ISSN 1674-8484 CN 11-5904/U

, 2010 , 1 1 J Automotive Safety and Energy, 2010, Vol. 1 No. 1

6/12 40 48

Intelligent Anti-lock Braking Control of Hybrid Buses

CHEN Ziqiang*, YANG Lin
(School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China) Abstract: This paper proposes an intelligent anti-lock braking control of hybrid buses through a neuro-fuzzy controller (NFC) by combining the fuzzy logic algorithm and the artificial neural network. The braking torque distribution between the integrating starting generator (ISG) and the friction disc brake is addressed through the proposed NFC. The experimental results show that the braking performance and the braking regeneration can both be optimized through the NFC for vehicle safety and fuel economy. Keywords: integrating starting generator (ISG); hybrid bus; fuzzy logic control; artificial neural network; anti-lock braking; System (ABS)

200240
(NFC) ISG (ISC) (ABS)

Introduction
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is one of most important safety system in vehicles. Many theories and design methods for anti-lock braking systems have been proposed several literatures for decades. Researchers have considered a lot of control strategies and methods of anti-lock braking systems, which have been demonstrated effective for ABS system. Georg[1] proposed fuzzy technique for ABS and Nelson et al. [2] has implemented fuzzy logic based ABS for electric vehicle. But as a rule based on control strategy, it needs large amount of fuzzy rules to support the calculation. With complicated search and inference of rules, FLC takes much calculating time and thus has difculty to realize a real time control [3]. While through optimizing of structure and algorithm, Fuzzy logic based control for

ABS can meet the requirement of real-time control and is still attractive for researches in recent years [4]. Fuzzy logic controller (FLC) has already been applied in the control of vehicle over fifteen years [5]. While the hybrid dynamic systems are usually difficult to be controlled because of non-linear and time varying, and each subsystem also has its own controller. Hence many challenges exist for designing a vehicle system controller for a parallel hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). Given this complexity, Fuzzy Logic Control is very suitable for hybrid vehicle control[6-8]. Although with complicated search and inference of rules, FLC takes much calculating time and thus has difficulty to realize a real time control[9], While through optimizing of structure and algorithm, Fuzzy logic based control for ABS can still meet the requirement of real-time control [10]. With the

Received: 2010-01-26 Supported by the National Basic Research (1973) Program of China (No. 2007CB209707) * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: chenziqiang@sjtu.edu.cn

CHEN Ziqiang, et al.: Intelligent Anti-lock Braking Control of Hybrid Buses

41

development of ANN theory, the combination of FLC and ANN attracts more and more researchersattention and seems to be a viable method for hybrid vehicle applications. Neuro-fuzzy controller (NFC) is just such a hybrid system and many researches [11-15] have already done some studies in their papers. In this paper, a neuro-fuzzy algorithm applied in the regenerative braking of hybrid bus is established through the combination of the fuzzy algorithm and the back-propagation (BP) network. It realizes fuzzy algorithm through neural network and the fuzzy rules are interspersed impliedly in the network through the training of ANN. The braking torque distribution between ISG and disc brake has been determined by the algorithm through inputs of bus velocity, wheel speed, and travel of brake pedal and its variance ratio to the NFC. Moreover, the neuro-fuzzy algorithm is also integrated with the control principle of antilock braking system, and the braking torque of bus is adjusted continuously through the corrected values of ISG torque and braking oil pressure to prevent wheels from locking, therefore the ABS functionality for hybrid electric buses is also delivered by the NFC. In the rest of this paper, section 1 introduces the hybrid dynamic system and the braking system of hybrid electric buses. Section 2 describes the model of the distribution of braking torque of the system. Simulation is presented in section 3. Experiments for validating the ABS functionality and regenerative braking are given in

the section 4, followed by conclusions in section 5.

