Guru Murthy

Bi-directional Power Converter for Flywheel Energy Storage Systems
A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of
Master of Science
in the Faculty of Engineering
By S R Gurumurthy
Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of Science Bangalore - 560 012 India Jan 2006
i To my mother and to the memory of my father
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Prof. V. Ramanarayanan and Shri. M. R. Srikanthan, Project Manager (M), RMP for accepting me as a student. I thank them for guiding me in the project and providing me all the facilities for experimental work. I express my heartfelt thanks to Prof. V. Ramanarayanan for giving me an insight into power electronics during my course work as well as for his continuous support and guidance throughout the project work. I am extremely grateful to Shri. T. K. Bera, Project Director, RMP, for his guidance and for giving me an opportunity to undertake the postgraduate studies at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. I also thank Shri. S.Sarkar, Project Manager (Process), RMP, and Shri. H. A. Balasubramanya for their continuous support throughout my project work. I thank Prof. V. T. Ranganathan and Prof. G. Naranyanan for their advice and suggestions. I thank Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mysore for all the support, facilities and opportunities provided to me. I owe my gratitude to IISc administration for providing excellent hostel and mess facilities during my stay in the Institute campus. I am grateful to Shri. D. M. Channe Gowda and his team in the Electrical Engineering Department oce for the smooth conduct of administrative activities.
I want to specially thank my colleagues in the power electronics laboratory Venugopal, Kaushik, Kannan, Lakshmi, Debmalya Banerjee, Amit, Mirzaei, Kamalesh, Chandrashekhar, Milind and Vishal for their help and support during the project work and technical documentation of the project. My technical discussions with them have helped me learn a lot, which I am sure, will be useful throughout my life. I specially thank Kaushik for his help and support during my course work. I owe a lot to him for his help during the dicult phase of my stay. I will always cherish his friendship. I cannot forget the helps rendered by Venugopal during experimentation and documentation ii
Acknowledgements work of the project. I am very much thankful to him.
iii
Discussions with Dr. R. Anbarasu, A. Nandakumar and J. Nataraj has helped me a lot in conceptualizing the ideas. I am ever indebted to them. I specially thank Satheesh kumar who was ever ready for helping me in fabrication, testing of hard ware and documentation of the work. This work would not have been possible without the help and cooperation of my wife Seetha and son Viveka. I am very much thankful to them. I would like to attribute all of my success, my achievements to my father and mother. My father remain an incessant source of inspiration and support all through my life. Finally I would like to thank the Almighty for all that I have got in my life and for creating the opportunities for me to pursue the work of my interest.
Abstract
In many power processing applications such as traction, elevators, cranes etc, it is commonplace to encounter loss of stored energy. The main reason is that, the power converters are not capable of returning the stored energy during transients. In applications where frequent transients are involved, this results in substantial loss of energy. Bi-directional converters in such applications can lead to higher operating eciency. In a typical traction application, stored energy while running can be restored during deceleration. This process saves the energy and improves the eciency. Such applications need a bi-directional interfacing converter. The bi-directional converter facilitates the energy ow, to and from the device. Basic requirements of this interface are, simple structure, ease of control and energy eciency. Such an application is the target of the development work reported in this thesis. The aim of this work is to develop a bi-directional power converter/controller to facilitate the energy storage to and from the storage device. The storage device employed in this application is a ywheel. The bi-directional power converter (BDC) drives the brushless DC (BLDC) machine coupled to the ywheel. The total system is a Flywheel Energy Storage (FES) system. The analysis, design, fabrication and evaluation of such a system is covered in this thesis. In the FES system considered, there is a ywheel, coupled to the rotor of an electrical machine. This machine uses the power from a dc bus to accelerate the ywheel (in charging mode) and keep it running. The same machine discharges the ywheel (in deceleration mode) to provide power back to the dc bus. The machine acts as a motor during charging and as a generator during discharging. To store the energy in the ywheel, it is run up to the rated speed of the motor (using input dc power). Under this condition, the ywheel stores the energy. When the input power fails, the ywheel continues to run due to its inertia, driving the generator. If an electrical load is connected across the generator terminals, it draws current iv
Abstract
and utilizes the energy stored in the ywheel. In this process, the ywheel discharges its energy and decelerates. The terminal voltage of the machine exponentially drops during deceleration. It is desired that power harvested from the ywheel during the deceleration is at constant voltage. The machine therefore, is interfaced to the dc bus through a bi-directional power converter. The bi-directional power converter serves two purposes. It accelerates the motor while charging and discharges the ywheel while decelerating. Further, the control in the converter can be exercised to obtain constant dc output voltage for a wider range of ywheel speed. The amount of power transferred to the load and its duration is a function of the running speed, overall eciency and the control strategies adopted. The primary aim of this thesis is to design and fabricate the bi-directional power converter/controller, identify its operating modes, study the eect of various system parameters on the performance; and evaluate the system. To start with, the overall system design is considered. The selection of prime mover and bidirectional power converter are discussed. Basic design of the BLDC machine is presented. The design is veried through Finite Element Method (FEM) of analysis and validated through experimental results. A six-switch voltage source inverter topology is selected as bi-directional power converter. Operating modes of the power converter are identied as controlled current acceleration (CCA) mode during charging and constant voltage deceleration (CVD) mode during discharging. Transfer function and steady state equations are derived for both CCA and CVD modes. Controller design for both the modes are proposed. Design considerations and selection of various circuit elements are explained. Sources of various losses in the system are discussed in detail. Method of apportioning the losses are given. The eect of various system parameters on its performance is explained. Design recommendations to move towards lower losses are given. The controller and Human Machine Interface (HMI) are implemented using a Motorola, Digital Signal Processor 56F805. All subsystems are fabricated, integrated and tested. Experimental results are presented. Energy transfer, to and from the ywheel is demonstrated.
Contents
Acknowledgements Abstract List of Tables List of Figures Nomenclature 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Two quadrant BLDC drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 BLDC machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1.1 1.2.1.2 1.2.1.3 1.2.1.4 1.2.2 1.2.2.1 1.2.2.2 1.2.3 1.3.1 1.3 Overall system Source of Loss and its reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machine Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii iv x xi xiv 1 1 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 7 7 8 9 10 11
Bi-directional Power Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principle of working of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Scope of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Organization of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Contents 2 Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Selection of the type of machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Basic design of the BLDC machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Construction 2.5.1 2.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Equation for the induced voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Induced voltage equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computation of phase and line voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii 13 13 13 14 15 17 18 20 20 22 22 23 25 27 27 27 30 30 31 31 34 34 35 36 36 36 37 38 38 38 38 40
2.6 Armature leakage inductance and coil resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Model of the machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 FE Method of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Bi-directional Converter 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Power converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Transfer function of BDC in CCA mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.4.1 3.4.2 Simplied Equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Small signal modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simplied equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Small signal modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Transfer function of BDC in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Switching between controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Selection of circuit elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3 3.7.4 3.8.1 3.8.2 Series Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC bus capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Switching frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Eects of system parameters on the performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source resistance of the machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weight of the ywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii 3.8.3
Contents
Diameter of the ywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41 41 42 44 45 45 45 48 48 48 49 49 51 51 52 52 54 55 55 55 55 57 58 59 60 63 64 64 65 66 68
3.9 Eect of Backup time on the system performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Simulation of the system in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Digital Implementation and Performace Evaluation of the System 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Pulse generation in CCA (motor) mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Pulse generation in CVD (generator) mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Software implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Human Machine Interface (HMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1.1 4.4.1.2 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.6.1 Keypad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timer interrupt service routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Main program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Controller hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Hardware implementation of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Apportioning of various losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1.1 4.6.1.2 4.6.1.3 4.6.1.4 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.6.6 4.6.7 4.6.8 No load test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retardation test with ywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Copper losses in the armature winding . . . . . . . . . . . . Switching and conduction losses in the converter . . . . . .
4.6 Testing and performance analysis of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Power backup time test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source resistance eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current dependent eddy current loss in the core . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of various loss components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harvestable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current waveforms at various speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents 5 Conclusions 5.1 The present work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Guidelines emerging from the work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Spin o technology from the present system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Applications of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Specications of IGBT and Capacitor A.1 IGBT Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B Specications of Digital Signal Processor DSP56F805 B.1 Digital Signal Processing Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2 Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3 Peripheral Circuits for DSP56F805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C Block Diagram of Controller D Specications of Hall eect position Sensor E Publication F Photographs of the test setup G Further improvements in the system G.1 Method used in apportioning various losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.2 Relation between the speed and the loss: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.3 Interpretation of the equation : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.4 Loss reduction techniques: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.5 conclusions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References
ix 69 70 71 71 71 72 72 72 73 73 74 74 76 77 78 79 83 83 83 85 88 89 90
List of Tables
2.1 Comparison of results at 10000 RPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Retardation test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Max voltage gain test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Comparison of various losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Test results at various load conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.1 Total loss at various mass as a function of rotor speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.2 Various losses with out ywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.3 Various losses in watts with a ywheel of 11 Kg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.4 Various losses in watts with a ywheel of 15 Kg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.5 Various losses in watts with a ywheel of 21 Kg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.6 Loss reduction techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.7 Comparison of various losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.8 Comparison of various systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 56 62 64 65 84 86 86 87 87 87 88 89
List of Figures
1.1 Block schematic of two quadrant BLDC drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Bi-directional Power Converter circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Current vs Time characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Voltage vs Time characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Typical ywheel energy storage system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Speed vs Time characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Voltage vs Time characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Cross sectional view of basic PM BLDC machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Cross sectional view of PM BLDC machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Placement of magnets in the interior of rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Magnetic eld produced in the air gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Aig gap ux density vs mechanical angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Stator winding connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Induced voltage as a function of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Magnetic equivalent circuit of the armature leakage inductance. . . . . . . . 2.10 Equivalent circuit of the machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 FEM generated air gap ux density plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 FEM generated induced voltage waveform plot at 10000 RPM . . . . . . . . 2.13 Induced voltage vs speed characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14 Measured induced voltage waveform of the machine at 10,000 RPM . . . . . 3.1 Circuit diagram of the bi-directional power converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Converter output voltage waveforms in CCA mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi 2 6 6 8 8 9 10 14 16 16 17 18 18 19 21 22 23 24 24 25 27 28
2.8 Lumped parameter equivalent circuit for the calculation of leakage inductance. 21
xii
List of Figures
3.3 Current path during dierent intervals of time in the CCA mode . . . . . . . 3.4 Equivalent circuit of converter in CCA mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Simplied equivalent circuit of converter in CCA mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Induced voltage waveforms of the machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Current path during dierent intervals of time in the CVD mode . . . . . . . 3.8 Equivalent circuit of converter in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Block diagram of the controller in CCA mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Block diagram of the controller in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 Schematic representation of various losses in the system . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12 Representation of voltage dependent and current dependent losses . . . . . . 3.13 Eect of source resistance on the converter performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.14 Energy eciency vs backup time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15 Energy harvested vs backup time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16 Plot of speed vs time in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17 Plot of output voltage vs time in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Placement of the position sensors and their output signals . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Flow chart of the position sensor interrupt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Sensorwise IGBT gate trigger logic diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Power and control schematic in CCA mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Power and control schematic in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Flow chart of the key pad interface routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Flow chart of the display routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Flow chart of the timer interrupt service routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Flow chart of the main program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 Block diagram of the test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11 Various losses and their sources in the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12 Iron losses in the machine in no load test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13 Speed vs time in the retardation test with ywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14 Losses in the machine with and with out ywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15 Equivalent circuit of boost converter for copper loss calculation . . . . . . . . 4.16 dc bus voltage control with Po = 818 watts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17 dc bus voltage control with Po = 450 watts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29 30 30 32 33 34 36 36 39 39 40 41 42 43 43 46 47 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 58 60 61
List of Figures 4.18 Voltage gain as a function of duty cycle with = 0.024 . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19 Source resistance as a function of duty cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.20 Overall eciency as a function of back up time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.21 Energy harvested as a function of back up time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.22 Armature current waveform in CCA mode at speed = 2200 RPM . . . . . . 4.23 Armature current waveform in CCA mode at speed = 9640 RPM) . . . . . . 4.24 Armature current waveform in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.1 Block Schematic of DSP Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.1 Bi-directional Power Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xiii 62 63 65 66 66 67 67 76 80 81 82 84 85
F.2 Brushless DC machine coupled to Flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.3 Test set up of Flywheel Energy Storage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.1 Various losses and their sources in the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.2 Losses in the machine with and with out ywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nomenclature
Symbols B C D Dmax Dm Dmin d eb Eb fs Hc Ia ia i a IaRM S I
: Denitions Rs : Ratio RL : Airgap ux density in Tesla : Filter capacitor connected across DC bus : Duty cycle of switching waveform : Steady state maximum duty cycle : Diameter of the machine : Steady state minimum duty cycle : Perturbation in duty cycle : Instantaneous back EMF induced in armature coils per phase in Volt : Peak value of back EMF induced in steady the state : Eciency : Switching frequency in Hz : Coercivity of the permanent magnet : Armature current in steady the state : Instantaneous armature current : Perturbation in armature current : RMS value of armature current : DC current reference : DC bus current in Ampere : DC bus current feedback : Peak value of armature current in Amp. : Rotational moment of inertia of the ywheel : Current feedback constant xiv
Idc If b ILmax J Ki
Nomenclature Kv La L Lch lg Lt N Pei Pe Ph a f Pm p Ra RL Rs R S Sr Tbu tf Tg Tl TP T tr Ts VB Vdc V dc V : Voltage feedback constant : Armature leakage inductance per phase : Active length of the machine : External series Inductance per phase : Length of air gap in meters : Total circuit Inductance (Lt = La + Ls ) : Number of conductors per slot : Rotor mechanical speed in rad/sec : Current dependent eddy current loss in the core in watts : Flux dependent eddy current loss in the core in watts : Hysteresis loss in the core in watts : Flux produced by armature current : Flux produced by eld poles : Mechanical losses in watts : Number of poles : Winding resistance in ohms : Load resistor connected across DC bus : Equivalent source resistance as seen by boost converter : Stator bore diameter : Number of slots per phase per pole : Rotor speed in RPM : Backup time in seconds : Fall time of the IGBT : Generated torque in the machine : Load torque : Pole transition time : Rise time of the IGBT : Period of switching waveform in sec : Instantaneous voltage applied across B-phase armature winding : DC bus voltage in Volts : Perturbation in DC bus Voltage : DC voltage reference
xv
xvi Vf b Vline Vph VR VY w BDC BLDC CCA CCM CVD FES PMSM : DC bus voltage feed back : RMS value of line voltage in Volt : RMS value of phase voltage in Volt
Nomenclature
: Instantaneous voltage applied across R-phase armature winding : Instantaneous voltage applied across Y-phase armature winding : Width of magnet in meters : Bi-directional Converter : Brushless DC : Controlled Current Acceleration : Continuous Current Mode : Constant Voltage Deceleration : Flywheel Energy Storage : Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine
Abbreviations
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
In many drives applications such as traction, elevators, cranes etc, it is commonplace to encounter loss of stored energy. The main reason is that, the power converters are not capable of returning the stored energy during transients. In application where frequent transients are involved, this results in substantial loss of energy. Bi-directional converters in such applications can lead to higher operating eciency. In a typical traction application, stored energy while running can be restored during deceleration. This process saves the energy and improves the eciency. Such applications need a bi-directional interfacing converter. The bidirectional converter facilitates the energy ow, to and from the device. Basic requirements of this bi-directional converter are, simple structure, ease of control and energy eciency. An attempt is made to develop one such interfacing converter. The topic addressed in this thesis is a bi-directional power converter driving a two quadrant brushless DC (BLDC) machine. Such a system is simple in structure; easy to control and well suited for several low cost applications such as electric traction, material handling equipments etc. The storage device employed in this application is a ywheel. The bi-directional power converter (BDC) drives the brushless DC (BLDC) machine coupled to the ywheel. The total system is a Flywheel Energy Storage (FES) system. This thesis covers the analysis, design, fabrication and evaluation of such a system applied to FES. Key features of the system are demonstrated and the contributions are outlined. 1
Chapter 1. Introduction
Controller
Ifb
BDC + vdc T Motor
(a)
Vfb
Controller
BDC + Vdc
T Generator
(b)
Figure 1.1: Block schematic of two quadrant BLDC drive
1.2. Two quadrant BLDC drive
1.2
Two quadrant BLDC drive
A typical two quadrant drive is shown g 1.1. The power ow direction in motor mode is shown in g 1.1(a). This mode of operation is identied as controlled current acceleration (CCA) mode. Once acceleration is complete, the motor will be running at constant speed drawing the loss power from the dc source. The power ow direction in generator mode is shown in g 1.1(b). This mode of operation is identied as constant voltage deceleration (CVD) mode. In this mode, the energy in the ywheel is transfered to the dc bus at constant voltage. This system can be divided into following subsystems. BLDC machine. Bi-directional power converter (BDC). Controller.
1.2.1
BLDC machine
In the FES system, the electrical machine accelerates the ywheel during charging and discharge the ywheel during deceleration. The following are the key features of the machine. Capability to be operated at speeds of the order of 10,000 RPM or above. Capability to be operated as a motor or a generator during charging or discharging of the ywheel, respectively. High eciency. 1.2.1.1 Source of Loss and its reduction
In an energy storage/retrieval application, the energy loss is a major concern. The losses in the machine are listed as, Iron losses in the armature magnetic material. Copper losses in the armature conductors. Friction and windage losses in the rotational system.
The iron loss is a function of property of the core material, its quantity, operating frequency and ux density. In general, two pole machines are preferred for the high speed motoring operation since the value of the operating frequency is lower. This in turn, results in lower iron loss. Iron loss in the machine is related to the specic magnetic loading in the air-gap (B) [5]. Copper loss in the machine is related to specic electric loading in the armature periphery (J A/m) [5]. Low electric and magnetic loading will make the losses low; the machine will however, be bigger. 1.2.1.2 Machine Type
It is preferred to have a commutator-less machine, as it eliminates frequent maintenance problems, reduce the EMI and increase the eciency. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines (PMSM) or Brushless DC (BLDC) machines can be used because they can be operated as generator or motor conveniently. PM machines use magnets to produce air-gap magnetic ux instead of eld coils. This conguration eliminates rotor copper loss as well as the need for maintenance of the eld exciting circuit. This has been made possible by the easy availability of high performance permanent magnets with high coercivity and residual magnetism, such as Samarium cobalt and Neodyum-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) magnets. It can be shown that a permanent magnet excitation circuit does not use any copper and saves 30 percent of the iron used in comparison with an electromagnetic excitation. 1.2.1.3 Construction
The permanent magnet machines consist of a three phase stator windings similar to that of induction machine and a rotor with permanent magnets. The machine characteristics depend on the magnets used and the way they are located in the rotor. The permanent magnets (PM) are either mounted on the surface or buried in the interior of the rotor. Accordingly they are called as Surface Mounted PM machines or Interior PM machines. PM machines can be broadly classied into two categories [6]. Sinusoidal waveform machines: These machines have a uniformly rotating stator eld as in induction machines. The stator winding is sinusoidally distributed or the magnets are shaped to get sinusoidal induced voltage waveforms. Hence sinusoidal stator currents are needed to produce ripple free torque.
1.2. Two quadrant BLDC drive
Trapezoidal waveform machines: These are known as brushless DC or electronically commutated DC machines. Induced voltage is trapezoidal in its shape. The concentrated windings on the stator are the reason for the trapezoidal-shaped back emf waveform. The armature current is switched in discrete steps. The control of such motors is very simple. Only six discrete rotor positions per electrical revolution are needed in a three-phase machine to synchronize the phase currents with phase back emfs for eective torque production. A set of hall eect sensors are mounted on the armature to provide rotor position information. This eliminates the need for high-resolution encoder or position sensor required for the PMSM [6]. The back emf waveforms are xed with respect to rotor position. Square wave phase currents are supplied such that they are synchronized with the back emf peak of the respective phase. The controller achieves this using the rotor position feedback information. The motor basically operates like a DC motor, with such a controller conguration, from a control point of view; hence the motor is designated as a brushless DC motor. There are several advantages of using PM for providing excitation in AC machines. Permanent magnets provide loss free excitation in a compact way without complications of connections to the external stationary electric circuits. These types of machines become very attractive option due to their high torque densities, high power density, excellent performance and with low rotor losses [6]. 1.2.1.4 Sizing
The machine has to deliver rated power only for a short time - during acceleration while charging and during break time while discharging. In the motoring mode the machine is required to provide only the losses under steady state. In other words, the machine is used for intermittent operation only. A low loss short time rated PM machine is the best choice.
1.2.2
1.2.2.1
Bi-directional Power Converter

Power Circuit
The bi-directional power converter is of the voltage source bridge topology. Such a converter can transfer power from a constant voltage dc source to an ac load, or from an ac source to a dc voltage bus. The power converter is made up of solid-state devices. This controls the ow of bulk power from source to motor terminals or from generator terminals to the
dc power bus. The schematic of the converter is shown in the g 1.2. In drive mode, the converter operates as a standard voltage source inverter with six switches. In the generating mode, the same converter operates as 3-phase boost converter pumping energy from each of the phases to the dc bus.
+dc bus T1 C T4 dc bus La ea La eb La ec T6 T2 T3 T5 Load
Figure 1.2: Bi-directional Power Converter circuit
Current Armature current
Load current
Time
Figure 1.3: Current vs Time characteristics
1.2. Two quadrant BLDC drive 1.2.2.2 Sizing
In drive mode (CCA), the power converter supplies the required power to the motor, to accelerate the ywheel and to keep it running. With the closed loop current controller, the current during the acceleration is controlled. In the generating (CVD) mode, bi-directional power converter supplies the rated power at constant voltage to the load connected across the dc bus. The characteristics of the bi-directional converter in CVD mode is shown in the g 1.3. It may be noticed that, the machine (armature) current increases (to deliver constant power) as the ywheel is slowing down. Accordingly the current rating of the converter is decided based on the output voltage and power requirement, at lowest operating speed of the ywheel.
1.2.3
Controller
The controller block is shown in the g 1.1. This is based on Digital Signal Processor. The controller senses the input commands and feedback signals. These signals are processed to generate the switching pulses for the power converter semiconductor switches. The motor is supplied with controlled current at the desired frequency through the bridge circuit. This ac current decides the accelerating torque of the motor. This is the operating mode during charging of the ywheel. This may be termed as the current (ac) controlled acceleration (CCA) mode. In the discharge duration, the same converter transfers the energy from the ywheel through the machine to the dc bus. In this mode, the machine voltage varies widely since the ywheel is decelerating and loosing the energy. However, the converter is capable of operating over a wide range of machine voltage, pumping power to dc bus at constant voltage. This mode is called the constant voltage (dc) deceleration (CVD) mode. The current versus time characteristics of the boost converter is shown in the g 1.3. The voltage versus time characteristics of the boost converter is shown in g 1.4. It may be seen from the gures 1.3 and 1.4, that with the boost converter it is possible to draw power at constant voltage right down to 50 percent of the speed. This corresponds to a harvest of 75 percent of the stored energy.
8
Voltage Output voltage Input Voltage
Energy harvesting time Time
Tbu
Figure 1.4: Voltage vs Time characteristics

In dc power Out
Vfb Controller Motorola make DSP 56F805 (E) Ifb Bidirectional Converter
(D) Flywheel Bearing (C) (B)
TwoQuadrant Rotor Position Signals drive motor
(A)
Figure 1.5: Typical ywheel energy storage system
1.3
Overall system
FES system has the following subsystems. Flywheel that stores the energy (A). Bearings that support the rotor and the ywheel (B). Two quadrant drive motor (C). Bi-directional power converter (D). DSP based electronic controller (E).
1.3. Overall system
1.3.1
Principle of working of the system
The ywheel is coupled to the rotor of the electrical machine. This machine is used to accelerate the ywheel (charging mode). The same machine discharges the ywheel (deceleration mode) to provide power to the dc bus. The machine acts as a motor during charging and as a generator during discharging. The machine is therefore driven by a bi-directional power converter as shown in the g 1.5. To store the energy in the ywheel it is run up to the rated speed of the motor. Under this condition, the ywheel stores the energy. When the input power fails, the ywheel continues to run due to its inertia driving the generator. If an electrical load is connected across the generator terminals, it draws current and utilizes this energy. In this process, the ywheel discharges its energy and decelerates. Speed-time and voltage-time characteristics are shown in the g 1.6 and g 1.7.
10000 8000 Speed in RPM 6000 4000 2000 0
20
40 60 Time in seconds
80
100
Figure 1.6: Speed vs Time characteristics
The amount of power transferred to the load and its duration is a function of the running speed, overall eciency and the control strategies adopted. From g 1.7 it is seen that the terminal voltage of the machine exponentially drops during deceleration. It is desired that power harvested from the ywheel during the deceleration is at constant voltage. The
10
300 Generator voltage in volts 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 Time in seconds 80
100
Figure 1.7: Voltage vs Time characteristics bi-directional power converter serves two purposes. It accelerate the motor while charging and discharges the ywheel during deceleration. Further, the control in the converter can be exercised to obtain constant dc output voltage for a wider range of ywheel speed. More about the control methodologies are explained later in the chapter 3.
1.4
Scope of the Thesis
This thesis covers the Analysis, Design, Fabrication and Evaluation of a two quadrant bldc drive. This system consists of a bidirectional converter/controller, a brushless dc machine and a ywheel. The scope of the work is partitioned as follows, Overall system design Basic design and performance analysis of the brushless dc machine. Dynamic modeling and development of control strategy for the power converter to operate as bldc drive in motoring mode (Current controlled acceleration) & as boost converter in generating (constant voltage deceleration) mode. Verication of the design through simulation
1.5. Organization of the thesis
11
Development of a suitable control platform (DSP) and the associated software to realize the control strategy. Development of suitable Human Machine Interface (HMI). Performance evaluation of the full system.
1.5
Organization of the thesis
The thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2: Chapter 2 covers the design and performance of the bldc machine. Basic design of a permanent magnet bldc machine under idealized condition is presented. The bldc machine constructed employs standard sizes of rotor/stator frame/stampings etc, that are readily available. The Finite Element Method of analysis is carried out to verify the basic design. The analysis results are validated through the speed vs emf characteristics of the machine running as a generator. Chapter 3: Chapter 3 presents the bi-directional power converter. The operating modes are identied. The circuit topologies of the converter and dening equations of the drive in acceleration and deceleration modes are presented. The control strategies under both modes of operation are also outlined. Design considerations like device rating, critical values of inductor and dc link capacitor, Switching frequency are high lighted. Eects of non-idealities in the machine parameters and other circuit components on the performance of the BDC are also discussed. Simulink modeling of the overall system in CVD mode is also presented in this chapter. Chapter 4: The central processing unit of the controller employed is a Digital Signal Processor (DSP). The hardware realization of the power converter and the DSP controller is presented in this chapter. The software issues covering ow charts, priority allocation and scheduling of events etc, are presented. Experimental results covering the charging and discharging mode of the FES system are presented to validate the design. Chapter 5: Chapter 5 gives contributions and the conclusions made from this work. Features of this system and important ndings of this thesis are presented. Design guidelines emerging from this work, the spin o technology from the present system and other applications of the system are presented.
12
Chapter 2 Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine

2.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the selection, basic design, construction, analysis and testing of the brushless dc machine. Equation for induced voltage in the machine is obtained analytically. Analytical computation of induced voltages are veried by the FEM analysis and validated through the experimental results.
2.2
Selection of the type of machine
The prime mover for the ywheel energy storage system is an electrical machine. The machine accelerates the ywheel to charge the same and discharge the ywheel during the deceleration.
Following are the key features of the machine. Capability to be operated at a speed of the order of 10,000 rpm. Capability to be operated as a generator or a motor during charging and discharging mode respectively. High eciency. No brushes. 13
14
Chapter 2. Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine
Leng
th
Armature conductors
Radius
Rotor
Permanent Magnets
Figure 2.1: Cross sectional view of basic PM BLDC machine Permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) or Brushless DC (BLDC) machine can be used for the above features. This is due their capability to be operated as a generator or a motor conveniently. BLDC machine is selected for this application on account of simplicity of control.
2.3
Basic design of the BLDC machine
With reference to g 2.1, basic design of the machine has been done by using idealized permanent magnet BLDC machine equations [1]. Design specications of the machine are as follows: dc bus voltage (Vdc ) = 300V. Out put power (Po ) = 1000W. Specic electric loading (J) = 12000A/m. Specic magnetic loading (B) = 0.2 T. Eciency ( ) = 0.75. Rotor speed (Sr ) = 10,000 RPM. It may be noted that the ux density taken is 0.2 T. The operating frequency will be 333 Hz at 10,000 RPM. To reduce the iron losses in the magnetic material of the machine, the air gap ux density is kept substantially low. Idealized design equation relating the machine
2.4. Construction output power to the mechanical dimensions is given by [1] [2], 2 BJDm 2 LSr Po = 60 Substituting the design parameters in the equation 2.1, we get, Dimensions: Dm 2 L = 338 e -6 m3 ; If L and Dm are same in magnitude, then the we have, L = 70 mm, Dm = 70 mm.
15
(2.1)
Nearest dimensions of the standard available frame is Dm = 86 mm and L = 75 mm. Coil current: 2 Po 3 = = 3.64A. Vdc
IaRM S No of slots and poles:
(2.2)
No of slots and poles are selected as 36 and 4 respectively. Turns per coil: Voltage per turn = total , Where TP T is the pole transition time. TP T 2BL e1 = Total no of turns = Dm (4Sr ) 4 = 1.35V. 60 (2.3)
Vdc = 222 Turns. e1 Turns per coil = Total no of turns / (2 * No of slots per phase/2) = 18.5 Turns.
A suitable magnet of dimensions 12 mm x 18 mm is selected for the permanent magnets.
With the above design data, the machine is fabricated. The design validation is done through back emf test as well as the FEM analysis of the magnetic circuit of the machine.
2.4
Construction
The winding distribution is uniform throughout the periphery of the stator as shown in the g 2.2. Permanent magnets are buried in the interior of the rotor as shown in the g 2.3.
16
L 35 36 1 2 R 3 B
( t) 29 28
Y 10 11
B 20 19 Y
Figure 2.2: Cross sectional view of PM BLDC machine These magnets are used for producing air-gap magnetic ux. The magnetic eld produced in the air gap is shown in the g 2.4. A set of hall sensors are mounted on the stator, facing the rotor magnets. These sensors are placed 120o (Electrical) apart to give the rotor position information. The machines with this type of construction are known as brushless dc or electronically commutated dc machines.
0o Magnets
270o
90o
Rotor shaft 180o
Figure 2.3: Placement of magnets in the interior of rotor
2.5. Equation for the induced voltage
17
Figure 2.4: Magnetic eld produced in the air gap
2.5
Equation for the induced voltage
The arrangement of the magnets in the rotor and their magnetization directions are shown in the g 2.4. The ux distribution in the air gap is rectangular in shape. This is shown in the g 2.5. Following assumptions are made in order to derive the expression for the induced voltage in terms of electrical, magnetic and mechanical quantities. No saturation in the active magnetic material circuit of the core. No eddy current and hysteresis losses. Air gap is uniform Magnets have innite resistivity. Permeability of the magnet is equal to that of air.
18
Flux density
90o B
180o
270o
Figure 2.5: Aig gap ux density vs mechanical angle

R Vline Y B
Vphase
Figure 2.6: Stator winding connection
2.5.1
Induced voltage equation
The ux linked by each coil as a function of mechanical angle is shown in the g 2.7(a). The induced voltage across a conductor moving in the magnetic eld is given by, e = BLv (2.4)
Where B is the ux density in Tesla, L is the length of the conductors in meters and v is the relative velocity of the conductor w.r.t the ux. Using this relation one can nd the total emf induced in one coil (there are N conductors in one coil). It is given by, eb = 2BLN R (2.5)
2.5. Equation for the induced voltage
19
Flux a (a) (b) e1 (c) e2 (d) e3 3V (e) V V 3V 0o 20o 40o m V 60o 80o 100o 120o 140o V 160o 180o m
m m
60o m
Figure 2.7: Induced voltage as a function of time The shape of the induced voltage is rectangular as shown in g 2.7(b). Induced voltages in the conductors in all other slots are also identical in their shapes and magnitudes. But they are shifted in phase depending on their position in the stator slot. As all the coils are in series, the total induced voltage across the coil is the algebraic sum of the induced voltage of each coil as shown in g 2.7(e). Peak of the line voltage is given by the equation 2.7.
Total induced emf per phase per pole is of trapezoidal wave shape. The peak value is given by, V = 6BLN R (2.6) p For a p pole machine, this value is multiplied by . The machine under consideration is 2 a four pole machine; the phase voltage is two times V. The line voltage as referred in the g 2.6, is given by equation 2.7. Vline = 2Eb = 24Bp LN R (2.7)
20
The plot of the induced voltage waveforms is given in the g 2.7.
2.5.2
Computation of phase and line voltages
Machine data: = 1047.2rad/s (Corresponding to a speed of 10,000 rpm) B = 0.18 T L = 0.075 m N = 19 R = 0.043 m Air gap length = 1.1 mm. Substituting the above data of the machine in the equations 2.7, we get, Vph = 138.6 V Vline = 277.2V The line to line induced voltage can also be expressed as a function of speed in RPM. This is done by substituting the actual dimensions in the above equation. If Sr is the motor speed, the equation 2.7 becomes, Vline = 2Eb = 0.0277Sr (2.8)
2.6
Armature leakage inductance and coil resistance
Following assumptions are made to nd an expression for leakage inductance. There are no slots in the stator and the air gap is uniform throughout the periphery. The ux produced by one armature coil is not linked by the other armature coil. The relative permeability of magnets used is equal to 1.0. Inductance of the coil is given by, La = N2 R (2.9)
Where N is the no of turns and the R is the reluctance of the magnetic path. The path of the ux produced by an armature conductor and the equivalent magnetic circuit is shown in g 2.8 and g 2.9 respectively. It may be noted that, the R is the series combination of
2.6. Armature leakage inductance and coil resistance
21
Armature coil Permanant Magnet Air gaps length lg w lg
Rotor core Stator core
Figure 2.8: Lumped parameter equivalent circuit for the calculation of leakage inductance.
a Rg1
NIa
Rm
Rg2
Figure 2.9: Magnetic equivalent circuit of the armature leakage inductance. Rg1 (reluctance of air gap1), Rm (reluctance of magnet) and Rg2 (reluctance of air gap2). Therefore, R = R g + Rm + Rg R= 4 (lg + w + lg ) Dm Lo (2.10) (2.11)
22
1.94mH (2.096mH)
0.776 (0.752 ) 2E b
V line _
Figure 2.10: Equivalent circuit of the machine Using this relation we get, La = 2
2 3N
Where lg (= 1.1 mm) is the air gap length and w (= 12 mm) is the width of the magnet. The winding resistance is obtained from the conductors cross section (ac = 0.519mm2 ), mean length of a turn (L = 0.30m), number of turns (T = 19) and resistivity ( = 0.0177m/mm 2 ) of the copper as given below: Ra = 2 The measured values are as follows: La = 1.048mH. Ra = 0.376. The equivalent circuit of the machine is shown in g 2.10. LT = 0.388. ac (2.13)
Dm Lo 4 = 0.97mH (2lg + w )
(2.12)
2.7
Model of the machine
The model of the machine is as shown in the g 2.10. The values shown inside the parenthesis are the measured values of inductance and resistance.
2.8
FE Method of Analysis
The machine is analyzed using the FEM software package Magnet. Mechanical model of the machine (shape and actual dimensions) and the properties of the materials used in the
2.9. Experimental results
23
construction of the machine are fed and the analysis is carried out. Following are the machine parameters given as input.
Figure 2.11: FEM generated air gap ux density plot
Stamping material : Rote alloy No of stator slots: 36 Core length : 75 mm Stator inside dia : 86 mm Turns per coil : 19 Hc in kA/m : 723 Radial air gap length : 1.1 mm Plots of ux density vs mechanical angle and induced voltage vs time are obtained and given in the g 2.11 and g 2.12.
2.9
Experimental results
A ywheel is coupled to the machine. Machine was run up to a speed of 10,000 rpm and dc voltage applied was 315 volts. Then the supply has been cut o and the machine was allowed to decelerate freely. The motor speed and the corresponding induced voltages are recorded. The induced voltage versus the generator speed is plotted as shown in the g 2.13. The induced voltage waveform recorded is shown in g 2.14.
24
Figure 2.12: FEM generated induced voltage waveform plot at 10000 RPM
400 350 Induced voltage in volts 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 2000 4000 6000 Speed in RMP 8000 10000
Figure 2.13: Induced voltage vs speed characteristics
The value of induced emf was computed using analytical and FE methods. The induced emf is measured by experimental method also. The results are shown in the table 2.1. Method Analytical Method FE Method Experimental Induced Voltage Wave shape 138.6 135 120 Trapezoidal Trapezoidal Trapezoidal Speed 10,000rpm 10,000 rpm 10,000 rpm
Table 2.1: Comparison of results at 10000 RPM
2.10. Conclusions
25
Figure 2.14: Measured induced voltage waveform of the machine at 10,000 RPM (Time: 1ms/div, Voltage: 50V/div)
2.10
Conclusions
In this chapter the idealized BLDC machine performance equations were given. An idealized basic design was carried out to get the key geometrical measures of the machine. The same was modied to take into account the standardized frame sizes available. The machine was fabricated and the design was validated through back emf measurement and the equivalent circuit measurement. This equivalent circuit is used in the next chapter to design the bi-directional power converter to drive the machine. A suitable digital controller for the converter also presented in the chapter-4.
26
Chapter 3 Bi-directional Converter

3.1 Introduction
The bi-directional power converter (BDC) facilitates running up the ywheel in the presence of power supply and recovering the stored energy from ywheel when power fails. This chapter covers the BDC. The operating modes are identied; control strategies are developed. The system design and the performance evaluation through simulation is presented in this chapter.
3.2
Power converter
Power converter circuit diagram and the output waveforms are shown in the g 3.1 and g 3.2 respectively.
+dc bus + V dc /2 + dc bus 2 6 4 5 Load La eb La eb La eb 3 1 VR Ra VY Ra VB Ra
V dc /2
Figure 3.1: Circuit diagram of the bi-directional power converter 27
28
Chapter 3. Bi-directional Converter
VR 00 600
V dc 2 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600 V dc 2 t
VY t
VB t
Figure 3.2: Converter output voltage waveforms in CCA mode
The voltage is applied across the windings by turning ON the appropriate combination of switches in the converter. Two switches will be ON at any time; each device conducts for a duration of 120o . Commutation will take place every 60o . One can divide the whole cycle into six intervals of 60o each. The equivalent circuit for the intervals 0 60o , 60o 120o , 180o 240o and 240o 300o are shown in the g 3.3. The path of the current is shown in bold line.
From the gure it can be seen that, the current from dc bus ows through two switches and two armature coils at any instant. The equivalent circuit is as shown in g 3.4.
The dynamic equations of the system can be written as, dia = Vdc u(t) 2ia Ra 2eb dt d J = Tg B Tl dt Where u(t) = 1 during +ve half cycle and u(t) = -1 during - ve half cycle. 2La (3.1) (3.2)
3.2. Power converter

Interval1 00 600 V dc/2 + + 2 6 4 5 Load La Ia eb La eb + La eb 3 1 +dc bus VR Ra VY Ra VB Ra
29
V dc/2
dc bus Interval2 600 120 0 +dc bus V dc/2 + + 2 6 4 5 Load La Ia eb La eb La e + b 3 1 VR Ra VY Ra VB Ra
V dc/2
dc bus Interval3 180 0 240 0 +dc bus + V dc/2 + 2 6 4 5 Load La Ia eb La eb La eb 3 1 VR Ra VY Ra VB Ra
V dc/2
dc bus Interval4 240 0 300 0 +dc bus + V dc/2 + V dc/2 2 dc bus 6 4 5 Load La Ia eb La eb La eb 3 1 VR Ra VY Ra VB Ra
Figure 3.3: Current path during dierent intervals of time in the CCA mode
30
+dc bus Vdc + 2 RL + Vdc 2 dc bus 4 6
Ia VR 1 3 Ra La eb VY Ra La e + b
Figure 3.4: Equivalent circuit of converter in CCA mode
3.3
3.3.1
Transfer function of BDC in CCA mode

Simplied Equivalent circuit
During the charging of the ywheel, the armature current of motor is controlled. The armature current of the motor can be controlled by adjusting the duty cycle of the applied voltage. Fig 3.4 can be re-written as shown in g 3.5
ON 2L a 2Ra
Vdc
OFF 2e b
Figure 3.5: Simplied equivalent circuit of converter in CCA mode
The dynamic equations are given by, (For period DTs ; Switch is ON) 2La dia = Vdc 2ia Ra 2eb dt (3.3)
3.4. Transfer function of BDC in CVD mode (For period (1 D )Ts ; Switch is OFF) 2La dia = (2ia Ra + 2eb ) dt
31
(3.4)
3.3.2
Small signal modeling
Averaged equation is given by, 2La dia = Vdc D 2ia Ra 2eb dt (3.5)
Assume that the current controller response time is much smaller compared to the mechanical time constant. Consider the perturbations ia = Ia + i a , d = D + d and eb = Eb (Mechanical time constant is high; Speed change takes place slowly). The small signal model is as follows, 2La di a 2i = Vdc d a Ra dt (3.6)
Current control transfer function of the system is, i Vdc a (s) = (s) 2(Ra + sLa ) d (3.7)
3.4
Transfer function of BDC in CVD mode
When the ywheel is decelerating, the machine works as a generator. The bottom switches of BDC are continuously gated with pulses with switching frequency fs ; top switches are kept OFF. The control objective is to keep the dc bus voltage constant. For this purpose, it is necessary to obtain the dc bus voltage control transfer function. Induced voltages of machine is as shown in g 3.6.
The current path in the converter during the positive half cycle of R-phase (30o 150o ) is shown in g 3.7.
From the g 3.7, it may be observed that,
32
+Eb VR
t E b VY t
B t
0o 30o
90o
150o
210o
270o
330o
Figure 3.6: Induced voltage waveforms of the machine
When active switch is ON, The generator terminals are short circuited through one active ON switch, one diode and two series inductors (2La ). The current path is shown in g 3.7. The machine current increases. Part of the energy in the ywheel is now transfered to the machine inductance.
When active switch is OFF The generator terminals are connected to the dc bus through two diodes and two inductors (armature leakage) in series. The current path is shown in g 3.7. The inductor current is now pumped into the dc bus and to the load. Eventually the inductor current drops down.
3.4. Transfer function of BDC in CVD mode

Interval 300 900 2C 5 Active switch "ON" Load 2C 2 dc bus +dc bus 2C 5 Active switch "OFF" Load 2C 2
0 0
33
+dc bus VR 3 1 Ra La Ia 6 4 eb VY Ra La VB Ra La
eb eb +
VR 3 1 Ra La Ia 6 4 eb
VY Ra La eb
VB Ra La e b +
dc bus +dc bus VR 5 3 1 Ra La Ia 2 dc bus +dc bus VR 5 3 1 Ra La Ia 2 dc bus 6 4 eb VY Ra La eb VB Ra La Ia eb 6 4 eb VY Ra La eb VB Ra La eb + Ia
Interval 90 150 2C Active switch "ON" Load 2C
2C Load 2C
Active switch "OFF"
Figure 3.7: Current path during dierent intervals of time in the CVD mode
34
Vdc OFF 2L a
2Ra
RL
ON
+ 2e b
Figure 3.8: Equivalent circuit of converter in CVD mode
3.4.1
Simplied equivalent circuit
During the deceleration of the ywheel, the power is transfered to the dc bus at constant voltage. This is achieved by adjusting the duty cycle of the active switches. The equivalent circuit is shown in g 3.8
The dynamic equations are given by, Period: DTs (Switch is ON) C 2La Period: (1 D )Ts (Switch is OFF) C 2La Vdc dVdc = ia dt RL (3.10) (3.11) dVdc Vdc = dt RL
(3.8) (3.9)
dia = 2eb 2ia Ra dt
dia = 2eb Vdc 2ia Ra dt
3.4.2
Small signal modeling

Vdc dVdc = ia (1 D ) dt RL
Averaged equations are given by, C 2La (3.12) (3.13)
dia = 2eb Vdc (1 D ) 2ia Ra dt
3.5. Controller
35
We may consider that the speed (and back emf) changes are slow on account of high me chanical time constant. With small perturbations ia = Ia + i a , d = D + d, eb = Eb and vdc = Vdc + V dc to the system, the perturbed equations are, dV V dc dc =i (1 D ) I d a a dt RL di a V = Vdc d 2La dc (1 D ) 2ia Ra dt Transfer function of the system becomes, 2sLa (1 ) V 2Eb RL (1 D )2 dc (s) = 2La C 2 2La (s) (1 D )2 d s+ s 1+ 2 RL (1 D ) (1 D )2 C (3.14) (3.15)
(3.16)
The transfer function of the system is of second order. Its corner frequency is dependent on the duty ratio also. At minimum (0.1) and maximum (0.75) duty ratios, these corner frequencies (n ) are at 97 rad/s and 350 rad/s. The system also has a right half plane zero with a corner frequency 2812 rad/s. The response time of the controller of 0.5 second (which is 2 percent of the power supply backup time) is considered. With a controller band width of around 10 rad/s (corresponding to a response time of 0.5 sec), dynamics due to the poles and zeros of the transfer function can be neglected. Then, it is possible to approximate the transfer function, simply as a gain. V 2Eb dc (s) = (1 D )2 d(s) (3.17)
3.5
Controller
A PI controller is employed for maintaining the current in the motoring (CCA) mode and voltage in the generating (CVD) mode. The block diagram of the controller in CCA mode and CVD mode is shown in the g 3.9 and g 3.10 respectively. The current controller will facilitate charging the ywheel while operating in CCA mode. The voltage controller enable the system to deliver power at constant voltage in CVD mode. The current control bandwidth (in CCA mode) of 100 rad/s with unity gain and the voltage control bandwidth (in CVD mode) of 10 rad/s with unity gain are achieved. Protection features like dc over voltage, dc over current, IGBT pulse inhibition in fault conditions are also provided.
36
I* + ^ I fb 1/KI Current PI ^ d
PWM
Vdc 2(R a+ sL a)
^ io
Figure 3.9: Block diagram of the controller in CCA mode

V* + ^ V fb Voltage PI PWM ^ d 2E b (1 D)2 ^ V dc
1/Kv
Figure 3.10: Block diagram of the controller in CVD mode
3.6
Switching between controllers
The software along with the power condition monitoring circuits, switch the controller from CCA mode to CVD mode or vice-versa depending on the input power supply condition. During normal operation the converter is operated as a brushless dc motor drive with current limit. When the supply fails the converter is operated in boost mode maintaining the dc bus voltage constant. Switching from CCA mode to CVD mode and vice-versa is done automatically, depending on the input power supply condition.
3.7
3.7.1
Selection of circuit elements

Series Inductor
Motoring (CCA) mode Consider that the armature current reaches the rated current within 10 percent of the conduction time. The circuit equation for establishing the current is given by, dia = Vdc dt
2L
(3.18)
3.7. Selection of circuit elements Substituting following data
37
f = 333Hz at 10,000 rpm; Ts = 3ms; Conduction time = 1.0ms. Ia = 3.3A Vdc = 300V We get, L < 4.55mH.
Generating (CVD) mode The condition for the CCM of the boost converter is given by [3], L> Substituting following data Ts = 300s Dmin = 0.1 RL = 240 Corresponding to minimum load of Po = 375 watts We get, L > 2.9mH. The machine armature inductance (La ) is 1.0mH/phase; inductance across the two terminals of the star connected machine is 2.0 mH. The desired external series inductance (considering both CCA and CVD mode of operation) is, 0.9mH Ls 2.55mH . An external inductance of 2.5mH/phase has been provided. RL Dmin Ts (1 Dmin )2 2 (3.19)
3.7.2
DC bus capacitor
The dc bus capacitor is selected based on the voltage ripple considerations [3]. C> Idc Dmax Ts V (3.20)
The capacitor ripple voltage component on account of ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance) is also to be kept within 1.0 percent of Vdc . The ESR of the capacitor, ESR V = 1 I (3.21)
Selected capacitor value, C = 1650F with an ESR of 0.1 (at 20o C , 100 Hz).
38
3.7.3
Switches
The current rating of the switches is selected based on the instantaneous maximum value. Maximum current through the switch (which is same as that of inductor) is given by the relation [3], ILmax = 2Eb Where, Lt = 2(La + Ls ) Substituting following data Ts = 300s Dmax = 0.7 2Eb = 180 volts (Lowest input voltage) RL = 180 corresponding to Po = 450 watts We get Imax = 11.0 Amps. Device selected is Semikron make, model: SK30 GD 123 (Data sheet given in Appendix-A) 1 Dmax Ts + 2 RL (1 Dmax ) Lt (3.22)
3.7.4
Switching frequency
Electrical time constant of the machine is La /Ra . With L = 7.096 mH and R = 2.35 , this value is 3.02 mSec. The switching period is required to be 10 times less ( 300sec). Switching frequency selected is 3.3 kHz (Ts = 300sec).
3.8
3.8.1
Eects of system parameters on the performance

Source resistance of the machine
Energy conversion process can be shown as given in the g 3.11. Losses in the machine can be represented as shown in the g 3.12. The resistance connected in parallel to the source represents the ux dependent losses. They are, hysterisis loss and ux dependent eddy current loss of the machine. The series component of the source resistance is a combination of the armature winding resistance and the current dependent eddy current loss component of the machine. The series resistance can be calculated as follows [4], Rs =

Pei Idc 1D
+ 2Ra 2
(3.23)
3.8. Eects of system parameters on the performance

Iron Losses Power Copper Losses Converter Losses
39
Flywheel
Available Energy = 1/2 J (max min)
2 2
Machine BDC
and
Energy available
at Load
= Vdc Idc Tbackup
Bearing friction& drag losses in Flywheel
Bearing friction& drag losses in Machine
Figure 3.11: Schematic representation of various losses in the system
Re2
2E b
Rh
Re1
BDC
R h Hysteris loss component Re1 Flux dependent eddy current loss component R e2 Current dependent eddy current loss and Copper loss component
Figure 3.12: Representation of voltage dependent and current dependent losses
40
5 Voltage gain = 2Eb / Vdc 4 3 2 1 0
Max voltage gain
0.2
0.4 0.6 Duty ratio
0.8
Figure 3.13: Eect of source resistance on the converter performance Vdc 2Eb
On account of resistance Rs , the voltage conversion ratio during discharging degraded. The voltage gain can be found out by the following relation [4]:

gets
Vdc =
Eb (1 D )
1 Rs RL 1+ (1 D )2
(3.24)
The eect of source resistance on the voltage gain is shown in the g 3.13 [4]. As Rs increases the maximum voltage gain reduces. Better voltage gain, higher eciency and increased backup time are achieved by keeping Rs as low as possible.
3.8.2
Weight of the ywheel
The inertia increases linearly with mass of the ywheel [7]. Stored energy will increase by the same amount. An increase in the mass of the ywheel however, increases the frictional loss also and is not desirable.
3.9. Eect of Backup time on the system performance
41
3.8.3
Diameter of the ywheel
The inertia increases with increasing the diameter of the ywheel in square law [7]. Therefore increasing the diameter keeping mass constant will result in increase in the backup time.
3.9
Eect of Backup time on the system performance

Overall eciency of the system can be calculated by the relation, = Po Tbackup Ploss Tbackup =1 2 2 2 2 0.5J (max min ) 0.5J (max min ) (3.25)
Eciency :
From the above relation it is evident that the overall eciency reduces as the back up time increases (for a given max and min ). The energy eciency as a function of backup time is given in the g 3.14. It may be noted that energy eciency is maximum at lowest backup time. The bearing friction and iron losses are depending on speed (voltage) and independent of load current. Armature copper loss depends on the load current. If more power (more current at constant voltage) is drawn in less time, the energy lost due to copper loss will increase; energy lost due to other losses mentioned above will remain same. The copper loss is much less in comparison with other losses. Overall energy lost reduces and the eciency increases. Therefore eciency is higher at high power and low back up time.
1 0.8 Efficiency 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
2.72A 1.80A 1.50A
1.12A
19
3841
53
100
Backup Time in seconds
Figure 3.14: Energy eciency vs backup time
42
Energy output : The energy output as a function of back up time is shown in g 3.15. Rs In the case of low backup time (higher power), the ratio increases. This is on RL account of increase in current dependent eddy current losses. This limits the maximum duty cycle (in other words maximum voltage gain) operation. Thereby, limiting the minimum speed down to which output voltage is maintained constant. This in turn, reduces the amount of energy that can be extracted from the spinning ywheel. In the case of high backup time (low output power), the energy lost due to iron and bearing friction losses increases. This case also reduces the amount of energy that is extracted. The energy extracted is maximum at particular backup time (in other words load). This is evident from the g 3.15. Maximum output energy can be extracted from a given stored energy in the ywheel, if the system is operated at optimum backup time.
25000 20000 Energy in Joules 15000 10000 5000 0
10
20
30 40 50 Time in seconds
60
70
80
Figure 3.15: Energy harvested vs backup time
3.10
Simulation of the system in CVD mode
This model is simulated in MATLAB/SIMULINK to obtain the dynamic performance of the overall system. Following system parameters are used to simulate the system, Moment of Inertia of the ywheel : 0.075 kgm2 Armature leakage inductance : 0.97mH / phase Frictional torque : 2 Nm Filter capacitance: 1650 F and Load resistance: 100 Voltage constant of the machine : 0.2 V/rad
3.10. Simulation of the system in CVD mode
43
The results obtained are shown in the g 3.16 and g 3.17. The ywheel is accelerated to a constant speed of 1046 rad/s. The input power is switched o when the time is 5 sec as shown in g 3.16. The ywheel starts decelerating towards zero speed as shown in g 3.16. The dc bus voltage is maintained constant at 300V by the BDC in boost mode (CVD) up
12000 10000
Generator speed in RPM
8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0
10
Time in seconds
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 3.16: Plot of speed vs time in CVD mode to the instant of 27 sec. Therefore, the total back up time is 22 seconds (27 - 5) as shown in g 3.17.
350 300
dc bus voltage in volt
250 200 150 100 50 0 0
10
Time in seconds
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 3.17: Plot of output voltage vs time in CVD mode
44
3.11
Conclusions
Speed (and the back emf) changes are slow on account of mechanical time constant. Accordingly we got a single pole transfer function in the acceleration (CCA) mode and simple gain in the decelerating (CVD) mode. PI controllers with a bandwidth of 100 rads/sec and 10 rads/sec are employed for the CCA mode and CVD mode respectively. The circuit inductor should be low enough to allow the rise of armature current to reach its rated current within 10 percent of conduction time in the accelerating (CCA) mode. This inductor should be high enough to maintain the constant current in decelerating (CVD) mode. Accordingly an external inductance is added to satisfy both the conditions. Low mass, higher diameter ywheel is preferred to higher mass low diameter ywheel. This gives better eciency of the system for a given energy storage. An increase in equivalent source resistance increases the losses and also put a limit on the voltage gain. This also reduces the amount of energy that is extracted. Current dependent eddy current loss contributes to this resistance. It has to be kept as minimum as possible. This can be done by the usage of thinner lamination for the machine. Overall energy eciency is an inverse function of backup time. Energy delivered has a maxima as function of power and time. This is identied and demonstrated. Actual implementation of the system and the performance results obtained are presented in the chapter-4.
Chapter 4 Digital Implementation and Performace Evaluation of the System

4.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the hardware implementation, Human Machine Interface and testing of the system. A power converter based on three phase full-bridge voltage source topology is used. A Motorola make, Digital Signal Processor (DSP) 56F805 is used for controlling the converter. Algorithm for the generation of switching pulses using the rotor position information is presented; ow chart of the software is given; results of various tests conducted are presented in this chapter.
4.2
Pulse generation in CCA (motor) mode
There are three hall eect sensors for sensing rotor position. Placement of these sensors is shown the g 4.1(a). It may be noted that the angular distance between any of the two adjacent sensors is 120o (electrical). Output signals of these sensors with reference to induced voltage is shown in the g 4.1(b). A detailed specications of these sensors is given in the Appendix-D. Output signals of these sensors are shaped in the signal conditioning board to make them compatible to the DSP port. These signals are connected to port-B of the DSP. Port-B is programmed in edge triggered interrupt mode. Highest priority is given to this interrupt. The program ow of this interrupt service routine (ISR) is shown in g 4.2. This interrupt service routine generates six train of pulses (corresponding to six IGBT switches) at the output of PWMA module as per the logic given in the g 4.3. Out of these six, three pulse trains (G1, G3 and G5) are used directly as the triggering signals to 45
46
Chapter 4. Digital Implementation and Performace Evaluation of the System

Ha R B Y
Hb R 1200
1200
Y (a) Induced Voltage ea eb ec Ha Hb Hc (b) 0

0
B
0
Hc
30 0
600
90
1200 150
180 210 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 e e e
Position Sensor Signals
e e e
Figure 4.1: Placement of the position sensors and their output signals the top side power switches (T1, T3 and T5 ; E = 0). Next three train of pulses (G2, G4 and G6) are ANDed with high frequency PWM pulses and used for driving bottom side power switches (T2, T4, T6). This is shown in the g 4.4. This high frequency PWM pulses are generated by the current controller. The current controller design is given in chapter-3. The dc bus current is taken as the feedback for the current controller. The output of the current controller is used to track the dc current feedback. The output of the current controller is compared with the high frequency (fs ) triangular carrier to generate the PWM at desired duty cycle pulse train. Note that, once the machine accelerates to full speed the current drawn by the machine will drop below the set value. The machine, then will be oating on the dc bus at full speed (approx. 10,000 rpm). Power circuit diagram and control schematic of the converter in CCA (motor) mode is given
4.2. Pulse generation in CCA (motor) mode
47
Position ISR Edge T4=ON T2=OFF T6=ON T4=OFF T2=ON T6=OFF Y Is it H a N Y Is it H b N Y Is it H c N Is it H a N Is itH b N Is it H c N Y T5=ON T3=OFF Return Y Y T1=ON T5=OFF T3=ON T1=OFF
Figure 4.2: Flow chart of the position sensor interrupt
Signal Ha Hc Hb Ha Hc Hb
ON T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
OFF T5 T6 T1 T2 T3 T4
Figure 4.3: Sensorwise IGBT gate trigger logic diagram
48

La
ea eb ec
G1
T1 G3
T3 G5
T5 La La
G4
T4 G6
T6 G2
T2
If Iref + _
Port B POS ISR
E = 0. Gate Drive CKT Gate Drive CKT DSP Core G1 G3 G5 G4 G6 G2
+15V
Position Signals
Figure 4.4: Power and control schematic in CCA mode in the g 4.4.
4.3
Pulse generation in CVD (generator) mode
Power circuit diagram and the control schematic of the converter in CVD (generator) mode is given in the g 4.5. The dc bus voltage is taken as the feedback for the voltage controller. The output of the voltage controller is used to track the dc bus voltage feedback. The voltage controller design is given in chapter-3. The output of the voltage controller is compared with the high frequency (fs ) triangular carrier to generate drive for bottom switches (T2, T4, T6) at desired duty cycle as shown in the g 4.5. The topside switches of the bridge are kept o permanently in this mode (E = 1).
4.4
4.4.1
Software implementation
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
HMI is a digital interface between the controller and the operator. It takes the input command and data through the keys, and passes it on to the controller. The processor uses these
4.4. Software implementation

ea eb ec
La La La G1
49
+ dc bus
T1 G3 T3 G5 T5
C
G4 T4 G6 T6 G2 T2
RL
dc bus E = 1. Vref _ + Gate Drive CKT Gate Drive CKT DSP Core G1 G3 G5 G4 G6 G2
Figure 4.5: Power and control schematic in CVD mode data to control the machine as desired by the operator. HMI also takes the messages and data from the controller and display on the LCD panel. This can be read by the operator to know various system parameters.
4.4.1.1
Keypad
This program is executed whenever KeyPadFlag is set. It checks whether one or more keys are pressed. If so, the processor checks whether it is a command or data and takes the appropriate action. The ow chart of the keypad interface program is shown in the g 4.6.
4.4.1.2
Display
This program is executed whenever the DisplayFlag is set. Display interface routine sends the messages to LCD display unit. This LCD diplay unit consists of 4 rows of 20 characters each. The message is serially transferred, character by character to the LCD unit. The ow chart of of this routine is shown in the g 4.7.
50
Key pad routine N
Return
Key Pressed Y Mode Start Parameter

Pointer = Pointer 1
Data
Data = Data 1
N Stop N Increament N Y Y
Switch ON input Enable the pulses Start soft start timer Switch OFF input Disable the pulses Out put the message
Data
Is MODE
Parameter
Mode N
Decreament N
Data = Data + 1 Pointer= Pointer + 1
Mode = ! Mode
Enter Y
Data = Temp Buffer
Figure 4.6: Flow chart of the key pad interface routine
4.4. Software implementation

Display routine Any message to be sent N Y All N characters are sent put the char in Y Tx buff
51
Return
Figure 4.7: Flow chart of the display routine
4.4.2
Timer interrupt service routine
Timer is programmed to interrupt the processor at regular intervals of time. The timer interrupt service routine sets ags like DisplayFlag, KeyPadFlag, SoftStartFlag etc at dierent intervals of time. The ow chart of the timer ISR is given in the g 4.8. These ags are used by dierent tasks to start the execution. This scheduling of various tasks is given in the ow chart of main program (next subsection).
4.4.3
Main program
This is the main program. This program monitors and controls dierent tasks of the total system. This program calls various functions like StartADC, ReadADC, PIController, ScanKeyPad, Display, ActOnAlarm etc at predetermined time intervals allowing them to carry out their tasks. Processor also takes appropriate actions during interrupts like rotor position sensor interrupt, timer interrupt etc. The ow chart of the main program is shown in the g 4.9.
52
Y
UpdateFlag =1
Timer ISR Is it 50ms N

TrafCharFlag = 1
Y
KeypadFlag = 1
Is it 100ms N
Is it 600us N Is it 10ms
ADC Flag = 1
DisplayFlag = 1
Return
Figure 4.8: Flow chart of the timer interrupt service routine
4.5
4.5.1
Hardware implementation of the system

Controller hardware
The entire control algorithm is realized on a digital controller platform. The main processor is a special purpose DSP controller (Motorola make, 56F805) with a set of peripherals tailored for motor drive applications. It is a 16-bit, xed point processor and is operated at an internal clock of 80MHz. A 12-bit, 8-channel (multiplexed) unipolar Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) enable sampling of analog signals. Besides, there are digital I/O ports for handling digital variables. Another on-chip module is two sets of carrier based PWM switching schemes. This processor also has a serial communication port for communicating with the user interface units. Programmable internal timers clock a set of counters, which can be routed to software interrupts. These can be used for start of sampling of analog signals, scanning the keys, refreshing the display etc. A signal processing card is also a part of the platform. This scales and conditions the input analog and digital signals to make it compatible to DSP ports. This also amplify the output signals to suit the interfacing circuitry external to the processor (DSP). All control functions and HMI interface are carried out using this processor.
4.5. Hardware implementation of the system
53
START Initialize the ports Refresh display to give start message Enable the Interrupts
Start key pressed Y
Switch ON input contactor, Start softstart timer Make PI output = 0, Enable pulses
Stop key pressed N Y Read ADC If ADC Flag
Switch OFF input contactor Disable pulses
Load the PI output to PWM value register
Mode Generator Call V PI
Motor Call I PI
Keypad flag N Display flag N
Receive key siganl &take action Refresh the display
Start ADC
Update flag N Alarm flag
Update the set value
Trip and send message to display
Figure 4.9: Flow chart of the main program
54

RCharge +dc bus
Power switching module
Raw AC Input
D1
D3
D5
G1
T1 G3
T3 G5
T5
C
Input power condition monitoring signal D4 D6 D2
RL
G4 T4 G6 T6 G2 T2
BLDC Machine
dc bus If Vf
Signal processing circuitry
HMI
E=0 Gate Drive CKT Gate Drive CKT G1 G3 G5 G4 G6 G2
+15v
Position Signal
PortB
ADC
DSP core
Figure 4.10: Block diagram of the test setup
4.5.2
Power converter
The power converter is built using the IGBT as the power device. Complete block diagram of the system is shown in the g 4.10. The system design is validated on an experimental setup. The rating of the converter are, Input voltage: 230volts, 50Hz, line-to-line. Output voltage: 300 V DC Output power: 1.0 kW. Switching frequency: 3.3kHz. Line to line inductance (including machine leakage): 7.096mH. DC bus capacitance: 1650 F , 400 V
PWMAPort
4.6. Testing and performance analysis of the system

Windage losses
55
Flywheel
Machine
BDC
Load
Bearing Friction losses
Hysterisis + Eddy Current + Copper losses
Conduction and Switching losses
Figure 4.11: Various losses and their sources in the system
4.6
4.6.1
Testing and performance analysis of the system

Apportioning of various losses
Between the ywheel (which stores the energy) and load (which consumes the energy) there are dierent devices like, bearing, electrical machine, bi-directional power converter as shown in the g G.1. A portion of the energy which is extracted from the ywheel is dissipated as loss in these devices. It is necessary to nd out these losses. Following tests are conducted to nd and separate out the various losses. 4.6.1.1 No load test
The ywheel is decoupled from the motor shaft. The motor is made to run at dierent speeds up to a speed of 10,000 RPM. Machine draws power only to meet the losses. The weight of the rotor is very small compared to that of ywheel. The mechanical losses in this condition is assumed to be negligible. All the power drawn is to meet the iron loss of the machine. Power consumed by the machine at various speeds ( Vdc Idc ) is recorded and plotted as shown in the g 4.12. This test enables us to nd the iron loss in the machine which is predominantly speed dependent. 4.6.1.2 Retardation test with ywheel
In order to evaluate the mechanical losses in the machine, the classical retardation test is done. The machine along with the ywheel is made to run up to a speed of 10,000 RPM. Power is cut o and the machine is allowed to decelerate. This data is given in the table 4.1.
56
300
Iron loss in watts
200
100
No load test (without flywheel)
2000
4000
6000 8000 Speed in RPM
10000
12000
Figure 4.12: Iron losses in the machine in no load test The same data is plotted as shown in the g 4.13. The stored energy in the ywheel is Time in secs Speed in RPM Table 4.1: Retardation test data consumed as the machine decelerates. The losses in this test condition include the bearing friction losses, drag and the iron losses in the machine. The power loss at each speed can be calculated by the following relationship, P ( ) = J d dt (4.1) 9670 8200 6700 5550 4600 3700 2900 2200 1600 1100 650 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
The power lost at various speeds is computed from the retardation test data. The same is plotted as a function of speed as shown in the g G.2. For the sake of comparison, the iron loss calculated from the no load test are also plotted in g G.2. The point on curve retardation test with ywheel gives the total loss and the point on curve No load test without ywheel gives only iron loss of the machine. The dierence between these two gives the mechanical losses (bearing friction, drag) at that speed.

10000 Rotor speed in RPM 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
57
50
100 150 200 Time in seconds
250
300
Figure 4.13: Speed vs time in the retardation test with ywheel 4.6.1.3 Copper losses in the armature winding
In CVD mode, the power converter works in boost mode. The converter input is connected to machine terminals. The machine is connected in star. Therefore, the converter sees two sets of armature windings and series chokes. The equivalent circuit of converter connected to the machine is shown in g 4.15. Copper losses in the winding can be calculated by,
2 Pcu = Ia Rs
(4.2)
Where Rs = 2(Ra + Rch ). In boost mode Ia and Idc are related by, Ia = Vdc and 2Eb are related by, Idc 1D (4.3)
Vdc 1 (4.4) = 2Eb 1D Earlier, in chapter-2 (equation 2.8), the back emf of the machine has been shown to be, 2Eb = 0.0277Sr Where Sr is the rotor speed in RPM. Combining equations 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 we get, Ia = Idc Vdc (0.0277Sr ) (4.6) (4.5)
58
Iron and mechanical loss in watts
500 400 300

Retardation test with
500 400 300

flywheel(No load) No load test without flywheel
200 100 0
200 100 0 12000
2000
4000 6000 8000 Speed in RPM
10000
Figure 4.14: Losses in the machine with and with out ywheel
Idc RL C Vdc 2E b 2(La+ Lch ) 2(Ra+ Rch ) Ia
Figure 4.15: Equivalent circuit of boost converter for copper loss calculation Therefore, the copper loss is given by, Pcu Idc Vdc =2 (0.0277Sr )
2
[(Ra + Rch )]
Iron loss in watts
(4.7)
These losses are presented later in table G.7. 4.6.1.4 Switching and conduction losses in the converter
Switching and conduction losses in the power converter are computed as follows: Switching losses: If ION is the on state current and VOF F is o state voltage of the switch, tr and fs are the rise time and the switching frequency respectively of the
4.6. Testing and performance analysis of the system switch, then the switching loss in a switch driving an inductive load is given by [3], Psw = 0.5ION VOF F tr fs
59
(4.8)
While BDC is operating in CVD mode, ION is Ia and VOF F is Vdc . Substituting for Ia from equation 4.6, we get for each switch, Psw = 0.5 Idc Vdc Idc Vdc Vdc tr fs + 0.5 Vdc tf fs (0.0277Sr ) (0.0277Sr ) (4.9)
Switching loss in the diodes is very small and neglected. Conduction loss: The current owing across the switch is Ia . Assuming the switch drop to be Vd , the conduction loss in the switch (Pc1 ) can be computed by, Pc1 = Ia Vd Substituting for Ia from equation 4.6, we get loss in each device. Pc1 = Idc Vdc Vd (0.0277Sr ) (4.11) (4.10)
There are three devices and each conducting for a duration of 120o in a cycle. The total loss of all devices is given by, Pc = 3 These losses are presented later in table G.7. 1 Idc Vdc Vd 3 (0.0277Sr ) (4.12)
4.6.2
Power backup time test
This test is conducted to nd out following parameters. Time duration for which the system supplies the power to the load (in the absence of input power) at desired (constant) voltage. The minimum speed (or induced voltage) up to which the system maintains the output dc bus voltage.
60
The input supply is switched o and the ywheel is allowed to decelerate. The time up to which the dc bus voltage is maintained constant is recorded. This test is conducted with a load current of 2.72A, at a dc bus voltage of 300V. The power delevered to the load is 818W. Fig 4.16 shows the plot of variations of output voltage with time. It may be noted that, even though the generator voltage reduces with time (as speed is reduced), the dc bus voltage is maintained constant for a duration of 19 sec. It is also observed that the minimum speed (or the voltage) up to which system maintains the output dc bus voltage is 6894 RPM. (corresponding induced voltage is 185 volts). It is to be noted that when the power drawn
400 300 200 100 0
185V
Voltage in volts
dc bus Voltage (Vdc)
Generator Voltage (2Eb)
Controlled operation 19 Sec
Uncontrolled operation
10
20
50
60
70
Figure 4.16: dc bus voltage control with Po = 818 watts is less, the duration of power delivery at constant voltage is longer. Fig 4.17 shows a similar result at a load of 450W. At this reduced power delivery, the break time is seen to be 41 sec.
4.6.3
Source resistance eect
The voltage gain of the system can be calculated by the following relationship [3].

Vdc 1 = Eb (1 D )
1 Rs RL 1+ (1 D )2
(4.13)

400 300 200
127V dc bus Voltage (Vdc)
61
Voltage in volts
Generator Voltage (2Eb) Uncontrolled operation 41 Sec
100 0
Controlled operation
10
20
50
60
70
Figure 4.17: dc bus voltage control with Po = 450 watts It may be noted that, Rs is the source resistance which is the series combination of armature winding resistance, Ra of the machine and the resistance of the series choke Rch . Ra , Rch and RL in the equivalent circuit is shown in the g 4.15. Voltage is applied between the input terminals of the star connected machine. The equivalent source resistance is (due to two windings coming in series), Rs = 2(Ra + Rch ) (4.14)
In the experimental setup, the values of Ra = 0.38, Rch = 0.8 and RL = 100. The Rs ratio = is 0.024. The plot of voltage gain as a function of duty ratio for the value of RL = 0.024 is shown in g 4.18. It can be seen from this plot that the voltage gain increases as the duty ratio is increased. After a certain value of duty cycle, it starts decreasing. Prefered operating duty ratio of the boost converter is from zero to M as shown in the g 4.18. The peak of this graph is the maximum voltage gain one can get from the boost converter for a given . This peak value is a function of . The , will limit the maximum operating duty cycle. It may be observed from g 4.18 that the maximum voltage gain that can be obtained from the setup (with = 0.024) is 3.23 and the corresponding Dmax = 0.85. This means that if dc bus voltage to be maintained is 300 volts, then the input voltage can go down to 93 volts (and corresponding speed is 3900 rpm). It may be observed from the Power backup time test described in the previous section that the minimum voltage down to which converter maintains the output dc bus voltage at 300V is only 185V. This means that the maximum
62
3.5 3 Voltage gain Vdc/2Eb 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Duty cycle 0.8 M 1
Figure 4.18: Voltage gain as a function of duty cycle with = 0.024
voltage gain obtained is only 1.6. This is in contradiction to the estimated maximum gain of 3.23. The experiment was carried out at several other load settings to rule out experimental error. The maximum voltage gain obtained at these loads are given in the table 4.2. It is
Output power in Watts 818 450 338
Minimum speed in RPM 6894 4691 4291
Max Voltage Estimated max gain 1.6 2.36 2.52 voltage gain 3.23 4.33 4.97
Table 4.2: Max voltage gain test data
observed that the voltage gain is more at lower armature currents and less at higher armature currents. It is clear that the equivalent series resistance seen by the circuit is more than the dc resistance measured. It is also seen that, this equivalent resistance is a function of armature current. To conrm this, a test was conducted to compute Rs at dierent duty cycles. In this test, the converter output voltage (dc bus voltage), input voltage (generator voltage) and
63
duty cycle are recorded. The source resistance Rs is computed from the following relation,

Vdc 1 = Eb (1 D )
1 Rs RL 1+ (1 D )2
(4.15)
The ratio of source resistance to load resistance as a function of duty cycle is plotted as shown in the g 4.19. It is clear from the g 4.19 that the source resistance is more at higher
Source Resistance / Load Resistance 0.25
RL = 100
0.2 0.15
RL = 180
0.1 0.05 0
Ratio = 0.024 Ratio = 0.013 RL = 180 RL = 100
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4 0.45 Duty ratio
0.5
0.55
0.6
Figure 4.19: Source resistance as a function of duty cycle armature current (low load resistance) and is less at lower armature current. This increase in Rs may be due to the loss that is taking place in the core, reecting as series resistance (since it is current dependent). It is proposed that, this is due to the the current dependent losses in the core. This may be on account of the the eddy current losses due to the leakage ux around the teeth of the core. This ux is produced by the current owing through the armature conductors. Therefore these losses are armature current dependent. This loss in the core is reected as a series resistance.
4.6.4
Current dependent eddy current loss in the core
Duty cycle and the output (dc bus) voltages are recorded at various induced voltages for a given load resistance. The source resistance Rs is calculated by using the equation 4.15. If
64
Rs is the equivalent source resistance as seen by the converter, Ra is the armature winding resistance and Rch is the resistance of the series choke, then the current dependent eddy current loss is given by,
2 Pei = Ia [Rs 2(Ra + Rch )]
(4.16)
Substituting for Ia from equation 4.6 we get, Idc Vdc Pei = (0.0277Sr ) This loss also presented later in table G.7.
2
[Rs 2(Ra + Rch )]
(4.17)
4.6.5
Comparison of various loss components
Various losses are computed/measured at an output power of 450 Watts. This is shown in the table G.7. It may be noted that the copper loss Pcopper shown is the total of loss caused by the armature dc resistance (Pcu ) and the current dependent eddy current loss (Pei ). It is Speed in RPM 9835 4691 Pmech in watts 233 66 Piron in watts 163 50 Pcopper in watts 48 (6.7 + 41.4) 115 (30 + 85) Table 4.3: Comparison of various losses evident from these tests that the highest contribution to the loss is from the bearing friction and drag (Mechanical losses). Second highest contribution is from the iron losses in the core of the machine. Next contribution is from the the copper losses of the machine. This copper loss is the sum of the current dependent eddy current loss in the core and the power loss in the dc resistance of copper wire used. The switching and conduction losses in the power converter are very low and negligible. 5.25 2 Pc in watts 2.5 Psw in watts 1
4.6.6
Eciency
The above exercises of apportioning the losses and quantifying the same will help us in understanding the operating eciency of the FES. The total energy that can be harvested
65
depends on the losses in the system. Tests are conducted with various loads (dierent backup time) and the energy eciency is calculated at each load. The results are plotted as shown in g 4.20. It is found that the energy eciency is an inverse function of time. The bearing friction and iron losses are dependent on the operating speed (voltage). Amount of energy lost will increase if backup time is increased and eciency decreases. This is explained in detail in the section 3.9 of chapter-3.
1 0.8 Efficiency 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
20
80
100
Figure 4.20: Overall eciency as a function of back up time
4.6.7
Harvestable Energy
The aim of this test is to nd out the amount of energy that can be harvested at dierent loads. Tests were conducted with various loads connected across the dc bus. The results are given in the table 4.4. It is evident from these tests that the energy harvested has a maxima Output power in Watts 818 450 338 Backup time in secs 19 41 53 Energy harvested in Joules 16359 18953 17937 0.78 0.62 0.56 Eciency
Table 4.4: Test results at various load conditions
66
25000 Harvestable Energy in Joules 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

Maximum energy harvested 38 Sec Energy loss = 9973J
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Time in seconds
Figure 4.21: Energy harvested as a function of back up time as a function of power and time. This is represented graphically as shown in g 4.21. In this set up it has occurred at 542 Watts, 38 sec. The reason for drop in harvested energy both in lower backup time and higher backup time is explained in the section 3.9 of chapter-3.
4.6.8
Current waveforms at various speeds
Sample current waveforms of the machine are recorded in CCA mode and CVD mode. They are shown in the g 4.22 to g 4.24. It may be observed that the current waveform shown
Figure 4.22: Armature current waveform in CCA mode at speed = 2200 RPM (CH1(Top): Time:1ms/div, Current:1A/div,CH2(Bottom): Time:1ms/div, Voltage:2V/div)
67
Figure 4.23: Armature current waveform in CCA mode at speed = 9640 RPM) (Time: 1ms/div, Current:1A/div)
Figure 4.24: Armature current waveform in CVD mode (Time: 2ms/div, Current: 1A/div)
68
in g 4.23 has positive slope as well as negative slope in the middle of the waveform. This is due to the advancement of the triggering pulses given to the switches.
4.7
Conclusions
Various losses in the machine are separated out. It has been found that the major contribution to the losses is from mechanical losses, iron loss and the copper losses. The total energy that can be harvested depends on the losses in the system. Current dependent eddy current loss contribute for increase of source resistance of the converter. This will put a constraint on the maximum voltage gain. This in turn, limit the total energy that can be extracted for a given top speed. Usage of low loss core material like Nickel-iron or cobalt-iron for the machine and ferrite for chokes will improve the overall eciency of the system. This will also help in reducing the source resistance of the converter. From the experiments it is found that the energy extracted has a maxima as a function of time. For a given system there is clearly a peak energy output, where the energy extracted will be maximum.
Chapter 5 Conclusions
In many power drive applications such as traction, elevators, cranes etc, it is commonplace to encounter loss of stored energy. The main reason is that, the power converters are not capable of returning the stored energy during transients. In application where frequent transients are involved, this results in substantial loss of energy. Bi-directional converters in such applications can lead to higher operating eciency. In a typical traction application, stored energy while running can be restored during deceleration. This process saves the energy and improves the eciency. Such applications need a bi-directional interfacing converter. The bi-directional converter facilitates the energy ow, to and from the device. The desired features of such a system are, Good energy eciency. Simple control. Reliability. Low cost. Small size. The aim of this work is to develop a bi-directional power converter/controller to facilitate the energy storage, to and from the storage device. The storage system employed in this application consists of a BLDC machine and a ywheel; together they serve as a ywheel energy storage system. The analysis, design, fabrication and evaluation of such a system has been covered in this thesis. The full system has been evaluated and design guidelines are obtained. 69
70
Chapter 5. Conclusions
5.1
The present work
Chapter 1 focused on the essential basic specications, guiding the selection of subsystems. These systems are, bi-directional power converter, controller, BLDC machine and the ywheel. The bi-directional power converter selected is of six - switch voltage source bridge topology. The BLDC machine is selected for this application is due to its high power density, low rotor losses and simplicity of control. The operating modes during charging and discharging of the ywheel are identied. The control platform selected is a DSP of Motorola make, 56F805. A ywheel of suitable dimensions and capable of storing the energy required to supply 1.0kW load for a duration of 20 sec has been selected. Chapter 2 is on the prime-mover required to drive the ywheel. Basic design of BLDC machine has been carried out. The design is veried using a FE method of analysis using Magnet software. The machine is fabricated using standard available frame of nearest dimensions. The machine is tested up to a speed of 10,000 rpm. Design of the machine is validated through the experimental results. Chapter 3 is on the bi-directional power converter and its control. A 6-switch IGBT bridge of voltage source topology is selected. The operating modes are identied as CCA and CVD modes. Equivalent circuit and the transfer function in both the modes are obtained. Suitable controllers for both the modes of operations are designed. The system is numerically simulated to check the performance. Chapter 4 presents the digital realization of the system. The controller and HMI are implemented using a digital signal processor of Motorola make, 56F805. Seamless changeover from CCA mode to CVD mode and vice versa in the controller is implemented. The power converter and controller are fabricated; bi-directional converter/controller is integrated with BLDC machine and the ywheel. The complete system is tested to evaluate the performance. The results are analyzed to obtain design guidelines for such systems. Features of the system are, Speed of operation is limited to 10,000 due to drag and safety issues. Control is simple Important ndings of this thesis are, Low eciency on account of high iron losses and bearing losses.
5.2. Guidelines emerging from the work
71
Current dependent eddy current loss contribute to the increase of source resistance of the converter. This puts a constraint on the operating maximum voltage gain. This in turn, limit the total energy that can be harvested for a given top speed.
5.2
Guidelines emerging from the work
In the present system, the source resistance is the result of the core losses in the machine. This is required to be reduced to improve the eciency. The current dependent losses has to be reduced for harvesting maximum energy stored in the ywheel. These are achieved by the usage of, Vacuum enclosure for rotating parts. Two pole machine. For two pole machine, the operating frequency is 167Hz. This, in turn, results in lower iron loss. Low specic loss core materials like, Ni-Iron, Co-Iron etc. Low loss, contact-less bearing like magnetic bearing. Study of these solutions have been done and low cost implementation is given in Appendix-G
5.3
Spin o technology from the present system
This system can be tailored to store and extract energy from super capacitor as the storage device. The same power circuit can be used as multi-phase chopper in the super capacitor energy storage application.
5.4
Applications of the system
The FES system which is developed, can be used as an UPS where short support time is required. This will be useful for the installations which are backed up with diesel generators. This bi-directional converter along with the BLDC machine can be directly used for hybrid vehicles and material handling equipments to improve their performance in terms of eciency, control and reduction of environmental pollution. With some modications in the control circuit and software, the same bi-directional converter can be used for energy storage applications using the ultra capacitors.
Appendix A Specications of IGBT and Capacitor

A.1
M ake M odel VCES VGES VCESat IC tdon tr tdof f tf
IGBT Module
: Semikron : Semitop; 6-devices pack : 1200 V : +/- 20 V : 3.1 V : 22A at 80o C / 33A at 25o C : 65ns : 100ns : 430ns : 35ns
Parameter : Value
P artN umber : SK 30 GD 123
A.2
V alue Surge ESR
Capacitor
: 3300 F : 440 V : 49 m at 20o C at 100Hz : 36 m at 20o C at 10kHz : 12.7 A at 85o C at 100Hz : 16.5 A at 85o C at 10kHz
Parameter : Value
Impedance IRipple
72
Appendix B Specications of Digital Signal Processor DSP56F805

B.1 Digital Signal Processing Core
16-bit DSP engine with dual Harvard architecture 40 Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) at 80 MHz core frequency Single-cycle 16-bit parallel Multiplier-Accumulator (MAC) Two 36-bit accumulators, including extension bits 16-bit bidirectional barrel shifter Hardware DO and REP loops Three internal address buses and one external address bus Four internal data buses and one external data bus Instruction set supports both DSP and controller functions Controller style addressing modes and instructions for compact code Ecient C compiler and local variable support Software subroutine and interrupt stack with depth limited only by memory JTAG/OnCE debug programming interface 73
74
Appendix B. Specications of Digital Signal Processor DSP56F805
B.2
Memory
data memory
Harvard architecture permits as many as three simultaneous accesses to program and
32K, 16 bit words of Program Flash 512, 16-bit words of Program RAM 2K, 16-bit words of Data RAM 4K, 16-bit words of Data Flash 2K, 16-bit words of BootFlash O-chip memory expansion capabilities programmable for 0, 4, 8, or 12 wait states 64K, 16 - bits of data memory 64K, 16 bits of program memory
B.3
Peripheral Circuits for DSP56F805

outputs, three Current Sense inputs, and four Fault inputs, fault tolerant design with dead-time insertion; supports both center and edge aligned modes
Two Pulse Width Modulator modules (PWMA and PWMB) each with six PWM
12-bit Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC) which support two simultaneous conversions with two 4-multiplexed inputs Two Quadrature Decoders Two General Purpose Quad Timers CAN 2.0 Module Two Serialm Communication Interfaces (SCI0 and SCI1) Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) 14 dedicated General Purpose I/O (GPIO) pins, 18 multiplexed GPIO pins
B.3. Peripheral Circuits for DSP56F805 Computer Operating Properly (COP) watchdog timer Two dedicated external interrupt pins External reset pin for hardware reset JTAG/On-Chip Emulation (OnCE) module for debugging
75
Software-programmable, Phase Lock Loop-based frequency synthesizer for the DSP core clock Fabricated in high-density CMOS with 5V tolerant, TTL-compatible digital inputs Uses a single 3.3V power supply On-chip regulators for digital and analog circuitry to lower cost and reduce noise Wait and Stop modes available
Appendix C Block Diagram of Controller

DSP56F805 RESET Logic MODE/IRQ Logic Program Memory 16KX16 Bit Data Memory 16KX16 Bit Memory Exp Connector JTAG Connector D Sub ParallelJTAG Interface 25Pin Low Freq Crystal XTAL JTAG/OnCE PWM#1 A/D PWM#2 3.3V,GND Primary UNI1 Secondary UNI3 Power Supply +3.3V,+5V RESET MODE SP1 SCI#0 4 Channel 10Bit D/A RS232 Interface D Sub 9Pin CAN Interface SCI#1 CAN TIMER GPIO Pheripheral Expantion Connector Debug LEDs PWM LEDs Over V Sense Over I Sense ZC Detector
Add,Data Control
Signal Processecing & Interface Circuitry
Figure C.1: Block Schematic of DSP Board
76
Appendix D Specications of Hall eect position Sensor

Make Part Number Type Supply Voltage Supply Current Output Type Output Voltage Output Current tr tf : Honeywell : SS413A : Bi-polar : 3.8 to 30 V : 10mA : Sink : 40 V : 20mA : 0.05 s typ : 0.15 s typ
77
Appendix E Publication
1. S.R. Gurumurthy, V. Ramanarayanan, M.R. Srikanthan Design and Evaluation of DSP controlled BLDC drive for Flywheel energy storage system presented in National Power Electronics Conference, NPEC 2005, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, Dec 22 - 24, 2005.
78
Appendix F Photographs of the test setup
79
80
Appendix F. Photographs of the test setup
Figure F.1: Bi-directional Power Converter
81
Figure F.2: Brushless DC machine coupled to Flywheel
82
Appendix F. Photographs of the test setup
Figure F.3: Test set up of Flywheel Energy Storage System
Appendix G Further improvements in the system

G.1 Method used in apportioning various losses
Various losses take place in the system are shown schematically in the g G.1. It is possible to compute the sources of losses and their contributions to the total loss. With this information one can adopt dierent techniques that can be adopted to reduce the losses. Following tests were conducted to nd out the sources of losses. No load test (without ywheel) Retardation test (with ywheel) No load test is conducted without ywheel and hence the mechanical losses are negligible. Therefore, with this no load test data the iron loss of the machine is computed. Retardation test with ywheels of dierent mass were carried out. The losses in the system are computed and tabulated using data obtained from retardation test are given in the table G.1. This gives the sum total of the mechanical losses along with the iron losses (electrical losses). These losses are plotted as a function of speed as shown in the g G.2.
G.2
Relation between the speed and the loss:
The relation between the loss as a function of speed is found out using curve tting. If PLoss is the total loss in the system and N is the operating speed in RPM of the machine, then the equation obtained are given as below: Without ywheel PLoss = 0.000001N 2 + 0.0045N 83 (G.1)
84
Windage losses
Appendix G. Further improvements in the system
Flywheel
Machine
BDC
Load
Bearing Friction losses
Hysterisis + Eddy Current + Copper losses
Conduction and Switching losses
Figure G.1: Various losses and their sources in the system Speed in RPM 1880 3595 5395 7200 8950 9892 Power loss (watts) without ywheel 13 35 60 96 138 165 Power loss (watts) with 11Kg ywheel 31 88 145 206 294 350 Power loss (watts) with 15Kg ywheel 46 110 195 320 441 Power loss (watts) with 21Kg ywheel 56 128 250 400 550 -
Table G.1: Total loss at various mass as a function of rotor speed With ywheel of 11 Kg PLoss = 0.000002N 2 + 0.0163N With ywheel of 15 Kg PLoss = 0.000003N 2 + 0.0191N With ywheel of 21 Kg PLoss = 0.000004N 2 + 0.0266N (G.4) (G.3) (G.2)
It is found that the right hand side of the equation contains two terms, one is proportional to the speed and the other is proportional to the square of speed. This is in expected lines. From the theory, it can be shown the term which is proportional to speed is corresponding
G.3. Interpretation of the equation :

600
21 Kg
85
600 500
11 Kg 15 Kg
Iron and mechanical loss in watts
500 400 300 200 100 0 0 2000

No load test without flywheel
400 300 200 100
4000 6000 8000 Speed in RPM
10000
0 12000
Figure G.2: Losses in the machine with and with out ywheel to loss due to the bearing friction and hysteresis in the core of the machine; the term which is proportional to the square of the speed is corresponding to loss due to the air drag and eddy current in the core of the machine.
G.3
Interpretation of the equation :
Without ywheel (no load test): When ywheel is not coupled to the rotor shaft, the loss due to the bearing friction as well as the drag can be neglected. This is on account of low mass and surface area of the rotor. Therefore, the loss computed from this test can be entirely due to the iron loss of the machine. With ywheel: When ywheel is coupled to the rotor shaft, loss computed is the sum total of all the losses in the machine. They are, bearing friction, drag, hysteresis and eddy current loss. Subtracting the square component of no load test from square component of loss obtained from this test gives the drag loss in the system. Similarly, subtracting the linear component of no load test from the linear component of loss obtained from this test gives the bearing friction loss of the machine.
Iron loss in watts
86 Speed in RPM 1880 3595 5395 7200 8950 9892 Eddy current loss in watts 8 16 24 32 40 45
Hysteresis loss in watts 4 13 29 52 80 98
Total loss in watts 12 29 53 84 120 143
Measured value 13 35 60 96 138 165
Calcn Err in percent 8 17 12 13 13 13
Table G.2: Various losses with out ywheel Speed in RPM 1880 3595 5395 7200 8950 9892 Eddy loss in watts 8 16 24 32 40 45 Hysteresis loss in watts 4 13 29 52 80 98 B/F loss in watts 23 43 64 85 106 116 Drag loss in watts 3 13 29 52 80 98 Total loss in watts 31 88 145 206 294 350 Measured value 38 85 146 221 306 352 Calcln Err in percent 20 3 1 7 4 2
Table G.3: Various losses in watts with a ywheel of 11 Kg The various losses are apportined in this way are tabulated as given in the tables G.2, G.3, G.4 and G.5. Important ndings of this study are, Bearing friction and hysteris losses increases linearly with the rotor speed. Drag and eddy current losses increases in square law with rotor speed. Loss due to drag and eddy current dominates at higher rotor speeds. At higher speeds the loss can reduced to the large extent if the drag and eddy current losses are reduced. This is due to the fact that the drag and eddy current losses dominates at higher rotor speeds. Loss reduction techniques are given in the form of table G.6.
G.3. Interpretation of the equation :
87
Speed in RPM 1880 3595 5395 7200 8950 9892
Eddy loss in watts 8 16 24 32 40 45
B/F loss in watts 28 53 79 106 131 144
Drag loss in watts 7 26 58 104 160 196
Total loss in watts 46 110 195 320 441
Measured value 46 110 195 320 441
Calcln Err in percent 0 0 0 0 0
Table G.4: Various losses in watts with a ywheel of 15 Kg
Speed in RPM 1880 3595 5395 7200 8950 9892
Eddy loss in watts 8 16 24 32 40 45
B/F loss in watts 42 80 120 160 198 218
Drag loss in watts 10 39 87 155 240 293
Total loss in watts 56 128 250 400 550
Measured value 56 128 250 400 550
Calcln Err in percent 0 0 0 0 0
Table G.5: Various losses in watts with a ywheel of 21 Kg
Drag loss Vacuum enclosure -
Eddy current loss Two pole machine Low loss core mat
Bearig friction loss Magnetic bearing -
Hysteresis loss Two pole machine Low loss machine
Table G.6: Loss reduction techniques
88
G.4
Loss reduction techniques:
Drag loss can be reduced by providing the vacuum enclosure for the rotaing parts of the system. Both eddy current and hysteresis loss can be reduced by the using a two pole machine (half the supply frequency) as well as by using low specic loss core material. Bearing friction loss can be reduced by using a active magnetic bearings. This is a complicated technology and the system becomes expensive. Using a two pole machine will be a cheaper option compared to costly low specic loss core material. Usage of two pole machine will reduce the ux dependent as well as armature current dependent eddy current loss to the extent of 75 percent (compared to 4 - pole machine). Vacuum enclosure will be a cheaper option compared to magnetic bearings. Keeping the rotating parts in a enclosure with vacuum of 0.1 mb, the loss due to drag will get reduce to the extent of 75 percent (compared to atmosphere). Therefore, implementing the system with vacuum enclosure and two pole machine will reduce the overall loss by 50 percent. Extra-polation of the results obtained Speed in RPM 9835 4691 Pd in watts 96 22 Pbf in watts 116 55 Ph in watts 44 21 Pe in watts 97 22 Pcu in watts 48 115 Pconv in watts 3.5 7.25 PT otal in watts 405 243
Table G.7: Comparison of various losses
from the experiments conducted will validate this point. From the results shown in the chapter-4 it is found that the energy havested is maximum at a backup time of 41 sec. Hence various losses are computed at a back up time of 41 seconds. The maximum and minimum speed considered are 9835 RPM and 4691 RPM. The experimental set up consists of the ywheel of J = 0.075Kgm2 running in air (atmospheric pressure) coupled to a 4-pole BLDC machine. Break up of various losses for the existing set up are given in the table G.7. If a 2-pole machine is used, then the ux dependent as well as armature current dependent 1 1 eddy current loss will become th and the hysteresis loss will become ( )half. The losses are 4 2 computed accordingly. If the rotating parts are kept in a vacuum enclosure (with a pressure 1 of 0.1mb) the drag losses becomes th. With the reduction in the system losses, the overall 4 eciency of the system will improve. Overall eciency of the system is computed using the
G.5. conclusions: Power loss at 9835 rpm 405 278 206 Power loss at 4691 rpm 243 151 134 Average power loss 325 215 170 Overall eciency 0.60 0.72 0.78 System conditions 4-pole machine Running in air 2-pole machine Running in air 2-pole machine Running in vacuum of 0.1mb Table G.8: Comparison of various systems relation, = Po Tbackup Ploss Tbackup =1 2 2 2 2 0.5J (max min ) 0.5J (max min )
89
(G.5)
Summary of these loss reduction and the eect on the overall eciency is given in the table G.8.
G.5
conclusions:
Low cost and easy solutions for improving the eciency of the system are vacuum enclosure for rotaitng parts and usage of two-pole machines. With these techniques the eciency will be as high as 80 percent.
References
[1] Brushless Permanent-magnet Motor Design - Duane C.Hanselman University of Maine, Orono, Maine; McGraw-Hill, Inc (1994). [2] Electrical Engineering Design Manual - S.Parker Smith and M.G.Say; Second Edition 1950; Chapman and Hall Ltd (1950). [3] Power Electronics Circuits - Issa Batarseh, University of Central Florida; John Wiley and Sons, Inc (2004). [4] Fundamentals of Power Electronics - