Intertestamental Period

A Paper Submitted to Dr. Bong S. Choi New Testament Introduction NBST525

By Nathaniel Jones Student ID: L21077684 November 15, 2011

The time between the last writings of the Old Testament and the appearance of Christ is known as the Intertestamental period. Because there was no prophet of God writing Scriptures during this period, some refer to it as the 400 silent years. There were significantly changes to the political, religious, and social atmosphere of Palestine during this time period.1

Alexander the Great Alexander the Great was born around the year 356 B.C. 3 At the age of 14 he began to study under the philosopher Aristotle, who had a profound influence upon him, instructed him not only in philosophy but also in politics. After the assassination of his father in 336 B.C, Alexander was made the new Macedonian king.4 Between 334 and 331 B.C. his army defeated the Persian empire in three major battles.5 After he conquered Palestine empire in 332 B.C., they were forced to adopt the Greek language and customs.6 The translation of the Old Testament from to Hebrew into the Greek language is one of the effects that Hellenism had upon the Jewish culture.7 By the time of Christ, the Greek version of the Old Testament was the most common translation used.8 By 327 B.C. Alexander had reached India and eventually he died in Babylon 323 B.C.9

After Alexander the Great death in 323 B.C., his empire was divided by his four generals. Palestine was initially under the rule of Seleucus, who held ruled over Syria, after a while it was passed to Ptolemy, who eventually gained authority over Egypt.
___________________________ 1 J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3. 2 Ibid 3 Ibid 4 Ibid 5 J.P. McKay, B.D. Hill, J. Buckler, A History of World Societies (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988), 142. 6 J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3 7 C. F. Pfeiffer, Between the Testaments (London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd., 1965), 85. 8 J.P. McKay 9 Ibid

This period from 301 to 198 B.C. was one of peace for the Jews under the Ptolemys rule. In 198 B.C King Antiochus III, who was also known as Antiochus the Great, re-conquered Palestine and after his death, his son Seleucus IV took reign of the throne for twelve years after his rule another son of Antiochus III, Antiochus IV came to power in 175 B.C..

The Presence of the Roman Empire The Roman Empire presence is clearly seen throughout the Gospels of the Bible. When Christ was sentenced to death it is under a Roman magistrate (Matt. 27:11-26) and by a Roman execution that the sentence was carried out (Matt. 27:31).10 Paying taxes and accept the government of Rome are two of the primary requirements demanded by Romans of its people this is seen in the writings of Josephus, and in Luke 13:1.11 Since the Romans ruled Palestine in 63 B.C. the Jews had to pay taxes and when Judea was added they too were expected to pay the same provincial taxes. The Gospels indicate that those under the Roman rule had an issues with the taxation (Matt. 17:24-27; Mark 12:13-17; Luke 20:21-26). 12

The History of the Herods The Intertestamental Period was significant in the History of Herod. In 67 B.C., Antipater, governor of Idumea became the ruler of the Herods.13 In 48 B.C., he was given Roman citizenship and was appointed procurator of Judea by Caesar as a reward for helping him during the civil war against Pompey.14 Antipater had two sons who were also appointed to govern; Phasael was appointed to govern over Jerusalem,

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10J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3. 11 Ibid., 79-81. 21 Bruce, 174. 12 J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3 . 13 J.D. Douglas, The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, part 2 (Leicester: IVP, 1980), 542. 14 Ibid

while Herod was appointed to govern over Galilee. By 40 B.C., Herod's power had increased to a point that he was appointed king of Judea and to the Roman senate by Caesar. 15 In the second chapter of Matthew, Herod jealousy was the cause of the massacre of all the infants in Bethlehem because he heard the rumor of the birth of a rival king.16 After his death his kingdom was split up between his three sons; Although there is not much information about his three sons and there rule it can be seen that the Herodians theological and political seems to have been in agreement with the Sadducees, who was another group that was hostile towards Jesus. 17

