (weakly acid rainwater). Sorted. Term for a loose sediment o r sedimentary rock composed of particles of essentially uniform size. 'Well-sorted' r e f e r s t o v e r y uniform s o r t i n g . ( C o n t r a s t with 'poorly-sorted'). Note ' s o r t e d ' in geological u s e is t h e opposite of ' g r a d e d ' in engineering use. Spotted. Term for non-uniform colour distribution of a rock o r soil where t h e s e c o n d a r y colour c o n s t i t u e n t forms small r o u n d e d spots. Stratified. General s t r u c t u r a l term f o r a sedimentary rock o r superficial deposit formed, a r r a n g e d o r deposited in l a y e r s o r beds of a n y t h i c k n e s s . (See also 'bedded' a n d 'laminated'). S t r e a k e d . Term for non-uniform colour distribution of a rock o r soil where t h e secondary colour constituent forms elongated, discontinuous, sometimes b r a n c h i n g , lines. Striated. Shape term f o r a rock particle with a s u r f a c e t e x t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a s e r i e s of fine, parallel grooved lines. Caused, for example. by slickensiding in a fault zone. S t r i k e . Direction in which a horizontal line can b e drawn on a s t r u c t u r a l rock surface.
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Strike-slip fault. fault.
Fault on which t h e movement i s parallel to t h e s t r i k e of t h e
Striped. Term for non-uniform colour distribution of a rock o r soil w h e r e t h e secondary colour c o n s t i t u e n t forms elongated, continuous, nonbranching lines. S t r u c t u r a l domain. Portion of a rock mass characterised by a relatively uniform a r r a n g e m e n t of discontinuities. Subangular. Shape term f o r a rock particle with slightly s h a r p (slightly angular) edges and corners.
S u b r o u n d e d . Shape term f o r a rock particle with slightly rounded e d g e s a n d corners. Syncline. Fold in t h e s h a p e of a basin whose core contains t h e s t r a t i graphically y o u n g e r rocks. Tabular. Shape term f o r a rock mass with a single, dominant, flat-lying joint s e t , s u c h t h a t t h e mass consists of a s e r i e s of table-like s h e e t s of rock. Tectonic activity. Movements of t h e o u t e r p a r t of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t . Some associated geological f e a t u r e s a r e e a r t h q u a k e s , major faults a n d folds, tectonic joints and c e r t a i n rock t y p e s s u c h a s mylonite. Tectonic joint. Joint formed by tectonic activity. The orientation of tectonic joints is usually controlled by t h e directions of t h e principal regional stresses. Tertiary. Geological time period between approximately 60 a n d 2 million y e a r s ago. Throw. Thrust. Amount of vertical displacement on a fault. Low-angle r e v e r s e f a u l t with a dip of l e s s t h a n 45O. Fold with an inter-limb angle between O0 and 30.
Tight fold.
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Trachyandesite. Usually dark-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, intermediate igneous rock. Commonly contains megacrysts of alkali feldspar. Tuff. General rock name for all lithified pyroclastic r o c k s composed of rock fragments of g r a v e l o r finer size ( < 60 mm). Subdivided according to dominant grain sizes into lapilli, c o a r s e - a s h and fine-ash t y p e s . Term for a sedimentary rock containing u p to 50% tuff material.
Tuffaceous.
Tuffite. Mixed sedimentary/pyroclastic rock containing roughly equal amounts of sedimentary material and tuff material.
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Unloading joint. U p r i g h t fold. Value.
(See 'sheeting joint').
Fold whose axial plane i s vertical o r near-vertical.
Relative l i g h t n e s s of a colour. Grey has a neutral value, white t h e highest value and black t h e lowest.
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Vein. Mineral filling a fault, joint o r o t h e r f r a c t u r e in a rock; t h e vein is formed l a t e r t h a n t h e host rock. Commonly has a table- o r sheet-like form. Often associated with alteration of t h e host rock. Most veins a r e of igneous origin. Vent. Opening a t t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t h r o u g h which volcanic materials a r e extruded.
Vesicle. Cavity of variable s h a p e in a lava, formed by t h e e n t r a p m e n t of a g a s b u b b l e d u r i n g t h e solidification of t h e lava. Vitric. Term f o r a pyroclastic rock composed predominantly of volcanic glass fragments.
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Volcanic. General t e r m for a n y e x t r u s i v e igneous o r pyroclastic rock. Wacke. Arenaceous sedimentary rock containing more than 15% silt a n d clay.
A ' d i r t y ' s a n d s t o n e . ( C o n t r a s t with 'arenite').
Wavy bedding. Beds in a sedimentary deposit with markedly undulating bedding s u r f a c e s , i.e, t h e bed s u r f a c e s a r e not s t r a i g h t a s in r e g u l a r o r g r a d e d bedding. Weathering pit. Small shallow depression o r basin in an otherwise f l a t o r evenly sloping rock surface, caused b y preferential weathering of specific rock f r a g m e n t s o r c r y s t a l s in r o c k s composed of mixtures of different fragments o r c r y s t a l s . Weathering r i n d . (See 'rind'). Weathering zone. Portion of a rock mass delineated on t h e b a s i s of i t s d e g r e e of weathering in terms of, f o r example, relative proportions of rock a n d soil. Welded t u f f . Vitric tuff (i.e. with a high proportion of glass f r a g m e n t s ) t h a t has been compacted by t h e s q u e e z i n g t o g e t h e r of i t s g l a s s f r a g m e n t s u n d e r t h e combined action of h e a t retained by i t s particles, weight of overlying material and hot g a s e s within t h e rock. Wrench fault. (See 'strike-slip fault'). Xenocrystic. Textural term f o r a n igneous rock containing l a r g e c r y s t a l s ( x e n o c r y s t s ) t h a t a r e f o r e i g n in origin compared with t h e groundmass o r matrix in which t h e y occur. ( C o n t r a s t with 'porphyritic'). Young. Used a s a v e r b meaning t o face o r t o p r e s e n t t h e y o u n g e r a s p e c t of one rock formation toward a n o t h e r , e.g. if formation B i s geologically y o u n g e r t h a n formation A. A can b e said to "young" t o w a r d s B.

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GEOGUIDE 3

GUIDE TO ROCK AND SOIL DESCRIPTIONS

GUIDE TO ROCK AND SOIL DESCRIPTIONS

The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

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E.W. Brand Principal Government Geotechnical Engineer July 1988

ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

GENERAL PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF SOIL DESCRIPTION

MASS CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS Structure Discontinuities S t a t e of Weathering Additional Information

3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

ENGINEERING C L A S S I F I C A T I O N S OF ROCKS AND S O I L S

GENERAL GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF R O C K MASSES SOIL CLASSIFICATION FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES

LEGEND FOR MAPS, PLANS AND DIAGRAMS

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1.2.3 Material and Mass Characteristics

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Description in Different Locations

to good ground investigation practice.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF R O C K DESCRIPTION

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(b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

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Weathering and Alteration

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Rock Name (Including Grain Size)

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details of t h e mass weathering profile ( s e e Section 2.4.4).

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Unit 2 overlies Unit 1. The b o u n d a r y i s s h a r p a n d d i p s a t approximately 30 t o t h e w e s t a c r o s s t h e excavation face.

ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

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particle shape and composition (material), structure (mass).

(f) (g) (h)

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