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Role of Codes and Empirical Procedures

Chapter 9, Krinitzsky et al

Purpose of Codes To ensure a minimum structural resistance to limit collapse and consequent loss of life. Beyond this, the extent to which structural damage is to be reduced depends on economics and administrative policy.

Evolution of Codes in the US. ( Sec. 9.2) Code used in the Philippines The National Structural Code of the Philippines (latest edition 2010) The NSCP 2010 is patterned after the Uniform Building Code (UBC) 1997.

Static Lateral Force Procedures in Building Codes

The UBC was first enacted by the International Conference of Building Officials in 1927. Since then, the code has been revised every three years (except during World War II). In 2000, the International Building Code (IBC) was promulgated to unify all building codes in the US. The UBC-97 and IBC-2000 are closely related to NEHRP of 1991, which is partly based on ATC-3-06 of 1978. UBC-97 stipulates two basic lateral force procedures for minimum seismic design: static lateral force and dynamic lateral force. The risk level assumed in the UBC 97 is 10% probability of being exceeded in any 50-year period. This means that if minimum design lateral force requirements in the codes are met, then normal building structures may be expected to resist an upper-level earthquake with a return period of 475 years without collapse and without endangering life. However, structural and nonstructural damages are anticipated which may not be acceptable for essential facilities, such as hospitals and communication facilities.

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NSCP 2010 Design Parameters

Criteria for Appropriate Lateral Force Procedure

NSCP 2010 Design Parameters

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Vertical structural irregularities: (a) Stiffness irregularity-soft story; (b) Mass irregularity; (c) Geometric irregularity; (d) In-plane discontinuity; (e) Weak story.

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Plan structural irregularities: (a) Torsional irregularity; (b) Irregular geometry of re-entrant corners; (c) Diaphragm discontinuity; (d) Out-of-plane offsets; (e) Non-parallel system

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Base Shear of Static Lateral Force Procedure and Related Parameters

In the NSCP-2010/UBC-97 static lateral force procedure , the total structural base shear is determined according to seismic zones by using code formulas (208-4) - (208-7). The base shear in seismic zone 4 should be

Simplified Approach
The Code allows a simplified static lateral-force procedure for structures conforming to the requirements of sec. 208.4.8.1 with the following conditions: 1. buildings of any occupancy not more than three stories in height, excluding basements that use light-frame construction; 2. other buildings not more than two stories in height excluding basements. For the simplified approach, the base shear is determined as

The force at each level shall be calculated as

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Definition of terms: Z - Seismic zone factor - the Philippines is divided into two seismic zones as shown in NSCP Fig. 208-4. The zone factor is an estimate of site-dependent effective peak ground acceleration expressed in terms of g, which reflects ground motion values at a recurrence interval of 475 years corresponding to a 10% probability of being exceeded in any 50-year period. I - Importance factor - this factor is given in NSCP Table 208 - 1

W - Seismic dead load - as specified in Sec. 208.5.1.1. The load W includes the total dead load and applicable portions of other loads. R - numerical coefficient representative of the inherent over-strength and global ductility capacity of lateral-force-resisting systems, as given in Table 208-11 or 208-13. The R factor in the UBC 97 is analogous to the Rw of UBC 94. Rw is the ratio of seismic base shear for a linearly elastic structural system to prescribed design base shear for an inelastic structural system. Since designing a structure to remain elastic during a major earthquake is not economical, elastic base shear is reduced by this factor. The reduced base shear thus allows the designed structure to incur limited damage without jeopardizing gravity-load carrying capacity and yet provides energy-absorbing capacity. Inelastic deformation after yielding induces more damping and longer natural period, which in turn reduce seismic excitation developed in the structure. Rw also considers design load factors, structural redundancy, and seismic-resisting performance of materials and structural systems.

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General story response of a structure.

Ve = maximum elastic base shear Vy = base shear corresponding to structural collapse level or yield strength Vs = base shear corresponding to the first hinge formation in the structural system Va = allowable base shear at service load level adopted by UBC-94 a, s, y, and max are the story drifts associated with the respective base shears. Thus the response modification factor can be expressed as

where Rd = ductility reduction factor, denoted by Ve / Vy and is well established for single-d.o.f. damped systems; 0 = Vy / Vs is seismic force amplification (or over-strength factor) due to structural redundancy (internal force redistribution after first plastic hinge formation); and Ra = Vs / Va = signifies the allowable stress factor to account for differences in the format of material codes. R (in the UBC 97) does not have the Ra term.

Hence, R = Rw / Ra

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Thus the load combination has different modification factors in UBC-94 and UBC-97: in UBC-94: in UBC-97: l.0 E for ASD; 1.5 E 1.0 E for LRFD for LRFD

E/ 1.4 for ASD;

Range of R and 0 Values for Basic Structural Systems

Rw vs R

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Seismic Coefficients Ca and Cv Ca and Cv depend on soil profile type and seismic zone. Sec. 208.4.3.1. Soil Profile Type Soil profile types SA , SB , SC , SD , and SE are defined in Table 208-2. Type SF is defined as soils requiring site-specific evaluation.

Near-Source Factors Na , Nv
Table 208-7 and 208-8 shows that, in seismic zone 4, Ca and Cv are determined using Na and Nv, which are near-source factors based on the proximity of a building or structure to known faults with magnitudes and slip rates. To find Na and Nv , we need three seismic source types A, B, and C as given in Table 208-4 and 208-5. The rationale for source types is that ground motion is greater in the vicinity of a fault than some distance away, owing to rapid progression of fault rupture. This effect depends on moment magnitude, M. Thus, type A represents the most active fault with larger M than the least active fault signified by type C. Seismic Source Type Table 208-6 defines the types of seismic sources. The location and type of seismic sources to be used for design shall be based on approved geological data (See. Fig 208-2A). Type A sources shall be based on the maps of Fig. 208-2B, C, D, E or the recent mapping of active faults by the PHIVOLCS.

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Fundamental period T
The fundamental period may be determined from any one of the following methods: Method A: For all buildings, T may be approximated using the following formula

hn = height in feet (or meters, m) above the base to story level n of the building. Values of C, in ( ) are in SI units.

Method B: The fundamental period may be calculated using the following formula:

where n denotes the total number of stories; fi represents any lateral force distributed approximately in accordance with Eqs. (208-14) and (208-15) or any other rational distribution; and wi is the seismic dead load at level i. i the elastic deflection, is calculated using the applied lateral forces fi . The value of T from Method B should not be over 30% of period T from Method A in seismic zone 4 and 40% in zones 2.

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Vertical Distribution of Lateral Force Once the base shear has been determined, base shear V is distributed over the height of the structure as a force at each level with consideration of a straightline mode shape. An extra force Ft is considered at the top of the building to account for greater participation of higher modes in the response of longer-period structures.

The remaining portion of the total base shear, (V - Ft ) , is distributed over the height, including the roof top, by the following formula:

where wx is the weight at a particular level and hx is the height of a particular level above the base. At each floor the force Fx is located at mass center. Story Shear and Overturning Moment Story shear at level x, Vx, is the sum of all the lateral forces at and above that level.

The overturning moment at a particular level, Mx, is the sum of the moments of the story forces at and above that level with the following expression:

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Overturning Moment at level x.

Torsion

When the rigidity center and the mass center do not coincide at a given story, where diaphragms are not flexible, the design story shear, Vx, at that story causes torsion. This is primary torsion defined as Vx multiplied by the eccentricity between mass center and rigidity center. Vx is the sum of forces Ft and Fx above that story. Due to uncertainty in mass and stiffness distribution, we must consider accidental torsion in order to increase the shears of structural elements. Accidental torsion can be obtained as follows: Assume the mass center is placed in each direction a distance equal to 5% of the building dimension at that level perpendicular to the direction of the force under consideration, from the center of rigidity. This assumed mass center creates a new eccentricity relative to the rigidity center; thus accidental torsion is obtained from the multiplication of Vx by the new eccentricity. The mass center is placed in each direction so that we may obtain larger combined shear which results from primary torsion and accidental torsion for each individual structural element.

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If the lateral deflection at either end of a building is more than 20% greater than the average deflection, the building is classified as torsionally irregular and the accidental eccentricity must be amplified using the formula

where

avg = the average displacement at level x max = the maximum displacement at level x
Ax = the torsional amplification factor at level x

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Reliability/Redundancy Factor The seismic base shear, as determined from the preceding equations, must be multiplied by a reliability/redundancy factor, , for the design of a lateral loadresisting system. It is given by 1 =2 where AB = the ground floor area of the structure in square meters rmax = the maximum element-story shear ratios The element-story shear ratio, ri, at a particular level is the ratio of the shear in the most heavily loaded member to the total story shear. The maximum ratio, rmax, is defined as the largest value of ri in the lower two-thirds of the building.
.

1.5

Drift Limitation The elastic deflections due to strength-level design seismic forces are called design-level response displacements, S. The subscript S in S stands for strength design. The seismic forces used to determine S may be calculated using a reliability/redundancy factor equal to 1.0. An elastic static or dynamic analysis may be used to determine S. The maximum inelastic response is defined as M = 0.7RS For structures with a period less than 0.7 seconds, the maximum story drift is limited to M 0.025 h (T < 0.7 seconds)

For structures with a period greater than 0.7 seconds, the story drift limit is M 0.020 h where h is the story height. (T 0.7 seconds)

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Basic Load Combinations for Strength Design (LRFD)

All materials except concrete (No one-third increase for wind or seismic) .

U = 1.4D U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S) U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S) + ( f1L or 0.8W) U = 1.2D + 1.3W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or S) U = 1.2D + 1.0E + (f1L + f2S) U = 0.9D ( E or 1.3W) Basic Load Combinations for Strength Design (LRFD)
Concrete Structures (No one-third increase for wind or seismic) .

U = 1.4D + 1.7L U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W) U = 0.9D + 1.3W (2.19) U = 1.2D + 1.0E + f1L + f2S U = 0.9D + 1.0E

Basic Load Combinations Using ASD

Where E = earthquake load resulting from the combination of the horizontal component, Eh, and the vertical component EV ; E = Eh Ev Eh = earthquake load due to the base shear, V. EV = 0.5Ca I = redundancy/reliability factor

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Alternative Basic Load Combinations using ASD One-third increase for wind and seismic is allowed

Special Seismic Load Combinations (for Both ASD and LRFD)

1.2D + f1L + 1.0Em 0.9D 1.0 Em

where Em = o Eh ,

the estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in the structure. These combinations are intended to cover conditions where uniform ductility in the structural system is lacking due to vertical discontinuities. The overstrength factor o is equivalent to 3/8Rw factor that appears in previous UBC requirements to address nonductile issues as columns supporting discontinuous shear walls.

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Example Given. A12-story steel building located in Manila. The lateral-load-resisting system consists of special moment-resisting space frames (SMRFs), interacting with eccentric braced frames (ECBs). The far ends of beams in the ECBs are moment-connected to columns. The building has two, 12-feethigh basement levels. The shear base is at ground level. Building height hn = Two @ 15 + 10 @ 13 = 160 ft Plan dimensions = 90 feet 210 feet Fundamental period TB from a computer analysis = 2 secs Seismic zone factor Z = 0.4 Near-source factor Na = 1.0 Near-source factor Nv = 1.0 Importance factor I = 1.0 Basic structural system - dual system; steel EBF with steel SMRF. Soil type - SD Redundancy/reliability factor = 1.0

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Required. Using the Equivalent Lateral Procedure of UBC 1997, determine the following: Base shear V. Seismic forces, i.e., the Fx forces. Overturning moments. Diaphragm design forces. Maximum allowable inelastic response displacement, M. This is the total drift that occurs when the structure is subjected to design-basis ground motion, including estimated elastic and inelastic contributions to the deformation. Seismic force amplification factor, o required for the design of critical elements such as columns below structural discontinuity.

Required. Using the Equivalent Lateral Procedure of UBC 1997, determine the following: Base shear V. Seismic forces, i.e., the Fx forces. Overturning moments. Diaphragm design forces. Maximum allowable inelastic response displacement, M. This is the total drift that occurs when the structure is subjected to design-basis ground motion, including estimated elastic and inelastic contributions to the deformation. Seismic force amplification factor, o , required for the design of critical elements such as columns below structural discontinuity. Solution. The purpose of the example is to illustrate the equivalent static procedure. Therefore, we make a daring assumption that none of the irregularities requiring dynamic analysis occurs in our building, an unlikely scenario in real-world building engineering.

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Building Seismic Weight W. W is calculated as the summation of story weights tributary to each floor. It includes the weight of the floor system with an allowance for finishes, ceiling, mechanical and air conditioning duct work, weights of walls, columns, exterior cladding, and a code-required allowance of a minimum of 10 psf for partitions. Total steel weight = 14 psf (assumed) Unit weight of 3.25 lightweight concrete topping on a 3"-deep metal deck, including the weight of deck = 50 psf Allowance for finishes, partitions, and exterior cladding = 30 psf Total seismic weight = 14 + 50 + 30 = 94 psf, use 100 psf Building area: floors two through roof = 12 90 210 = 226,800 ft2 Seismic weight W = 226,800 100/1000 = 22,680 kips Assume, for purposes of preliminary design, all floors including the roof have the same seismic weight. Hence, seismic weight tributary to each floor and roof: Wx = W/12 = 22,680 / 12 = 1890 kips

Seismic Data The building is located in seismic zone 4. Soil profile = SD (Given) Lateral-load-resisting system is given as a dual system consisting of SMRFs with EBFs. The structural system is permitted in zone 4. Building height above shear base, hn = 15 + 15 + 10 @ 13 = 160 ft Building Period TA from Method A TA = Ct(hn)3/4 TA = 0.035(160)3/4 = 1.57 sec TB = 2 secs (Given) Period T for determining the base shear must not exceed 1.3 TA = 1.3 1.57 = 2.04 secs > TB = 2.0 secs Therefore, T for design = 2.0 secs

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Seismic Coefficients Z = 0.4 (Manila, Zone 4) I = 1 (Standard Occupancy) R = 8.5 Ca = 0.44Na = 0.44 1 = 0.44 Cv = 0.64Nv = 0.64 1 = 0.64 Ct = 0.035

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Lateral Load for other floors are shown in the Table 2.11.

Oveturning moments and allowable maximum inelastic displacements (M ) are shown in Table 2.11.

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