1
1.1

Hybrid Dynamic System and Braking System

Structure of hybrid dynamic system

The hybrid dynamic system in the paper is mainly consisted of diesel engine, Integrated Started Generator (ISG), transmission box, power battery packs and battery control module, DC motor control module (DMCM), automatic disconnection module (ADM), braking system, and hybrid control unit (HCU), as shown in g. 1. HCU is the central control unit of the system being responsible for the signal collecting, signal processing, and the control, supervision and harmonization of the sub control modules. The controller area network (CAN) is responsible for the online system calibration, diagnosis, and the communication with these sub-modules and other control systems of the vehicle. In the parallel hybrid vehicle, the motor can draw electric energy from the battery to apply positive torque that accelerates the vehicle, and nd it can supply electric energy to the battery by applying negative torque that decelerates the vehicle. These two functions represent torque assist and regeneration, respectively. The parallel hybrid vehicle controller must determine how to distribute the drivers single torque request into separate torque requests for the engine, motor, and brakes. For negative torque requests, the sum of the motor and brake torques must equal the drivers request. For positive torque
Sensors Switchs

E-Pedal Calibration system Display

HCU ICE START Drivers 24 V Battery ICE Braking system DMCM

CAN BUS

Diagnostic system BCM ADM 312 V, dc NIMH

ISG

MT

Fig. 1

Diagram of the hybrid dynamic system

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requests, the sum of the engine and motor torques must equal the drivers request. During the braking process, ISG undertakes a total or a part of the braking torque and is responsible for charging the battery pack, meanwhile, the mechanical energy can be changed into chemical energy and therefore, the regenerative braking can be implemented. The main task of the NFC is to address the braking torque distribution between ISG and disc brake for realizing the ABS functionality. In addition, the torque obtained from the ICE is mechanically coupled to the torque produced by ISG. Therefore the overall braking torque of the hybrid electric bus is consisted of three parts: ISG torque, friction torque of disc brake and friction torque from engine. 1.2 Structure of braking system

wheel. Normally, the whole cycle of torque increasing, decreasing and keeping realizes the control of conventional ABS effectively. However, for the hybrid bus, when bus is at high or middle velocity, total or most of the braking torq torque is offered by ISG and the braking air pressure is quite low at that time. So the HCU must rectify the torque of ISG other than the disc brake to realize the ABS circle aforementioned. When bus is at low velocity, the anti-lock control could be achieved by rectifying the torque of disc brake by changing the air pressure of the pneumatic braking system.

Modeling and Control Strategies

The regulating valve is responsible for the distribution between the regenerative brake and mechanical brake for ABS control. While the proportional solenoid is used for the braking force control in the braking system to make the actual ratio of front braking force and the real braking force a fixed value which is called the distribution coef cient of braking force. The pneumatic device is adopted in the braking system for city bus, as shown in Fig. 2. For the convenience of controlling, the ABS function is integrated into the HCU in this paper. The HCU judges whether or not the wheels have the tendency of locking through their deceleration rates and slip ratios when braking. Then the ISG torque or disc brake torque is corrected by the values of ABS factor. The ABS factor is determined by two parameters: deceleration rate and slip ratio of wheel. In the braking operation, there usually exists some difference between bus velocity and wheel speed, and this difference is likely to cause the slip of the

The free body diagram of hybrid electric city bus can be viewed in Fig. 3. The numerical data are provided in Table 1. The variables for the torque analysis and the braking model are listed in Table 2. In the braking system, the proportional solenoid valve for the braking force control is equipped to make the actual ratio of F1 to F 2 into a fixed value of . Owing to the influence of ABS, the total braking torque will reach to the maximal value before the front wheels are about to be locked. The total braking torque can be expressed as: T TF (a- b)

b + j hg

maR.

(1)

G FZ1 F1 a L hg b

FZ2 F2

Fig. 3

Free body diagram of hybrid electric city bus

Regulating valve Driving line Proportional valve

Wheel speed sensor

Brake cylinder

Fig. 2

Diagram of braking system

CHEN Ziqiang, et al.: Intelligent Anti-lock Braking Control of Hybrid Buses Table 1
Parameter m hg L a b im P R g

43

Main parameters of city bus

Nomenclature Value 18 t 9.8 m/s2 1.150 m 5.900 m 3.535 m 2.365 m 0.560 m 5.5 0.82 50 kW 2 200 r/min

Mass of bus Gravity Height of bus centroid Wheel base Distance from front axle to centroid Distance from rear axle to centroid Wheel radius Final drive ratio Transmission ef ciency Power of ISG Maximal rotary speed

In the block of driver command interpreter, the driver commands including the travel of brake pedal and its variance ratio are collected as inputs to compute the total braking torque demanded by bus. The total braking torque of bus is consisted of three parts and the relationships among the total braking torque (T ), the ISG torque (TISG), the disc brake torque (TDisc_brake) and the friction torque of diesel engine (TEngine) are described as:

T TDisc_brake imit (TISG + Tengine) .

(2)

nmax.

The torque distribution and the ABS factor are both decided by the neuro-fuzzy controller. The output torques of ISG and disc brake are corrected through ABS factor by following equations:
-

Table 2
Variable

Variables for calculation

Nomenclature Bus velocity Rotary speed of engine Attachment coef cient Force from road surface to front wheel Force from road surface to rear wheel Front braking force Rear braking force Distribution coef cient of braking force Total braking torque of bus Braking torque of front wheel Braking torque of rear wheel Travel of brake pedal Variance ratio of brake pedal Transmission ratio of bus

TDisc_brake T imit (TISG + TEngine) , TISG TDisc_brake .

TISG TISG + g (TISG, ABS_factor) ,

-

(3)

j
FZ1 F1 FZ2 F2 T

TDisc_brake TDisc_brake + h (TDisc_brake, ABS_factor) , TISG T (TDisc_brake TEngine) /(imit ) . TISG TDisc_brake .

(4)

TR ds it

TF

The functions of g ( TISG, ABS_factor) and h ( TDisc_brake, ABS_factor) are both look-up maps. They determine the corrected values added to the nal outputs of controller (TISG and TDisc_brake ). 2.2 Neuro-fuzzy control strategy and network training

2.1 Model of braking system The block diagram of braking model is presented in Fig.4. It is consisted of three main computation blocks: the driver command interpreter, the neuro-fuzzy controller and the output torque computation.
Driver Command Interpreter

The regenerative braking of hybrid city bus has many in uencing factors and most of the relationships among them are non-linear. The fuzzy algorithm does well in solving this kind d of problem and is quite suitable for the braking torque distribution. The neuro-fuzzy controller adopted here is mainly based on fuzzy algorithm. The main improvement is that it realizes fuzzy algorithm

Driver Command

Total Braking Torque

Variance Ratio Brake Pedal Slip Ratio Bus Velocity NeuroFuzzy Controller

ISG Torque ABS Factor Output Torque Computation

Output Torque of ISG Output Torque of Disc brake

Fig. 4

Block diagram of braking model

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through neural networks. Conventional fuzzy controller set up rules by using fuzzy logic to imitate human thoughts. The fuzzy rules are a large gather of Ifthen sentences which occupies large amount of memory capacity and increases the computation burden. The neuro-fuzzy controller combining fuzzy algorithm and neural networks set up rules by using network s ability of self-study and intersperses the rules in network and produces results by high-speed concurrent calculation instead of complicated search and reasoning of rules when running. Fig. 5 shows a simplified structure of the neuro-fuzzy controller. Data of bus velocities, travel of brake pedal and slip ratio of wheel are collected for computing the outputs of the neuro-fuzzy controller. In the control strategies, the bus velocity, the travel of brake pedal and its variance ratio are synthesized as factors inf luencing the torque distribution. The ABS factor determined by the deceleration rate of wheel and its slip ratio is used to adjust the output values of torque distribution. The main conceptions of the strategies are presented as follows: 1) If SOC (State of charge) of battery pack were too high (SOC>0.9), the regenerative braking should be stopped to protect the battery from overcharging. 2) If the bus velocity were too low, regenerative braking should be stopped to ensure the braking security. 3) If the bus velocity were very high, the braking torque of ISG should be boosted to its high ef ciency zones and the battery pack is charged by ISG. 4) If the brake pedal varied very fast, the conditions can be judged as urgent brake or quick release of brake
Fuzzy rules

pedal. In the first condition, driving security is prior to regenerative braking and the regeneration should be temporarily ceased. In both conditions, ISG torque should be reduced to zero. 5) If the travel of brake pedal normally increased or decreased, ISG torque should be gradually boosted or reduced according to the brake pedal and kept in its high efciency zone, and the battery pack is charged by ISG. 6) The rotary speed of transmission shaft is calculated upon the bus velocity and the current gear. If the rotary speed were lower than 600r/min, ISG torque should be reduced to zero. 7) The ABS factor varies from 2 to 2. Its positive values mean increasing braking torque and the negative values mean decreasing braking toque. The value of zero means keeping braking torque invariable. 8) If bus velocity were higher than 40 km/h, the ABS factor should be given to rectify the negative torque of ISG. Otherwise, it should be given to rectify the friction torque of disc brake by changing oil pressure. These main concepts are written asIf-thensentences and taken as the fuzzy rules for computation. It needs no less than 300 fuzzy rules to realize the regenerative braking. The torque range of ISG is divided into five zones as the first fuzzy output. Zones of 14 are used for the regenerative braking. Zone 5 represents the zero output and the regenerative braking is stopped. The ABS factor is the second fuzzy output which transfers commands of increasing, keeping or decreasing braking torque of bus from HCU to ICM (when bus is at high or middle speed) or to pneumatic device (when bus is at low speed). There is only one exception: when urgent or abrupt brake occurs, ABS factor is the only fuzzy output given to the air pressure valve regardless the more or less of the speed level of bus. The NFC has four fuzzy inputs: bus velocity (u), slip ratio of wheel (), travel of brake pedal (S ) and its variance ratio (d s). All the fuzzy membership functions are represented in Fig. 6. The feed-forward back-propagation network is used in the paper. The input layer has 19 neurons ( X n , n 1~19), cor responding to the 19 f u zz y input subsets, and its output layer has 10 neurons (Tm , m 1~10), corresponding to the 10 fuzzy output subsets. Deter mination of the number of hidden units and learning rate is important for the BP neural network. Too few hidden units and too high a learning rate will

Hidden layer Input layer Input fuzzy subsets

Output layer

Output fuzzy subsets

Neural network

FLC

Fig.5

Structure of neuro-fuzzy controller

CHEN Ziqiang, et al.: Intelligent Anti-lock Braking Control of Hybrid Buses

very-low low middle high very-high very-low low middle high very-high

45

1 Factor

0.5

0.5

0 0

50 Range Input variable Bus-velocity fast very-fast

100

0 0

50 Range Input variable Bus-velocity small middle

100

veryslow middle 1 slow Factor

zero

laroe

0.5

0.5

0 0

50 100 Range Input variable Variance-ratio-of-Brake-pedal

0 0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Range Input variable Slip-ratio Fuzzy inputs

FLC(Mamdani) Defuzzification Fuzzy outputs 1 Factor 1

Fuzzy rules and BP networks

0.5

0.5

0 0

3 4 Range Output variable ISG-Trq

0 -2

-1

0 1 Range Output variable ABS-factor

Fig. 6

Fuzzy membership functions

result in poor learning performance. Too many hidden units and too low a learning rate will take unacceptable training time and the many derived weights cannot be reliably estimated from the available training data. As a trade-off about the learning performance and the training time, the number of hidden units is set as 39 (T l , l 1~39). The learning rate can be set to 0.2. The FLC used in this paper consists of the rule base, fuzzification, network training, fuzzy inference, and defuzzif ication. Minimum r ules and combination methods, and the center of gravity (COG) methods are used in the fuzzy inference and defuzzification, respectively. The training data were generated by simulating the fuzzy controller alone with the corresponding inputoutput signals. Matlab/simulink based on back propagation training algorithm was used to train the network. After extensive training, the fuzzy controller was replaced

by the neural network controller in the drive system simulation.

Simulation

The hybrid electric city bus is designed for city public traffic and its maximal speed is 80 km/h. The speed of 60 km/h is selected for the simulation and three representative braking situations are chosen from the driving cycle. Table 3 shows the related parameters of the driving cycle, where the peak deceleration rates selected are relatively small for simulating the some little congested traf c. A 45 Ah nickel metal hydride (NIMH) battery pack is selected as the energy storage system. The simulating results are shown as Fig. 7. Where, Fig. 7 a shows the general torque distribution results between ISG and disc brake of front wheel. The comparisons of battery SOC (see Fig. 7b) are resulting from two different controllers: the neuron-fuzzy controller and the fuzzy logic controller. In the situations of 1 and 3, the intentions

46 Table 3
Situation 1 2 3 Velocity / (km h )
-

J Automotive Safety and Energy Braking situations of china city cycle

to 0 20 0 t/s 23 15 18 Peak deceleration rate / (m s 2)
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2010, Vol. 1 No. 1

from 16.5 26.6 60.0

Max torque / (MNm) 2.258 1.623 10.939

0.32 0.23 1.55

of driver are to apply the brake gradually but not abruptly to stop the bus from some velocity. It can be seen from these results that each ISG torque is reduced to zero after offering negative torque for braking and subsequently the braking torque is offered by the friction torque of disc brake so as to ensure the braking safety, and meanwhile, the rotary speed of ISG is too low to charge the battery. Oppositely, the intention of driver of situation 2 is just to decelerate other than to stop the bus from some values of velocity. Therefore the results are different from the situations of 1 and 3. All the braking situations of china city cycle have relatively low initial velocity, so the intensity of braking represented by the deceleration rate is also low although the deceleration rate of 0.158 g in the situation of 3 is the most one in the five situations. In the situation of 3, the torque of disc brake reaches to over 10 kNm and therefore the wheels lockup would be likely to occur if the bus is being driven in the low attachment coef cient roads such as snow road ( j 0.15).
0 ISG torque / (N m) 0 Disc brake torque / (kN m) ISG torque / (N m) 0

Besides the purpose of delivering the functionality of A BS, the improvement of the perfor mance of r ege ne r at ive br a k i ng shou ld st i l l b e wor t hy of consideration for hybrid bus. This improvement is chiey represented by SOC of battery pack. In the premise of braking safety and good braking performance, the regenerative power recuperation is maximized by the proposed algorithm for improving fuel economy. The some few rule application errors (if have) for the braking model bring only slight influence on the performance of the braking regeneration. It can be seen from Fig. 7b that the changes of SOC approach to the values resulting from fuzzy logic algorithm.

Experiments and Discussions

4.1 Simulating experiments of anti-lock braking For the evaluation of the generality and effectiveness of the proposed BP neural network based NFC model, a validation procedure about the NFC based ABS of
0 Disc brake torque / (kN m) ISG torque / (N m) 0.5 1.0 1.5 -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 0 5 10 15 -10 20 -5 0 Disc brake torque / (kN m)

-20 -40 -60 -80 0 5 10

-100 1.0 -200

-300 0

10 15 t/s situation 1

20

2.0 25

15

t/s situation 2

t/s situation 3

(a) Braking torque distribution between ISG and disc brake of front wheel
0.52 0.510 0.508 SOC SOC 0.51 0.506 0.504 0.502 25 0.500 5 10 t/s situation 2 15 0.50 5 Fuzzy logic Neuro-fuzzy 0.52

SOC

0.51

0.50

Fuzzy logic Neuro-fuzzy 0 5 15 t/s situation 1 10 20

Fuzzy logic Neuro-fuzzy 10 t/s situation 3 15 20

(b) Comparisons of computation error and efficiency between neuro-fuzzy controller and fuzzy logic controller Fig. 7 Simulating experimental results

CHEN Ziqiang, et al.: Intelligent Anti-lock Braking Control of Hybrid Buses

47
1 key on speed elevation Elevation / m
3000 3

the hybrid electric city bus was formed to carry out a simulating test about the ABS of the hybrid bus on a surface transferable road with two attachment coef cients of 0.8 and 0.1 (see Fig. 8). Proceeding with situation 3 of braking of China city cycle, the bus was driving in high attachment coef cient of 0.8 at rst in the period of 0 to 12 s after braking, then the road surface was switching to the low attachment coefficient of 0.1 and lasted for 7 s, and nal the bus was stopped at the 19 s. The torque of disc brake decreased to about 6.5 kNm from 11.0 kNm for anti-lock braking in the period of 12 s
0 0

80 60 40 20 0 0

Speed / (km h-1)

0.5

1.5 t / (103 s)

2.5

-1

(a) Operating duty of the hybrid bus in a city driving cycle

0.75 0.70

SOC

-2 Torque (brake) / (kNm) -100 Torque (ISC) / (N m) -4 -200 -6 -8 -300 -10

0.65 0.60 0.55 0 1

t / (103 s)

(b) SOC sustainable control in a city drive cycle

200 100

I/A

-400 0

10 t/s

15

-12 20

-100 -200 0 1

Fig.8

Simulating experiments of anti-lock braking of front wheel of the hybrid bus on the road surfaces with different attachment coefficients

t / (103 s)

(c) Battery current in a city drive cycle Fig. 9 Experiments for regenerative braking

to 19 s. 4.2 Experiments of city driving cycle For the evaluation of the efficiency of the regenerative braking of the hybrid buses, a great lot of experiments for the regenerative braking have been done in a city driving cycle. It can be seen from Fig.9 that the frequency of the start and stop of the hybrid bus is very high and the frequent regenerative braking should be done so as to achieve a better fuel economy. The experimental results show that the performance of regenerative braking can be improved through the proposed NFC model in the paper.

performance and the braking regeneration can both be ensured to get to be optimized through the NFC for vehicle safety and fuel economy.

References
[1] Georg F M. A fuzzy logic controller for ABS braking system [J]. IEEE Trans Fuzzy Syst, 1995, 3(4): 381-388. [2] Nelson D E, Challoo R, McLauchlan R A, et al. Implementation of fuzzy logic for an anti-lock brake system [C]// Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE In Conf on Computational Cybernetics and Simulations, 1997, 4: 3680-3685. [3] Nakamura E, Soga M, Sakai A. Development of electronically controlled brake system for hybrid vehicle [R]. SAE Paper, 2002-010300. [4] Rattasiri W, Wickramarachchi N, Halgamuge S K. An optimized anti-lock braking system in the presence of multiple Int J Adaptive Control and Signal road surface types [J]. I Processing, 2007, 21(6): 477-498. [5] Asai K, Sugeno M, Terano T. Applied Fuzzy Systems [M]. New York: Academic Press 1994. [6] Kamiya M, Ikeda H, Shinohara S, Yoshida H. Torque control strategy for a parallel-hybrid vehicle using fuzzy logic [J]. IEEE Indu Appl Maga, 2000, 6: 33-38. [7] Schouten N J, Salman M A, Kheir N A. Fuzzy logic control for parallel hybrid vehicles [J]. IEEE Trans on Control Syst

Conclusions

A model of an intelligent anti-lock braking control of hybrid buses through a neuro-fuzzy controller is presented in the paper. By extensive training of the BP neural network to memorize the fuzzy rules and combining the fuzzy logic algorithm, the NFC is implemented for addressing the torque distribution between ISG and disc brake. The experimental results show that the distribution of braking torque for ABS by NFC is reasonable and effective. Therefore, the braking

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Tech, 2002, 10: 460-68. [8] Bathaee S M T, Gastaj A H, Emami S R, et al. A fuzzybased supervisory robust control for parallel hybrid electric vehicles [C]// Proc of the 2005 IEEE conference on vehicle power and propulsion, 2005: 694-700. [9] Schouten J, Salman A, Kheir A. Fuzzy logic control for parallel hybrid vehicles [J]. IEEE Trans on Control Syst Tech, 2002, 10(3): 460-68. [10] Kumar K S, Verghese L, Mahapatra K K. Fuzzy logic based integrated control of anti-lock brake system and collision avoidance system using CAN for electric vehicles [C]// Proc of the 2009 IEEE international conference on industrial technology, 2009: 1-5. [11] Jeen-Shing Wang, Lee C S G. Self-adaptive recurrent neuro-fuzzy control of an autonomous underwater vehicle [J]. IEEE Trans on Robotics and Auto, 2003, 19: 283-295.

[12] Amaral T G, Crisostomo M M. Pires V F. Helicopter motion control using adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference controller [C]// IEEE Conf of Indu Electronics Soc, 2002, 3: 2090-2095. [13] Kubota N, Nojima Y, Kojima F, Fukuda T. Multi-objective behavior coordinate for a mobile robot with fuzzy neural networks [C]// Proc of the IEEE-INNS-ENNS Int Joint Conf on Neural Networks, 2000, 6: 311-316. [14] Pepijn V, Tor J, Asgeir S, et al. Neural network augmented identification of underwater vehicle models [J]. Control Eng Practice, 2007, 15(6): 715-725. [15] Mohebbi M, Charkhgard M, Farrokhi M. Optimal neurofuzzy control of parallel hybrid electric vehicles [C]// Proc of the 2005 IEEE Conf on Vehicle Power and Propulsion, 2005, 252-256.