Two of the prominent Jewish religious groups

The Pharisees and the Sadducees were two of the most prominent Jewish religious groups that appeared in the Gospels but they are only mentioned in the New Testament and not mentioned in the Old Testament. The Pharisees is believed to have come from the Hasidim, and during the Maccabean revolt and the Saducees is believed to have risen from the Hellenists but, their actual origin is somewhat unknown. Pharisee is the name that was given to the groups that practice separating tithes and offerings that were required for the temple, or because they did not associate themselves with other members of the Jewish faith. The name Sadducee comes from Zadok who was the priest that lived during the time of David and Solomon. 18

By the first century the Pharisees began to hold great reverence for this oral tradition although it was only originally intended to be supplementary to the Law of Moses, it eventually came to be viewed as equally authoritative and at times, even exceeded it. 32 Mark 7:1-23 is a good example of how highly the Pharisees held this tradition. 19 _____________________
15 Ibid 16 Ibid 17 Ibid 18 J.B. Green, S. McKnight, I.H. Marshall, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (Leicester: IVP, 1992), 325. 19 G.H. Box, Judaism in the Greek Period (London: Oxford University Press, 1945), 29

The issue was that of purity, for the Pharisees objected that Jesus' followers did not observe "the tradition of the elders" by eating with "impure hands". This largely unknown kind of custom is not found in the Old Testament and by it just being in the Gospel of Mark and Matthew can only be assumed that some of the Jews had begun practicing the custom sometime during in the Intertestamental period. This kind of custom is not known during the times of the Old Testament but it appears during time of the Gospel of Mark and Matthew and can only be explained that Jews must have started this practice and the custom sometime during the Intertestamental period. 20 Some believe that the Hellenism was influence of this into the Palestine culture. 21 There were not that many Pharisees in Jerusalem, even though they were small in numbers they still had the respected of the masses and because of their size they depended on this support. Jesus experienced a lot of hostility not only from the Romans but the Pharisees also because of the large crowds common people they he attracted. 22

The wealthy priests and their friends in the aristocracy was the party known as the Sadducees. They combined traditional religious with politics and the principal agency of the power of the Sadducees was in the Sanhedrin, who was the supreme court of justice.

The administrative and legal body that consisted of about 71 people, of those the majority included the high priest of the Sadducees.23 The Sanhedrin power increased under the rule of the Hellenistic kings and it continued even after the Maccabean revolt began. There was a decrease in power when Simon became high priest in 140 B.C., and under the rule of the Romans between 6 and 41 A.D it increased again.

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20 J. M. Freeman, Manners and Customs of the Bible (New Jersey: Logos International, 1972), 429. 21 Green, McKnight, Marshall, 129. 34 Ibid. 35 Packer, Tenney, and White, 95. 22 Ibid. 23 E. Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 2nd. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1993), 486.

Qumran

A discovery at Qumran, during the Intertestamental period, was of some scrolls that gave some new insight on some of the words of Jesus' that the Old Testament could not. Hellenism swept through the ancient world both influencing and forcing itself as a lifestyle because of the many victories of Alexander the Great had doing his reign. Even with the victories of the Maccabaeus, and the later Roman domination, Hellenism continued to sustain an influence. The Pharisees rejected the Hellenistic influence but, it still arose from the self-righteous party. The Roman Empire is seen throughout the Gospels as requiring obedience and payment of taxes. , Having a good understanding of the history of the Intertestamental period is very important, since there is little to no information about the synagogue in the Old Testament and how it was established as an institution.

Although messianic expectation existed in the Intertestamental period, it is understood in most of the literature and unequivocally in the Psalms of Solomon and the Qumran writings were inflated by some scholars on how widespread it really was. Also, Qumran writings helped to clarify some of Jesus' words in the Gospels.

When considering the establishment of the Jewish synagogue an understanding of Intertestamental history is also very important. 43 In wanting a more permanent place of worship the Jews of the Diaspora had the desire to create the origins of the synagogue. 44 Although continuing

to gather together and to pray and be instructed in teaching (c.f. Ezek. 8:1; 14:1) the need of a more permanent meeting place arose, eventually finding its full expression in the organized synagogues as portrayed in the New Testament Gospels. 45 Although no rigid architectural design was required, there are some features that all synagogues shared. For example, Josephus describes that synagogues were most commonly orientated toward Jerusalem. 46 The synagogue's of the Diaspora were often built near a source of water or had a supply of water kept in cisterns. 47 Most synagogue's were fitted with a platform with a reading stand for teaching, and also benches around the walls, and a 'chief seat' (described as Moses' seat in Matthew 23:2) for the one presiding. 48 It was from such a platform that Jesus speaks in Luke 4:16-27. 49 The synagogue served as a place for community affairs, a place of worship, and a centre for religious teaching. 50 Philo (20-B.C.-A.D. 45) labels synagogues as 'schools', in agreement with what the Gospels say about the teaching that was given in them (Luke 6:6; John 6:59). 51

With the victories of Alexander the Great, Hellenism swept through the ancient world both influencing, and at times, forcing itself as a lifestyle. Even with the victories of the Maccabeans, and the later Roman domination, Hellenism continued to sustain an influence and is seen in the Gospels, most noticeably with the Sadducees and the establishment of the Sanhedrin. The Pharisees, however, tended to reject Hellenistic influence and arose from the pious party or

Hasidim. The authority of the Roman Empire is seen throughout the Gospels demanding payment of taxes and obedience. In connection with the activity of Rome the Herods also emerge. There is no reference to the synagogue in the Old Testament and an understanding of Intertestamental history is important when considering its establishment as an institution. It has been seen that although messianic expectation certainly existed in the Intertestamental period, being discerned implicitly in most literature and explicitly in the Psalms of Solomon and the

Qumran writings, some scholars have tended to over exaggerate how widespread it actually was. In addition to messianic exception, the Qumran writings have also helped to illuminate some of Jesus' words in the Gospels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3. 2 Ibid 3 Ibid 4 Ibid 5 J.P. McKay, B.D. Hill, J. Buckler, A History of World Societies (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988), 142. 6 Ibid. 7 J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3. 8 C. F. Pfeiffer, Between the Testaments (London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd., 1965), 85. 9 Ibid

10 J. Drane, Introducing the New Testament (England: Lion Publishing, 1986), 24. 11 J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3. 12 F.F. Bruce, New Testament History (London: Oliphants, 1971), 4. 13 M.D. Hooker, The Gospel According to Saint Mark (London: A&C Black, 1991), 314. 14 F.F. Bruce, New Testament History (London: Oliphants, 1971), 4. 15 Ibid. 16 J. M. Freeman, Manners and Customs of the Bible (New Jersey: Logos International, 1972), 429. 17 C.J. Roetzel, The World That Shaped the New Testament (London: SCM Press, 1985), 14. 18 F.F. Bruce, New Testament History (London: Oliphants, 1971), 4.

19 J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3. 20 Ibid., 79-81. 21 Bruce, 174. 22 J.I. Packer, M.C. Tenney, W. White, The World of the New Testament (Alton: Window Books, 1982), 3 .. 23 J.D. Douglas, The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, part 2 (Leicester: IVP, 1980), 542.

24 Ibid 25 Ibid 26 Ibid 27 Ibid 28 J.B. Green, S. McKnight, I.H. Marshall, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (Leicester: IVP, 1992), 325. 29 G.H. Box, Judaism in the Greek Period (London: Oxford University Press, 1945), 29.

30 Josephus, Ant. 13:288-300. Cited by G.H. Box, 49. 31 J. Bright, A History of Israel (London: SCM Press, 1967), 450.
32 J. M. Freeman, Manners and Customs of the Bible (New Jersey: Logos International, 1972), 429. 33 Green, McKnight, Marshall, 129. 34 Ibid. 35 Packer, Tenney, and White, 95. 36 Ibid. 37 E. Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 2nd. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1993), 486.

38 V.G. Beers, The Victor Handbook of Bible knowledge (Illinois: Victor Books, 1981), 539. 39 Green, J.B., McKnight, S., Marshall, I.H. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Leicester: IVP, 1992. 40 C. Guignebert, The Jewish World in the Time of Jesus (New York: University Books, 1965), 50. 41 Ibid., 51. 42 J.B. Green, S. McKnight, I.H. Marshall, 730. 43 "The word 'synagogue' is of Greek origin, meaning a gathering of people, or a congregation. The Hebrew word for such a gathering is keneseth." Pfeifer, 59. 44 Pfeifer, 59-60. 45 Bright, 23. 46 Josephus, Against Apion 2.10. Cited by Ferguson, 474. 47 Josephus, Ant. 14.10.23. Cited by Ferguson, 474. 48 Ferguson, 474. 49 Ibid. 50 R.H. Mounce, Matthew (Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers Inc., 1991), 35. 51 E.D. Freed, The New Testament, A Critical Introduction, 2nd. ed. (London: SCM Press, 1994), 28. 52 Guingnebert, 152.

53 Ferguson, 517. 54 J. J. Collins, Judaism and Their Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 98-101, 103-104, 106. Collins does recognise that the Old Testament concept of Davidic messianism was retained during this period but argues that this in itself did not necessarily bring any extraordinary expectation to the minds of those living in the first century. 55 It is probable that the community at Qumran should be identified with the Essenes. Concerning this Bruce observes: "The Identification of the men of Qumran with the Essenes not with the whole Essene order, but with one group of Essenes - satisfies more of the evidence than does any rival identification". Bruce, 112. 56 Collins, 105-106. Bruce observes that although the Psalms of Solomon have been considered to reflect Pharisaic arrangement they probably reflected the view of other community's who were cherishing the hope of Israel. Bruce, 119. 57 Freed, 19. 58 Bruce, 120. Bruce further observes that this identification becomes more of a mere coincidence when one considers that Luke's nativity narrative is similar to the Psalms of Solomon in that those who are depicted, Zechariah and Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, Simeon and Anna, who are looking for the 'consolation of Israel', are in many ways similar to the community who produced the Psalms of Solomon. 59 Ferguson, 191. 60 M.O. Wise and J.D. Tabor, "The Messiah at Qumran" Biblical Archaeology review 1992, vol. 18, no. 6, 60-65. 61 Ferguson, 192. 62 Ibid. 63 D. Flusser, "Jesus and the Essenes", Jerusalem Perspective May/June 1990, vol. 3, no. 3, 3. 64 Ferguson, 492. 65 Flusser, 3. BIBLIOGRAPHY Beers, V.G. The Victor Handbook of Bible knowledge. Illinois: Victor Books, 1981. Box, G.H. Judaism in the Greek Period. London: Oxford University Press, Box, 1945. Bright, J. A History of Israel. London: SCM Press, 1967.

Bruce, F.F. New Testament History. London: Oliphants, 1971. Collins, J.J. Judaism and Their Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian Era. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. Douglas, J.D. The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, part 2. Leicester: IVP, 1980. Drane, J. Introducing the New Testament. England: Lion Publishing, 1986. Ferguson, E. Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 2nd. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1993. Flusser, D. "Jesus and the Essenes", Jerusalem Perspective. May/June 1990, vol. 3, no. 3. Freed, E.D. The New Testament, A Critical Introduction, 2nd. ed. London: SCM Press, 1994. Freeman, J.M. Manners and Customs of the Bible. New Jersey: Logos International, 1972. Green, J.B., McKnight, S., Marshall, I.H. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Leicester: IVP, 1992. Guignebert, C. The Jewish World in the Time of Jesus. New York: University Books, 1965. Hooker, M.D. The Gospel According to Saint Mark. London: A&C Black, 1991. McKay, J.P., Hill, B.D., Buckler, J. A History of World Societies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988. Mounce, R.H. Matthew. Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers Inc., 1991. Packer, J.I., Tenney, M.C, White, W. The World of the New Testament. Alton: Window Books, 1982. Pfeiffer, C.F. Between the Testaments. London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd., 1965. Roetzel, C.J. The World That Shaped the New Testament. London: SCM Press, 1985. Wise, M.O. and J.D. Tabor, "The Messiah at Qumran" Biblical Archaeology review .1992, vol. 18, no. 6.