CHAPTER 4

Foundations

4.1 Soils and their characteristics

Review Task 1, p1 ! Place these soil types in ascending order of strength: clay, sand, chalk, sandstone, silt and peat. It must be recognised that within each classification of soil there is a variable strength range and as such the categories may overlap and may be subject to exceptions. In general, however the following cart indicates the typical strength of the various types:
Soil T"pe *rom +, &%%T"pical Sa#e $earin% Capacit" k&'(

Rock
Igneous )imestone/,trong ,andstone ,late ,hale .% %%% - %%% 0 %%% $ %%%

Cohesionless Soils
1ravel/,and ,and 2ense edium )oose #ompact edium )oose 3 4%% $%% 5 4%% 6 $%% 3 0%% .%% 7 0%% 6 .%%

Cohesive Soils
#lay 8ery ,tiff/ ,tiff *irm ,oft/,ilt .9% 54%% :9 5 .9% 6 :9

With reference to a site with which you are familiar try to make a list of possible contaminants that might affect the construction process.

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;he following table is a useful aside5memoire to the process of identification of possible contaminants: Conta'inant
etals =rganic #ompounds =il /;ar "sbestos /*ibres #ombustible atls.

Si%ns
"ffected 8egetation ,urface aterials "ffected 8egetation ,urface aterials ,urface ,urface aterials aterials

Action
<xtraction of contaminated matter or #over technology +iological remediation, extraction of affected matter or cover technology <xtraction of affected matter <xtraction of affected matter or #over technology #over technology with venting facility or extraction of affected matter +arrier or cover technology <xtraction of affected matter or cover technology

,urface aterials *umes/odours *umes/odours ,urface aterials *umes/odours

1asses > etane/#=$? !efuse /Waste

Identify the soil type in the place where you live and list the general characteristics of such soils. In order to assist with this consider the particle si@e of the soil and refer to the text in the book to consider some of the characteristics of the soil.

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4.( Functions o# #oundations and selection criteria

Review task (, p11( 1enerate a simple matrix that relates the functional reAuirements of foundations to different types of foundation that you are familiar with.
;he following comparative study is a useful guide :

)ption !aft foundations

Advanta%es <conomic due to combination of foundation and floor slab. ,hallow form reAuires little excavation. #an cope with mixed/poor ground conditions ,hallow form of foundation needs little excavation. ,hape can be designed to accommodate tight sites. <conomic due to control of si@e

*isadvanta%es !eAuires specific treatment for point loads. Potential for edge erosion of not treated properly

+hen to use )ightweight structures on ground of relatively poor strength. Bsed in areas of filled ground with mixed/poor bearing capacity

Pad foundations

#an become very large if used for high point loads. )imited to dealing with point loads

Ideal solution for point loads from framed buildings if bearing capacity close to the ground is sufficient

$ored piles #*" Piles

,peed of installation Co need to support excavation during installation Duiet and relatively vibration free

Cot appropriate for areas of filled ground etc. If voids are present can bleed grout into open areas )imited maximum diameter of pile

Bsed on sites with known ground conditions for buildings of moderate loads. =ften used for smaller buildings. Bsed in sites where nuisance is a significant issue

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)arge diameter bored piles

#an cope with heavy loads. )arge diameter allow fewer piles to be used in a group Co need for permanent support of using bentonite Provide element of ground consolidation. #an cope with variable ground conditions. ade off site and Auality maintained due to factory production

restricts loadbearing !eAuire relatively consistent soil conditions. )arge plant reAuired to excavate

)arge buildings with heavy loads. Bnder5reamed piles used where loads are very high

2riven piles

Problems where dimensional stability of the ground is an issue. 2ifficulties encountered where there is demolition debris in the ground

,ites with poor general ground conditions. =ften used in cohesionless soils

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4., Shallow #oundation #or's

Review Task ,, p1(1 1enerate a list of criteria against which you might judge the performance of different shallow foundation options. It is important to remember that the performance of foundations is based on an interface between the loadings from the building and the supporting ground or strata. In all cases the most economical solution will be selected, provided that it satisfies the performance reAuirements. Factors related to ground conditions: Bearing capacity of the ground: ;his is one of the key elements in the selection of appropriate foundations for all types of building. Depth of good strata: "lthough the area upon which the building is to be constructed may provide ground of appropriate bearing strength, this may be at a considerable depth below the surface. In these circumstances the use of a shallow foundation form is unlikely to be efficient or cost effective. Composition of the ground: Ideally the construction of buildings takes place on sites with uniform, stable ground conditions. ;he increasing trend to build on Ebrownfield sitesF, driven by the need to develop in a more sustainable way has led to greater variability in ground composition. It is not uncommon to find buildings being constructed on sites that feature areas made up of filled ground. Ground level and gradients: It is Auite rare for building sites to be truly flat and level.

Factors relating to loads from the building: ;he nature of framed buildings is such that the loads are likely to be concentrated at the point of application, i.e. the column bases. Gence the use of pads and piles tends to be most common. Gowever, there may be situations where there are also uniformly distributed loads, such as from masonry cladding for example. ;hese must also be dealt with and a combination of foundation solutions may be applied in a given situation.

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With reference to buildings that you know attempt to select an appropriate foundation using your list of criteria. #onsider the list of criteria and attempt to make a judgement based on you knowledge. "sk your tutor to comment upon your choice.

4.4 *eep #oundation #or's

Review Task 4, p1,( Prepare a list of the criteria that you would apply to select an appropriate pile form for a framed building. ;he selection of piled foundations, or any other form of foundations, must take into account the various factors that combine in the functional performance of the foundation. ;hese are the location and context of the building, the nature of the soil, the nature of the loading and the extent of the loading. Within each of these areas we need to make judgements based upon the specific circumstances of the individual building. ;hese can be considered as criteria that may be referred to in selecting appropriate piled forms: ,ome examples of typical Auestions that should be asked are: +uilding location and context: "re there any buildings/structures close to the new buildingH Is ready access available for deliveries etcH Will noise from vibration be an issueH Cature of the soil and site: Is the soil cohesive or non5cohesiveH What is the depth of the bearing strataH What level is the water tableH Is the ground uniform in compositionH Cature ' extent of the loading: Is the loading distributed over a regular grid patternH 2oes the position of the pile relative to the column result in rotational loadH 2oes the loading result in localised, heavily concentrated loadsH ;he following summary may be useful:
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)ocation: the proximity to adjacent structures must be taken into account and the possibility of damage arising from the installation of driven piles often results in the selection of bored or #*" piles for congested sites.

Cature of the ground: the ground conditions restrict the type of piles that can be readily installed in some circumstances. *or example the use of driven piles in soils that contain demolition debris, rocks and boulders is not advisable. In clay soils where heave can be problematic, driven piles may cause exacerbation of the problem and are ill advised. ,imilarly, the use of bored piles in cohesionless soils which have significant mobility would be considered unsuitable.

#ost: the most economical design solution that effectively meets the performance needs of the foundation will generally be the favoured option. ,tructural performance: naturally the need to adeAuately support the loads from the building and the ability to cope with the nature of such loadings is an essential factor in selecting piles.

2urability: the ability of the pile to survive the conditions in which it is placed is another essential factor which particularly limits the choice of materials used to form the pile.

"pply the criteria in your list to a range of buildings in the area where you live. ;ake each of the factors noted in the Auestion above and apply them to your chosen buildings. ;here are no right or wrong answers to this but the process of applying the criteria will be interesting.

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