Module 1: Introduction Lecture 1: Classification of Ground modification Techniques

Introduction Need for Engineering ground Improvement When a project encounters difficult foundation conditions, possible alternate solutions are: Avoid the particular site Design the planned structure accordingly. Use a soft foundation supported by piles, design a very stiff structure which is not damaged by settlements Remove and replace unsuitable soils. Attempt to modify the e isting ground. Classification of Ground modification Techniques: ! "roups of "round #mprovement techni$ues Mechanical Modification: %oil density is increased by the application of mechanical force, including compaction of surface layers by static vibratory such as compact roller and plate vibrators. Hydraulic Modification: &ree pore water is forced out of soil via drains or wells. 'ourse grained soils( it is achieved by lowering the ground water level through pumping from boreholes, or trenches. #n fine grained soils the long term application of e ternal loads )preloading* or electrical forces )electrometic stabili+ation* Physical and chemical modification: %tabili+ation by physical mi ing adhesives with surface layers or columns of soil. Adhesive includes natural soils industrial byproducts or waste. ,aterials or cementations or other chemicals which react with each other and-or the ground. When adhesives are injected via boreholes under pressure into voids within the ground or between it and a structure the process is called grouting. %oil stabili+ation by heating and by free+ing the ground is considered thermal methods of modifications. Modification y inclusions and confinement: Reinforcement by fibers, strips bars meshes and fabrics imparts tensile strength to a constructed soil mass. #n.situ reinforcement is achieved by nails and anchors. %table earth retaining stucture can also be formed by confining soil with concrete, %teel, or fabric elements !uita ility" #easi ility and $esira ility /he choice of a method of ground improvement for a particular object will depend on the following factors. /ype and degree of improvement re$uired /ype of soil , geological structure, seepage conditions cost

Availability of e$uipment and materials and the $uality of wor0 re$uired 'onstruction time available 1ossible damage to adjacent structures or pollution of ground water resources Durability of material involved ) as related to the e pected life of structure for a given environmental and stress conditions* /o icity or corrosivity of any chemical additives . Reliability of method of analysis and design. &easibility of construction control and performance measurements #f soil is moist, free+ing is applicable to all type of soil.

2ecture 3:#ntroduction to ,echanical ,odifications ,echanical ,odification ,ajor aim of compacting soil #ncrease shear strength. Reduce compressibility. Reduce permeability. Reduce li$uefaction potential. 'ontrol of swelling and shrin0ing. 1rolong durability. %teps for optimi+ing densification process &or 4uman construction fills , specify placement conditions )water content ,density ,depth of layers etc* %elect appropriate e$uipment roller, vibro compaction ,tamping. ,ethod of compactor patterns of tamping %et up ade$uate control procedures. /ypes of compaction shallow surface compaction

Deep surface compaction %hallow surface compaction Achieved by static pressure and or dynamic pressure caused by impact or vibration. Rollers used %tatic Rollers #mpact or vibratory 5$uipments %mooth steel rollers and /amper, rammers and plate pneumatic tired rollers compacters %heepfoot rollers vibrating rollers "rid rollers #mpact rollers
Applicability of compaction Equipment
Equipment Most suitable soils Typical Least suitable

application Smooth ibratin! $ubber rollers Grid rollers tired Coarse &ith fines Weatheredroc( !raded coarse soils !rained Wheel Well!radedsand"!ra el

soils

$unnin! Surface" %niform sand based coarse

rollers static or mi#tures" asphalt

soils $oad and 'irfield Coarse" sub!rade &ell Sub!rade" base

uniform"

cohesion less soils Sub Clays silty clays

Sheep foot rollers:

Static )ine !rained soils &ith -ams more than *+, fines .ibratin! Sand !ra el mi#tures emban(ment Sub!rade Layers Clean coarse !rained soils

.ibratin! plate Course !rained soils / Small 1atches to 0, fines Tamper rammers Impact roller and 'll type -ifficult area Wide ran!e of moist Sub!rade and saturated soil earth&or( access

Cohesi e soils

-ry"cohesionless soils

Production Rate:
'ssists in the selection of the most economical compaction equipments2

Where

P = production rate, B = drum width, E = efficiency S = rollin speed! "m#h $ = %ayer thic&ness, m ' = number of passes

(eep compaction $echniques: -ensification of deep soil is achie ed by the follo&in! techniques2

Precompression: 1re loaded by means of a surchar!e on the surface in an array of boreholes" causin! a !round to consolidate. E)plosion: E#plosi es are detonated on the surface in an array of boreholes causin! a loose soil structure to collapse2 *ea+y tampin : ' lar!e mass is dropped in to the !round surface" causin! compaction and possibly lon! term consolidation2 ,ibration:
-ensification is achie ed by a ibratory probe or piles.

compaction routin

Mechanical Modification E)plosion:

E#plosion of char!es on the !round surface or in deep boreholes causes shear stresses in the soil compression2 E#cess pore pressure and settlement due to e#plosion are related to the ratio &hich brea( do&n the soil structure resultin! in a reorientation of soil particles and subsequent olumetric

If the e#plosion2

little or no liquefaction occur2It is used to estimate a safe distance from

'ccordin! to Barendson and "o& -./013 the ratio of e#cess pore pressure" 23 o er the effecti e o erburden pressure as &ell as the ratio of surface settlement

%h to the hei!ht h of soil lar!er

2

affected by e#plosion"are related to h of the soil layer affected by e#plosion "are related to

Statistical Analysis of field results :

and

'ccordin! to Barendson and "o&-./014, for optimum densification

is required2

&pplications Netherlands: A charge e$uivalent to 67 0g of /8/ was used is each of the 69m deep hole, speed 6:m apart. Use of about 677g of /8/ of soil. Heavy Tamping: /he depth D in meters to which heavy tamping is effective can be determined by W ; ,ass of the falling wt in metric tons 4 ; ht of fall in meters Degree of soil improvement pea0s at a critical depth 2ecture <:,echanical ,odifications Mechanical Modification 'i ro compaction and vi ro replacement ,a imum depth of influence D.

#igure ()*

#igure ()+ =ibro compaction is successful in loose sand soils typically with an original !PT value of , to *- near the surface and not applicable to clays. Relative density of up to .,/ can be achieved =ibro.replacement is most effective in cohesive soils with an undrained shear strength in the range of 37 to :7 0pa.

5echanical 5odification

6ohesi+e soils

Pre%oadin

o o o

7i ure1!1 1reload is made up of stones2 E#cess pore &ater pressure squi4ed out2 Effecti e stress in the soil increase

5ence shear stren!th increases

#igure ()0

$emo in! the preload and constructin! the buildin! the rebound is ery small2 5ence it affects a little2 Effect o o $educe the settlement of the structure Increase the stren!th of soil 6shear stren!th32

(emerits 1henomenon is ery lon! i2e2 dissipation of pore &ater pressure too( a lon! time2

1emedy !and drains 2sand 3ic4s

#igure(), #n sand drains water travels in radial direction. %and drains <77 mm dia.

%and wic0s :9 mm dia. &dvantages of using sand 3ic4s 6. 'heaper 3. 5asy to wor0 Time for Preloading 5arron 6*70.8 &or <d consolidation

'ssumin! uniform ertical strain

&here

n 7 number

is foundout from the cur+e

#igure ()9

Preloadin at *aldia, 6alcutta

Spacin of 89mm of sand wic& $ime for /9; consolidation -days4 .!:m :< Salt ta&e .!9m 1= :!:m 0< *aldia :!9m .:<

$ime for Preloadin 12 >nstallation of sand wic&s :! Place of sand blan&et 1! Placin preload fill =! 6onsolidation 9!Remo+al of preload : : : : : : 1< days -say4 ? days -say4 .9 days -say4 19 days ? days /= days

%imitation of Preloadin
12 Time *2 Loadin! 82 cost 1reloadin! is done for medium ran!e buildin!2 9ot suitable for hi!h rise buildin!s 2

Module *:Modification by ibro replacement

2ecture !:%pecial /echni$ues %tone 'olumns

Special $echnique >mpro+ement of ranular soil
12 Compaction by drop hammer *2 Compaction by pile If 9 : 1+

#igure 0)*
(rop *ammer:
%sually & 7 &t of hammer W 7*2;t 5 7 5ei!ht of full 7 1< *2;m

%imitations:
12 )ore of influence is restricted deportin! on the si4e of &t2 &idth of hammer2

*2 To a depth compacted

82 impro e the !round for shallo& foundation2 Sometimes it refers to a dynamic consolidation means it dissipiates e#cess pore &ater by dynamic process2

#igure 0)+
=eyond a depth of *2;m there is no impro ement2

Stone 6olumns 1rocedure: (one by trial and error method:

Ta(e a small portion as a trial and error area2 It is di ided into no2 of areas2 )or different al es of &t of hammer the density before and often the compaction is foundout2 The best result !i es the &t of hammer used in the field2

#igure 0)(

6ompaction piles

Instead of allo&in! the hittin! of hammer pile2 directin! into the !round it hits on the cassion

#igure 0)0

#igure 0),
Stone columns:
)irst decide the depth of impro ement after that chan!e the cassion pile2

Parameters required
12 Wt of hammer *29o of blo&s 82 5ei!ht of fall

predertermined

Closer spacin! better compactions2&ith Increase in the no of blo&s the compaction !oes up asymptotically2

Stone columns:

'pplicable to !ranular soil it is a de ice to pro ide ibration2

>nstallation:
12 .ibro floatation *2 $ammed stone Column

,ibro

floatation:

.ibro float is allo&ed to ibrate in hori4ontal direction by allo&in! &ater throu!h the cashin!2

7i ure =!8

$hree Actions:
12 1ushed into !round2 *2 1assa!e of &ater loosenin! the soil2 82 .ibrate in hori4ontal direction2 'fter ibration the !ap is filled &ith stone2

#igure 0)9
Rammed stone columns:
The &hole soil mass is ta(enout > then it is filled by stone columns2

' stone column spacin! 6s?d3 of *2; < / is adopted for most practical problems2 It has been reco!ni4ed that closer spacin! is preferred under isolated footin! than beneath lar!e rafts2

Stone 6olumns

Stone column in clay:

#igure ,)*
Stresses actin! on stone column

Influence 4one 7 / < 0 times dia2

Empirical relationships -*u he ./0=4

#igure ,)+
A 7 Influence 'rea2 As 7 'rea of stonecolumn A @ As 7 soil 'rea

Spacin

7i ure 9!1

6a3 Trian!ular arran!ement of stone columns

#igure ,)0

E)ample 9!.
Say spacin!

Stone column is suitable for ery lar!e area loadin! in a soft clay &here lar!e deformation occurs2

Settlement of stone@column formation:

#igure ,),
6'3Settlementof untreated soil

$hen treat the soil upto layer >

-B4Settlement of treated soil

#igure ,):
Ac 7'rea of stone column As 7 'rea of soil &ithin influence A 7 influence 'rea A 7 'c @ 's

Ma#imum 'rea ratio feasible 7*+,

Stress concentration ratio:

#igure ,)9

Where

7or and the surroundin! soil2

calculation

ta&e

to

The ma!nitude of stress concentration depends on relati e stiffness of !ranular pile?stone column

7or equilibrium

A+era e stress on soil

)or treated soil

is reduced2

E)ample: @ 9!:

#igure ,).

Say 0++ mm

stone column

120 m c?c

!rid

n 7 ; ta(en

=y 1ro ision of stone column &e are able to reduced the settlement to only ;+, of the untreated soil2

2ecture ::Design problem of %tone column )part #*

E#ample 8!.

#igure :)*
at corner 7 +2A/.

Ta(e

at center 7 12+

>mmediate settlement

E7 modulus of elasticity of soil7

= 7 8*

)or Layer I at a

)or circular area

)or layers II at point =

Stone columns are pro ided up to first layers2

Settlement in sand is ta(en into account Settlement of sand

7or 5edium sand

at

Total settlement at the center

%oad carryin capacity of stone column foundation system

$a&e

Trian!ular !rid

)or Stone column

Load carryin! capacity of a sin!le stone column71B2B;t 'ssume a spacin!

'ssume a trian!ular !rid

#igure 9)*

Total load carryin! capacity of treated soil C 7 Load carryin! capacity of stone column@ Load carryin! capacity of soil 71A2/00@1B2B;78/2*80t

's safe bearin! of treated soil D net safe foundation pressure6safe3

6alculation of settlement after stone column $echnique

2ecture >:&ailure ,echanism and group of stone columns

7ailure 5echanism

#igure .)*
Aranular Piles are often constructed throu h soft soil fully penetratin to an end bearin stratum howe+er they may be constructed as 7loatin piles the tips endin with soft layer 7or sin le isolated pile the most probable failure mechanism is bul in failure!

Group of stone columns2Granular piles

#igure .)+ /he shear strength of improved soil- grand is determined based on the concept of an e$uivalent soil. /he concept is based on assumption that the strength of the composite soil )granular pile and insitu soil* as a whole is e$ual to that of the e$uivalent soil for the same e tent.
Bar&sdale and Bachus -./014 report a con entional method for determination of equi alent soil parameters based on area ratio

To ta(e into account the effect of

Eno&i et al -.//.4 su!!ested an approach based on The assumption that full stren!th of both the !ranular pile and cohesi e soil is mobili4ed

2ecture ?:: ,ethods of construction of "ranular 1iles

5ethods of construction of Aranular piles
Granular piles can be installed by arious methods dependin! upon their pro en applicability and a ailability of equipment in the Locality "

,ibro compaction:
%sed to impro e the density of cohesion less soil

.ibro float sin(s under its o&n &ei!ht and &ith assistance of &ater and ibration2 'fter reachin! a predetermined depth the ibrofloat is &ith dra&n !radually from the !round &ith subsequent addition of !ranular bac( fill causin! compaction .

#igure 7)*
,ibro Breplacement method: %sed to impro e the soil condition of cohesi e soils Efficiency is impro ed by stone columns2 In this method "follo&in! the penetration of ibrator and its &ithdra&al after reachin! the required depth the resultin! ca ity is filled by stone ?Gra els2 These materials are compacted2

The !ranular piles and in<situ soil form on inte!rated system" resultin! lo& compressibility and hi!h shear stren!th2

It reduces liquifaction 1otential

,ibro B composer method 1opular in Eapan and is used for impro ement of soft days in presence of hi!h !round &ater le el2

2ecture 67:#ntroduction to preloading and vertical drains Pre" loading and vertical drains Preloading #ncreases the bearing capacity Reduces the compressibility of wea0 ground Achieved by placing temporary surcharge on the ground. %urcharge generally more than the e pected bearing capacity. #n cohesion less soil and gravel lowering water table ,ost effective soft cohesive ground. /he process may be speed up by vertical sand drains. =ertical drains are installed in order to accelerate settlement and gain in strength of soft cohesive soil. =ertical drains accelerate primary consolidation only. As significant water movement is associated with it.%econdary consolidation causes only very small amount of water to drain from soil( %econdary settlement is not speeded up by vertical drains. @nly relatively impermeable soil benefit from vertical drains. %oils which are more permeable will consolidate under surcharge. =ertical drains are effective where a clay deposit contain many hori+ontal sand or silt lenses. Pre loading 'ertical Reduce total and differential speed up to settlement process settlement 5conomy in foundation do not reduce the amount of system deformationunder a given load.

1re loadin! and ertical drains

#igure *-)*

#igure*-)(
1re loadin! allo&s cheaper spread footin!s2 1re loadin! allo&s sa in!s on foundation costs2

7i ure .<!= .ertical drains accelerate settlements and do not reduce final mo ements2

1re loadin! and ertical drains 5ethods of Preloadin +ertical draina e:

6ylindrical sand drains: Sand drains consisted simply of boreholes felled &ith sand2 The holes may be formed by dri in!" Fettin! and?or an!erin!2 Its diameter is *++ to /;+mm and &ould be spaced 1<; to Am appart2
' lar!e diameter sand" in a fine !rained soil" enables rapid consolidation of surroundin! material and also pro ide ertical compressi e reinforcement

Aeosynthetic drains:

#igure *-),
Pre loadin and +ertical drains Ad+anta es:
Easy and $apid installation Mode of uniform material" easily stored and transported tensile stren!th of the strips helps to preser e containin! lo& costs 2

$ype

6ore material

7ilter material

(imension -mm4

1.C Geodrain Mebradrain 'cidrain Col band

1.C 1E 11 1E 1ES

none Cellulose 11 or 1ES 1ES none

677

677 677

's the radial consolidation theory assumes the drain has a circular section on equi alent drain has to be calculated for strip drains2 'n equi alent sand drains diameter can be fund based on equal oid area2 Equal oid area "oerner -./084

B 7 &idth of strip t 7 thic(ness of strip2

7 oid area ?total c?s area of strip2 porosity of surd drains2 Equal circumference

Preloadin and +ertical drains ,ertical drains

There is a lar!e settlement consequent upon the char!e of oid ratio from e to

#igure *-):
When the preload is remo ed the soil under!oes s&ellin! from = to C and oid ratio increases from When buildin! is erected" the same intensity of pressure is applied but no& the settlement is a function to reloadin!2 So settlement of buildin! reduces considerably2

In direct pre loadin!" the time for consolidation may run into years because of lo& permeability of clay and lon! draina!e path2 To reduce the time for consolidation ertical drains &ith draina!e blan(et on top are used2

#igure *-)9

1re loadin! and ertical drains

#igure *-).
The flo& &ithin the 4one is combination of redial flo& to&ards the sand and ertical flo& to&ards the free drainin! boundary2 The a era!e de!ree of consolidation is

'ssumin! uniform ertical drain at the surface" -e!ree of consolidation due to redial draina!e2 Barron -./=04

Where,

$adial time factor

Square Pattern C trian ular pattern

#igure *-)7
Considerin! the influence area of each drain to be circular" &e ha e

Coefficient

of

radial

consolidation

In field problem"

is small compared to

ne!lected

)or

time

and

the

time

factor

can

be

calculated2

#igure *-)*2ecture 66:'ombined radial and vertical consolidation and smear effect

1re loadin! and sand drains :

$ate of settlement 6 ertical consolidation3 'ccordin! to $erDa hi -./=14

With m7+" 1" *" 8 2 2

time" sec

Coefficient of ertical consolidation

Lon!est draina!e path in clay layer" m

With top > bottom draina!e &ith $ime factor $+ top draina!e2

#igure **)*

'ertical !tress in a !emi; infinite Mass due to em an4ment loading

#igure **)+

6&8 =ertical stress at & due to triangular loading

&or triangular loading case

for

658=ertical stress at 6&8 due to triangular loading 6 #ig 58

&ig3.63)A* A&ig3.63 )B*

3here

6ombined Radial and +ertical consolidation

Step < 1
6alculate $+ for a i+en then find

Step< *
Set

Step < 8
7ind from -.4

Step< /

'nd sol e for de by successi e appro#imation2

Compute spacin! S for trian!ular or square pattern

Effect of Smear and (rain Resistance

-isturbance of the soil adFacent to the drain is li(ely to decrease its permeability and thus slo& do&n the consolidation process2 This effect is described as smear2 The smear effect increases &ith increase in drain diameter2 It also depends on the method of installation 2-ynamic dri in! creates more discordance of the soil then static pushin!2 The si4e of drain also influence on the e#tend of the disturbed 4one2

*ansbo

et

al

-./0.4

ha e

proposed

that

modified

factor

is

used2

a era!e

de!ree

of

consolidation

at

depth

for

radial

draina!e2

#igure **)(

equi alent diameter or cylinder of soil around drain drain diameter

diameter of smeared 4one hori4ontal permeability of the undisturbed consoilds soil

hori4ontal permeability of the smeared soil lon!est draina!e path alon! ertical drain

a#ial permeability of to sand drains Cross< sectional area of drain2 Synthetic drains nullified smear effect

Assessment of Around conditions: 1re loadin! proFects required detailed site in esti!ations li(e borin!" penetratin! testin!" samplin! and Laboratory e#pt2 Special emphasis must be ta(en2
12 Stratification *2 -raina!e condition 82 Consolidation and permeability characteristics Stren!th and stress strain characteristics

$rial Emban&ments:
=uildin! a trial emban(ment in order to determine the feasibility of preloadin! and ertical drains a oids uncertainties associated &ith soil disturbance durin! samplin!2 ' trial emban(ment can !i e !uidance &ith respect to bearin! capacity of the !round2

The location of trial emban(ment should be choosen so that it forms part of final earth structure The shape of to trial emban(ment should allo& for appro#imation of the strain and draina!e coruscations of the final structure2 In case of 1 and reclamation proFect" the trial fill should be placed o er of &ide enou!h area to produce a reasonably stress increase &ith depth Width across the top of the emban(ment should be at least equal to the depth of the soft soil belo&2

The hei!ht of the trial emban(ment should be equal to that of planned emban(ment as soilGs permeability and coefficient of consolidation are li(ely to decrease &ith the applied load2Slip circle analysis should ensure that the &hole emban(ment &ill stand up2

Settlement obser+ations Settlement !au!es e2!2 of the hydraulic type" measure the lon! term settlement at the ori!inal !round surface2 co ered &ith a permeable blan(et durin! construction2 They are placed after the ertical drains ha e been installed2 ' settlement plate is suitable for initial settlement readin!2 ' benchmar( is set up on stable !round at a reasonable distance from the fill2 Le elin! points are placed at the end of the construction on top of the emban(ment2

#igure **)0
1reloadin! and sand drains Assi nment: (esi n:
-esi!n a suitable preloadin! scheme and estimate the settlement of tan(2

#igure **), 2ecture 63:1reloading without vertical drains

1reloadin! and sand drains Preloadin without +ertical drains:
Settlement calculations: )i!ure sho&s the case &here a soft" normally consolidated foundation is preloaded2 With earth fill e#ertin! a pressure equi alent to a future buildin! &ith a raft foundation .

Initial oid ratio &here

&ater content specific !ra ity of soil solids

compression inde#

7 initial ertica pressure 'fter H+, of this settlement has ta(en place" the surchar!e is remo ed and construction of the buildin! be!ins2

#igure *+)*

#igure *+)+ Preloading < !and drains Upon reloading the foundation soil, the final settlement pressure could be e pressed in terms of reloading inde of the building )5 erting a

/he curve was assumed to show a distinct brea0 at the original overburden pressure of the normally consolidated soil element, this means the overburden pressure was assumed to be e$ual to the pre consolidation pressure. &or soil samples obtained in the pre consolidation pressure has to be deduced using 'asagrandeCs graphical procedure.

#igure *+)( &5 ; secondary consolidation under overburden pressure. 5C; primary consolidation due to surcharge. C$;secondary consolidation due to surcharge. Consolidations under !tructural fill 3ith !urcharge Assume a highway emban0ment is placed on highly compressible soil. /he e pected amount of final settlement can be at the top of the emban0ment. 4ow much e tra surcharge has to be applied for a given time t in order to produce of the final settlement under the emban0ment load 1 aloneD !tep* calculate for an assumed q. /hese are the final settlement due to emban0ment loading alone and emban0ment plus surcharge. !tep + 6settlement under p=q at time =8 !tep (

!tep 0 find !tep ,

!tep : increase $( if E>ample *+)* decrease $ repeat the calculation till

A land reclamation project re$uires (m sand E gravel fill a deposit with the following profile. "round water level at the surface %oft silty clay

to be placed in

?:m dense shale )a 5stimate final settlement under the proposed fill )b* 'alculate the tine re$uired for ?7F of the settlement % )c* 4ow much e tra surcharge is re$uired to produce a settlement e$uivalent to ?7F half of the time D &ind

in

1ure water correct

?7F consolidation 8ow U; G7 F G7F in settlement

2ecture 6<:#ntroduction to reinforced earth 1EIN#@1CE$ E&1TH /he 1rimary purpose of reinforcing a soil mass is to improve its stability, increasing its bearing capacity and reduce %ettlements and 2ateral deformations. Reinforcing materials: stainless steel, aluminum, fiberglass to nylon, polyster, polyamides, and other synthetics in the form of strips. Geosynthetics" geote>tiles" geogrids and geocomposits)

#igure *()*
Permanency Corrosion of metals and de!radation of synthesis is a maFor problem in desi!nin! reinforced soil structure2 $omanoff 61H;B3 has proposed the follo&in! relationship bet&een the loss of thic(ness It &ith time J:

Where m"n are constant" aryin! for different metals and soil en ironments .

The tensile stren!th of corroded steel strips is affected more stron!ly than the a era!e loss of thic(ness2

-arbin et al61H0A3 e#press this effect in terms of hetero!eneity factor

The tensile stren!th T remainin! in the strip after partial corrosion becomes2

Reinforced Earth E)ample: .1!. Considerin! a $einforced earth steel strip in bac( fill" estimate the possible limits of total thic(ness loss 6both sides of strip3 for a period of 1" ;" 1+" *+" 8+" /+" and ;+ years

)or 1 year

)or ; years

E>ample: *()+
' reinforced earth strip is initially thic( and &ide2The steel has a yield stren!th of :=<5pa calculate the safe load for this strip at the end of its ser ice life2 'ssumin! a factor of safety 12; and a predicted total a era!e loss of thic(ness due to corrosion of *mm2 1Mpa 7 1+8(9

&ssignment Pro lem:.

' $einforced Earth strip is intially ;mm thic( and /+mm &ide" the steel has yield stren!th of */+Mpa Calculate the safeload for this strip at the and of its ser ice life" assumin! a safety factor of 12; and a predicted total a era!e loss of thic(ness due to corrosion of 2

2ecture 6!:,aterial and failure modes

1EIN#@1CE$ E&1TH
Standard Material and -imensions : $einforced earth retainin! structures consist of hori4ontal layer of soil2 Soil and !al ani4ed steel strips attached to concrete face panels2

#igure *0)*

Smooth !al ani4ed steel strips

thic( and A+ to

&ide

of the strip thic(ness &as and 0+ from /

considered corrosion allo&ance lea in! nominal cross section of A+

to 1+ strips could be attached to one face element" placed in t&o ro&s" at a ertical spacin! of

$ibbed strips are made of !al ani4ed steel2 They sho&ed superior performance in pullout tests" allo&in! the desi!n of narro& and thic(er strips &ith a reduced surface area subFected to corrosion2

RE>'7ER6E( EAR$* Bac& fill criteria :;

)or adequate de elopment of friction for preliminary desi!n of reinforced earth structures requires that

12 , of fine content

in the bac( fill less than 1;,

*2 The bac( fill placed and compacted at a moisture content less than optimum moisture

This allo&s the soil reinforcement friction factor

not less than

6orrosion:@
15 of soil is more than ; and : 1+" soil resisti ity is more then 1+++

Standard Bac& fill criteria

5ilfi(er $SE 69ormal fill3 $einforced earth

$einforced Earth Arain siDe distribution ; finer :<<< mm .<<<mm

.SL $etained earth

. .

1++ 1++<B;

1++ 1++<B;

:9<mm <!?mm <!<.9mm Plasticity >nde) Resisti+ity P* ran e 6hlorides,ppm Sulphates,ppm

1++ :1;

.
*;<+

. .*;<+ .
: 1+

. . I1+++
;<1+ :*++ :1+++

H69
:A

I8+++
;<1+ < <

I1+++
/2;<H2; :*++ :1+++

6orrosion allowance for reinforced Earth structures:@ 5inimum ser+ice life ;year 1ro isional Structure 8+ year 6Temporary3 Structure B+ year 61ermanent3 Structure .<<year -permanent4 Structure

!tructure on dry land

structures in contact with fresh water

-),

*),

-),

()-

*)-

0)-

*),

-),

+)-

*)-

0)-

*),

,)-

+)-

!tructure in contact 3ith salt 3ater

*)-

()-

,)-

9)-

7ailure modes
.! E)ternal failure mode

:! >nternal failure mode

E)ternal failure mode :@

(eep seated failure :

)or the case of poor bac( fillmaterial 6behind the reinforced earth3and soft foundation strata" a deep seated circular failure surface could form2 2

#igure *0)+

$EI9)K$CE- E'$T5

Bearin failure

#igure *0)(

If the soil directly underlyin! the base of the reinforced earth &all is of lo& stren!th it may not ha e bearin! capacity2 =earin! capacity is determined by 5ansen formula2 adequate

Slidin

#igure *0)0
E+erturnin

#igure *0),
It is due to distortion of the reinforced earth mass

2ecture 69:Design 1rocedures

1EIN#@1CE$ E&1TH
>nternal 7ailure 5odes:

#igure *,)*
(esi n procedure:@

The follo&in! assumptions has been made &hile desi!nin! The earth pressure theory employed 6$an(ine or coulomb3 The ma!nitude of earth pressures 6acti e or at rest3 The distribution of ertical" hori4ontal and shear stresses The !eometry of failure surface assumed The len!th of reinforcin! strip &hich resists failure by slippa!e Ma!nitude required safety factors2

)A4Eri inal standard analysis:@

#igure*,)+

1EIN#@1CE$ E&1TH /he average vertical stress at depth + within the reinforced and unreinforced earth is ta0en as .

&or ,eyerhof )6?G<*distribution the vertical pressure earth pressure are

and the corresponding hori+ontal

/he hori+ontal earth pressure is assumed to act at the bac0 of the coherent bloc0 of reinforced soil. Because of its overturning effect it is thought to cause increased vertical stress : near the wall face ,this increase can be estimated by either assuming a trape+oidal distribution of within the reinforced earth mass or by calculating the vertical pressure as for an eccentrically loaded footing according to concept of effective width proposed by ,eyerhof)6?G<* .
RE>'7ER6E( EAR$*

#igure *,)(
Safety a ainst rupture: Each strip is assumed to ha e to resist the resultant of the earth pressure actin! o er an area equi alent to the product of a era!e ertical and hori4ontal spacin! of the strips desi!nated as 5ence for a particular depth the tension Td de eloped in the strip is calculated as

)or a !i en yield stress is !i en by

of a steel strip of cross sectional area

The tensile force at rapture

/he safety factor against rapture is

In !eneral" allo&able tensile stress in steel may be ta(en as *?8 of the yield stress"

Safety

a ainst

slippa e: -e eloped o er the surface area 6*bL3

The ma#imum possible shear stress 6shear resistible3 of a strip is computed as

Conser ati e minimum alue of a era!e ertical stress 7 effecti e s(in friction an!le

The ma#imum pullin! force a strip of len!th L and &idth b can resist before slippin! is

The safety factor a!ainst slippa!e

If a uniform

ertical pressure is assumed to e#ist in the $einforced earth mass" the

resultin! hori4ontal stress on the face element is

Independent of hei!ht of &all.

RE>'7ER6E( EAR$* Tiebac( 'nalysis LLee et al 61HB*" 1HB83M

In 1HB*" Lee" 'dams and .a4nernon formulated the tiebac( concept for the analysis of $einforced earth &alls2 They assumed that the earth pressure actin! on the face of the &all is balanced by the pullout resistance of reinforcin! tie o er that part Le of their total len!th 2 &hich is beyond the potential failure plane2

#igure *,)0

)2S D * In the tie bac( analysis the formula for determinin! failure by slippa!e is modified to

1ullout resistance of a reinforcin! tie Effecti e len!th2 Re+ised standard Analysis -./?04: It is a semi empirical method2 It ta(es into account a number of findin!s from laboratory model tests and )ield measurements2 o )ailure surfaces obser ed in many $einforced earth models are cur ed rather than strai!ht2 The simplest appro#imation is of bilinear shape2 Kri!inatin! at the toe of the &all2 o Ma#imum force in the reinforcin! strip in e#istin! &alls occurs at some distance behind the &all face su!!estin! that the concept of effecti e &idth is appropriate2 o Earth pressure in hi!h &alls &all to o pressure belo&2 for ribbed reinforcement bac( fi!ured from ary from pressure near the top of the

The soil strip friction factor

pullout tests and decreases &ith depth until it reaches a constant alue2

Auidelines:

#igure *,),
1. The effecti e len!th of the reinforcin! strips is defined by a bilinear boundary &hich can be dra&n for a !i en &all hei!ht 52 2. The Coefficient of lateral earth pressure decreases from the at rest alue the surface to "at a limitin! depth 2 at

=elo& that le el the coefficient

remains constant at 2

#igure *,):
7riction coefficients:

#igure *,)9
Soil satisfyin! basic !rain si4e criteria for $einforced earth Smooth strips: $ibbed strips: 6$e!ardless of depth3

=et&een the surface6

3and a depth of

is ta(en to ary linearly2

Module A:$einforced Earth and Introduction to Geote#tiles and Geomembranes

2ecture 6::,ess, Bar, strips and design consideration

$EI9)K$CE- E'$T5
Ether strip Reinforcement 5ethods:

#igure *:)*
$he For& method: 5ori4ontal !al ani4ed steel or !lass reinforced plastic strips are attached to ertical pole &hich in turn pro ide a connection bet&een the he#a!onal facin! elements2 Strips are allo&ed to slide ertically so that settlement of the bac(fill can be accommodated &ithout stressin! the face panel2

$EI9)K$CE- E'$T5 Bar mesh

#igure *:)+ 1einforce type

5esh

5ars

!trips

Pea& pullout

P64N8 pea4

*:9 0)(*)-*):9

*, -)*( :7 -)++

(-),* *-+ -)+7

Elongation at

Comparative surface &rea

*ilfi&er Reinforced soil Emban&ment:@

#igure *:)(

#igure *:)0
o Welded &ire mesh bolted to he#a!onal precost concrete face panels" it is (no&n as orspann system Losin!er 2

$EI9)K$CE- E'$T5 -esi!n Considerations of the Mesh: Earth 1ressures:

=ased on field measurements a coefficient of Lateral stress This

is used2

alue is equi alent to the coefficient of earth pressure at rest for a friction it represents

an!le of

.alues &ithin the top

of a mesh reinforced &all could be

belo& a depth of The

Brea&a e of the mesh: safety a!ainst rupture of the &ires can be e#pressed similarly to

the analysis of reinforce earth:

Where cross< sectional area of one &ire 6includin! corrosion allo&ance3 'llo&able &ire stress 6includin! safety factor3 .ertical spacin! bet&een mats2 ' era!e hori4ontal spacin! of lon!itudinal &ires2 .ertical 6o erburden3 stress2

Pullout Resistance:

1ullout

resistance

of

meshes

may

be

considered

of

t&o

parts:

The resistance 6

resultin! from friction !enerated on the surface of lon!itudinal bars of the passi e resistance de eloped on

to the &all face3The resultant

the transferred bars 6parallel to the &all face3

The frictional pullout force

for a sin!le &ire may be e#pressed as2

a era!e confinin! stress &here

;Wire diameter
effecti e len!th

S(in friction an!le

May be ta(en as

L9ielsen 61H0/3M

The determination of and soil condition2

is not strai!ht for&ard2 It depends on such factors as o erburden pressure

The passi e resistance offered by trans erse bars in the mesh is to use the Ter4a!hi bearin! capacity equation61H/83 for strip footin!s of &idth 2

9e!lectin!

and last term

' sin!le trans erse &ire of diameter d and equal to the mesh &idth force2

&ill pro ide a resistance

)or

lon!itudinal &ires and

trans erse &ires in one mesh unit2

Total pullout force in a cohesion less soil2

Includin! cohesion

2ecture 6G:%olved 5 ample of Reinforce 5arth

$EI9)K$CE- E'$T5
=y e#periment" 9ielsen 61H0/3 found e#pressions for the pullout force of meshes of !eometry =ased on the test results" the follo&in! equations2 arious

Ser e as !uidelines:

Con erted to and

units &ith

denotin! the number of lon!itudinal &ires per meter &idth of mesh

the number of trans erse &ires2

Silty sand:

Washed sand:

Pure ra+el:

)actor of safety a!ainst slippa!e2

$atio of mesh &idth per &idth of &all 2

)or 5ilfi(er &elded &ire &all

)or reinforced soil emban(ments &ith precast face panels

$EI9)K$CE- E'$T5 E)ample .?!.

#igure *9)*

Calculate the factor of safety a!ainst slippa!e and rapture accordin! to

6a3Kri!inal standard desi!n assumin! smooth strips 3

%se the Meyerhof61HB83 distribution of ertical stresses for calculatin! hori4ontal earth pressure and

#igure *9)+

* strips per Soil unit Soil friction an!le

&idth

Solution: 5eyerhofGs analysis

.ertical spacin! bet&een t&o ro&s of strips 5ori4ontal spacin! of strips

Safety a ainst rapture

Safety a ainst slippa e

Ma#imum pullin! force a strip of len!th and &idth b

)actor of safety a!ainst slippa!e

E)ample.?!:
Calculate the resistance a!ainst pullout of a soil<bar friction an!le of There are &ide and lon! bar mesh buried in sand &ith

dia bars per meter of &idth and a total of fi e

trans erse bars of equal diameter2 'ssume 6a3Calculate the pullout force required2s 6b3Chec( &hether the pullout resistance e#ceeds the allo&able force &2 r 2t bar rapture" assumin! an acceptable steel stress of 2

'ns: $equired data: 7or sand

#igure *9)0

'llo&able force &2 r2 t bar rapture

2ecture 6>:: #ntroduction to "eote tiles and "eomembranes

AEE$EH$>%ES A'( AEE5E5BRA'ES

(efinitions, deference, $ypes, properties, and applications

Geote#tiles impre!nation permeable are fabrics used referred in !eotechnical as en!ineerin!2 !eomembranes2

)le#ible sheets made of synthetic plastic or rubber as &ell as fabrics madeNimpermeableNby -efinitions 6used in te#tile technolo!y3 5onofilament wo+ens :<contains sin!le filaments in &arp 6machine direction3 and &eft 6cross machine3 direction. 5ultifilament wo+ens:@ made of multifilament yarns in &arp and &eft direction2 $ape wo+ens:@ Split Ofilm tapes 6rather than filaments &ith circular or elliptical cross section3 are used2 'on wo+ens:@ 5a e essentially random te#tile structure they are further cate!ori4ed accordin! to ho& fibers are interloc(ed or bonded" &hich is achie ed by mechanical" chemical" thermal means2 "nitteds :@ 1roduced by interloopin! one or more ends of yarn or comparable material2 $ypes -E)amples of eote)tiles4 =idim" )oss Geomat " Tre ira 6non &o en<needle Opunched polyester3 1olyfelt sodoca" 6non &o en" needle<punched polypropylene3 Typar 6non &o en" spun<bonded poly propylene3 Terram B++ 6non &o en" melded" 88, polyethylene"AB, poly propylene23 Geolon" 9icolon" polytrac" prope# 6&o en polypropylene3 Terra firma 6&o en polyester3 Terrafi# 8B+$s" Lotrac( *++ 6&o en Onon&o en composites3

#igure *.)*
Application 1a ements on soft soil 1a ement o erlays $ail roads Purpose of eote)tiles increase in bearin! capacity inhibit crac( propa!ation2 pre ent ballast contamination"distribute load on sub!rade2 Emban(ments $etainin! structures 9atural slopes $i ers "canals and reser oirs Water pollution control impro e stability" pro ide draina!e 2

reinforce and protect bac(fill protect slope a!ainst erosion"reinforce soil"pro ide draina!e2 $eplace or impro e traditional filter layers"erosion control2 e#tract and collect !ranular pollutants"reinforce and protect !eomembranes"relie e pore &ater or !as pressure belo& membranes2

Shore protection

pre ent erosion and sand mi!ration" act as filter and draina!e layer

=uildin! elements

form soil< cement filled ba!s and tubes to create columns

2ecture 6?:Basic functions of "eote tiles and "eomembranes

BAS>6 73'6$>E'S
-raina!e )iltration Separation $einforcement

(raina e: Collectin! and redirectin! seepa!e &ater &ithin a soil mass or adFacent to retainin! &alls cul erts and tunnel linin!s 2 E# < 9on<&o en fabrics or composits ha e sufficient inflo& capacity to fulfill this function2 Geote#tiles acts as a filter if it allo&s seepa!e from a &ater bearin! layer &hile pre entin! most soil particles from bein! carried a&ay by the &ater flo&2 Separation It is achie ed if the fabric pre ents mi#in! of adFacent dissimilar soils &hich may occur durin! construction or may be caused by repeated e#ternal loadin! of a soil layer system Most fabrics can act as separators pro ided they ha e adequate stren!th2 Reinforcement Means the inclusion of the fabric to pro ide tensile stren!th" redistribution of stresses and ? or confinement" thereby increasin! the stability of a soil mass" reducin! earth pressures" or decreasin! deformation or susceptibility to crac(in!2 )abrics are used to pro ide containment if they are used to form soil or concrete filled ba!s" tubes" or mattresses2 )abrics are used to act as a tensioned membrane if it supports loads across a !ap or plastic 4one of soft soil )abrics may be required to pro ide cushionin! a!ainst locali4ed stresses &hich may cause puncturin! or abrasion If placed on the surface of a slope the !eote#tile may pre ent erosion and dispersion of soil due to &ind" surface runoff or &a e action2

$he function of fabrics in maIor area of application

Application 1rimary roads and rail roads $etainin! &alls " Emban(ment"and foundations 5aIor functions in order of priority Separation" draina!e" $einforcement Special6onsideration 5ost important properties 1ore si4e "permeability stren!th "elon!ation 2

$epeated loadin!

$einforcement Separation

Creep

Stren!th Soil fabric friction

%npa ed roads

$einforcement Separation

$epeated loadin!

Stren!th Elon!ation 1ore site 1ermeability stren!th abrasion

Erosion protection

)iltration

$apid chan!e in &ater le el

Seepa!e control -raina!e $einforcement

Soil draina!e

-raina!e )iltration

Clo!!in!

1ore si4e

#igure *7)*
Stress< strain modulus 7 slope of stress Ostrain cur e

Initial tan!ent modulus

Kffset tan!ent modulus

Secant modulus at particular strain

2ecture 37:"eneralApplications of "eote tiles and "eomembranes

Applications
5aIor applications 12 Emban(ments o er ery soft soils *2 %npa ed road supports 82 $etainin! &alls

!. Slope stabili4ation
.! Emban&ments Emban(ment can fail in a multitude of &ays in ol in! e#cessi e settlement and lateral spreadin!" &ith or &ithout sin!le or multiple failure surfaces and surface bul!in! becomin! apparent2 Geote#tiles pro ides restraint a!ainst lateral deformation and assist in load distribution on the soft subsoil2 Stability analysis of a reinforced emban(ment &ill ha e to ta(e the follo&in! modes of failure -a4 Bloc& slidin on the eote)tiles: ' ertical crac( or other type of failure throu!h the emban(ment isolates a bloc( of soil &hich slides out&ard on !eote#tiles 2 ' simple analysis &ould assume hori4ontal acti e earth pressures pushin! out&ard and soil fabric friction resistin! the process2

#igure +-)*

#igure +-)+
%niform distribution of shear stress &ould imply tensile forces in the !eote#tiles &hich increases linearly to&ards the center of the emban(ment 2

at the center of the emban(ment2

' minimum factor of safety of 12; &2r2t stren!th and a fabric strain limited to 1+,

Aeote)tile and Aeomembrane

6b3)ailure alon! a slip surface:

#igure +-)(
Slip surface is assumed to be circular either &ithin the emban(ment or throu!h the !eote#tile )abric pro ides an additional stabili4in! force T at the point of intersection &ith the failure surface2 Stabili4in! moment due to the fabric

)or circular failure surfaces

-c4 E+erall bearin failure:

)/er+aghiCs or 4ansenCs Bearing capacity*

The bearin! capacity of an emban(ment foundation is unaffected by a !eote#tile contained &ithin or Fust belo& the emban(ment

K erall bearin! capacity could be impro ed if a mattress li(e reinforced surface layer of lar!er e#tent is pro ided at the base of the emban(ment 2

-c4 E)cessi+e settlement : -ue to consolidation of the sub soil the emban(ment under!oes lar!e settlement and the presence of the fabric may reduce differential settlement2

=ecause of the draina!e effect of non&o en fabrics consolidation of the subsoil may be accelerated &ith a consequent !ain in stren!th &here deformation criteria require hi!h stren!th" hi!h Omodulus &o en fabrics the draina!e function may be pro ided by the Geocomposits 2

Ed!e reinforcement also helps to reduce erosion and may assist in the establishment of e!etation. 3npa+ed roads: $einforcin! action of !eote#tile can be used in unpa ed roads for economic ad anta!es2 Geote#tiles also fulfill additional basic functions such as separation" filtration and draina!e2 9on&o en and &o en fabrics are used in road construction2 roads without fabric

3npa+ed

5ammit 61HB+3 proposed a formula for determinin! the thic(ness of a!!re!ate required for unsurfaced roads and air fields so as to produce a rut depth less than 8 < in 6B;mm32 The desi!n thic(ness is a function of the number of co era!e 9 of an equi alent sin!le &heel load and the tire contact area 2

The unreinforced a!!re!ate depth

required for

is

Where

'!!re!ate depth unreinforced"m '#le load" P9 %ndrained cohesion of the sub soil

Aeote)tile and eomembrane

3npa+ed roads with Aeote)tiles:

#igure +*)*
The placement of a fabric on soft sub!rade appears to ha e the effect of forcin! a !eneral shear failure &here other&ise a local or punchin! type of failure &ould occur2 The beamin! capacity factor increases from about 8 to ; or more2

The fabric pro ided restraint of the a!!re!ate and the sub!rade if placed at their interface2

Subsidence associated &ith &heel path ruttin! can de elop tension in a fabric built into road structure2 This is the case &ith hi!h<modulus fabrics &ith sufficient soil fabric friction to de elop an anchora!e 4one outside the loaded area2

(ES>A' A66ER(>'A $E A>RE3( A'( 'E>RAF -./0.4

#igure +*)+
%ltimate bearin! capacity of sub!rade

Where

; pressure on the sub !rade due to surchar!e

$eduction of pressure due to membrane effect

1ressure P is calculated assumin! the a!!re!ate spreads the surface load at an an!le

Where 17 a#le Load unit &t of soil -ual tires are assumed &ith each set of tires co erin! an area B times % 2)or a tire pressure these dimensions are obtained for t&o different cases2

En hi hway truc&s

off@hi hway truc&s

The determination of P is based on the assumption that the shape of the deformed !eote#tile represents sectors of parabolas so the olume of the central hea ed area is related to the soil displaced by from &hich settlement the fabric strain can be determined

&here b and bG represent the half chord len!ths of parabolas 1 and 1G the &idths a and aG are obtained from the relationships2

Where

Trac( &idth2

Chord len!ths b and bG are computed from t&o equations

)abric tension

Membrane support

So sol in!

for the cohesion Cu" a relationship can be established bet&een Cu and

the required a!!re!ate hei!ht" for a !i en !eometry" load confi!uration and fabric modules2

#igure +*)0
Aeote)tiles and eomembranes Rail Roads:
Geote#tiles installed in the trac( bed are submitted to e#treme conditions of cyclic stress and seepa!e flo&2 Geote#tiles directly contact &ith coarse ballast &ithout protecti e layers abo e and belo&" are subFected to si!nificant abrasion and puncturin! &hich affects their filtration and reinforcement capacity

Laboratory tests and field obser ations confirm that hea y non&o ens better than li!hter non&o ens2 Geote#tiles are successful in sol in! difficult trac( foundation

perform

Economic !ains and better lon! term trac( performance could be achie ed by protecti e layer abo e ?or belo& the installed fabric

With particular reference to road and emban(ment construction proper mana!ement of a !eote#tile reinforced soil proFect requires the follo&lin! actions2

%ite preparation :< Le el site and remo e obstructions such as sharp tree stumps and
boulders" minimi4e disturbance of the sub!rade &here soil structure" roots in the !round and li!ht e!etation may pro ide additional bearin! stren!th2

Equipment selection:< use lo& !round pressure and small dump truc(s for initial sta!e of construction pay attention to !round disturbance caused by turnin! equipment and dumpin! procedures2

7abric placement :<$oll rather than dra! !eote#tile into place !i in! attention to the isotropic properties of the fabric 6i2e2 &arp direction parallel to road ali!nment32 Eliminate &rin(les" tension fabric and pro ide ed!e anchora!e for increased membrane action in cures" cuttin! and se&in! of or o erlappin! may be necessary2

re ate placement and compaction

Minimum co er is :<< to 1<< mm" dependin! on a!!re!ate si4e and &ei!ht of truc(s2 Ma#imum lift thic(ness may be imposed in order to control the si4e of the mud &a e 6bearin! failure3 a head of dumpin! due to e#cessi e fill &ei!ht compaction of first a!!re!ate layer is achie ed by the construction equipment alone2

&ssignment:;
Consider a slip circle as sho&n in )i! *12; and e aluate the stabili4in! effect of fabric &ith a tensile stren!th of 8+(9? m2 'ssume that adequate anchora!e pre ents failure by pullout2 12 Calculate the resistin! moment alon! the shear place for a cohesion of :<&pa -a soft clay4 * 2-etermine the increase in resistin! moment due to the fabric" assumin! it acts in a hori4ontal direction2

#igure +*), 2ecture 33:Resistance of "eote tiles

Application of Aeote)tiles

7unctions: Separation $einforcement )iltration -raina!e Moisture barrier

Separation: Geote#tiles acts as a separator" its placement bet&een reasonably firm soil and stonebase course" a!!re!ate or ballast Othe soil bein! belo& the !eote#tile and the stone abo e it2 Brust Resistance: Consider a !eote#tile on a soil sub!rade &ith stone of a era!e particle diameter placed abo e it2The stressed soil then tries to push the fabric up into the oids in the stone2

#igure ++)*
The required fabric stren!th The stress at the fabricGs surface Ma#imum oid diameter The a era!e stone diameter %ltimate fabric stren!th The burst test pressure =urst test diameter 712*inch2 'ssumin! E)ample:@ Gi en a safety of 82+Q ::!. truc( tire inflation pressure on a poorly !raded stone base course consistin! and the tire inflation pressure

of 8<in ma#imum si4e stone" What is the required stren!th of the !eote#tile assumin! a factor of

Application of eote)tiles

)or desi!n purpose )2S R 8 $ensile stren th: Tensile stress in the fabric is mobilised &hen an upper piece of a!!re!ate is forced bet&een t&o lo&er pieces that lie a!anist the fabric2Ma#imum strain &ith no slippa! e.

#igure ++)+

The tensile force mobili4ed is related to the pressure e#ertin! on stone2

Mobili4ed Tensile force The applied pressure Strain in !eote#tile E)ample @ ::!: Gi en a truc( tire inflation pressure on a stone base course of 8<in ma#imum si4e

stone &ith a !eote#tile beneath it2

6alculateJ@
6a3 Ma#imum !rab tensile stress on the !eote#tile" assumin! and stone &ill occur Slippa!e bet&een the fabric

6b3 )actor of safety for a !eote#tile &hose ultimate !rab stren!th is"

6a8 The strain in fa ric is of

6b4 7actor of safety based on ultimate fabric stren th

Puncture Resistance: .ertical force E#erted on !eote#tile

#igure ++)(

Total ertical force imposed on the fabric adFacent to the puncture ' era!e dia of hole ' era!e dia of the a!!re!ate 1ropa!ation hei!ht 1ressure e#erted on the Geote#tile Shape factor rounded blunt

Sharp an!ular obFect Total ertical force on fibers $equired tensile force in fibers ' era!e diameter of the stone Initial a era!e oid diameter of Geote#tile2

Sphericity

1roFected area of the particle 'rea of the smallest circumscribin! circle around the particle Sand $oc( Shot roc(

2ecture 3<:Design of geote tile walls

(esi n of Aeote)tiles walls -Reinforced soil4
Most cases2 a !ranular material is used as a bac( fill"the facin! of &all is formed by lappin! the sheets

as sho&n &ith a lap len!th of

7i ure :1!. When construction finished" the e#posed face of the &all must be co ered2 =itumen emulsion or Gunite is sprayed on the &all face2 Stability: Internal stability o erlap2 E#ternal stability slidin!" o erturnin!" bearin! capacity failure" deep<seated stability2 in ol es determinin! spacin! or lift thic(ness2 )abric len!th and

#igure+()+
=oussinesq elastic theory for li e load on the soil bac(fill is used

7 co efficicient of acti e earth pressure

) = *oriDontal distance when load is away from wall!

)actor of safety 6128<12;3 Geote#tile layers at any depth 4 &ill fail by pullout if the frictional resistance de eloped alon! their surfaces is less than the force to &hich the layers are bein! subFected2 The effecti e len!th of the !eote#tile layer alon! &hich the frictional resistance is de eloped may be ta(en conser ati ely as the len!th that e#tends beyond the limits of the $an(ine acti e failure

4one" ma(es an an!le of

&ith hori4ontal2

len!th of embedment of the fabric layers in the anchora!e 4one2 Total len!th

7 7

The soil cohesion %nit &t of bac(fill soil2 'n!le of friction bet&een soil > friction -epth from !round surface2 factor of safety

The lap len!th is calculated ta(in!

6minimum 1m3

E)ternal stability

#igure +()(
6hec& for o+erturnin :

6hec& for slidin :

6hec& for bearin capacity failure

%ltimate bearin! capacity

of the soil &ith eccentric loadin! can be !i en as

6hec& for slidin : 5ori4ontal dri in! force at the bottom of the &all

5ori4ontal resistin! force at

E)ample::1!. -esi!n a 1*ft hi!h !eote#tile &all that is to carry a stora!e area of equi alent dead load of The &all is to bac( filled &ith a !ranular soil ha in! properties of

' &o en slit film !eote#tile &ith ultimate &ide &idth tensile stren!th of *;+ lb?in and lb?ft is intended to be used in its construction2

7/0;

Step1

#igure +()0

5ori4ontal earth pressure

7abric %ayer Spacin :

Step@:
(etermine the len th of fabric layer -%4

$able :1!.

%ayer 'o 1+6top3 H 0 B A ; / 8

(epth D Spacin -ft4 12; 82+ /2; A2+ B2+ 02+ H2+ 1+2+ 12; 12; 12; 12; 12+ 12+ 12+ 12+ 12*B +2H* +201 +2B; +2/0 +2/B +2/A +2/; 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ ;28/ /2;0 820* 82+; *2;/ *2+/ 12;* 12+*

%-ft4 028 B2A A20 A21 ;2; ;21 /2; /2+

use 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ +2; +2;

* 1

112+ 1*2*

12+ 12+

+2/; +2//

82+ 82+

+2;1 +

82; 82+

+2; +2;

Chec( the o erlap len!th

Ma#imum at upper layer at

#igure +(),

7actor of safety a ainst o+erturnin 7

o.0
7actor of safety a ainst Slidin

Lo&er fabric must be len!thened try 1+ft

o2(

7oundation failure

'pplication of Geote#tiles
E)ample :1!:

#igure +():

)or

Assume any other data: Ans:

't

Ta(e

#igure +()9

$able :1!:

%:5

7.! 3.7 !.7 :.7

7.! 7.! 7.! 7.<

<.9: 3.!9 6.<9 7.6>

%se

$a&in moment about the bottom of the wall

$a&in moment about bottom of the wall

7actor of safety a ainst slidin :

Effect of li+e load: -a4 %ine load

#igure +().

Boussinesq equation modified by e)periment

-b4 Point %oad

7i ure :1!/

#igure+()*%ateral earth pressure due to a surface load -After 'A,7A64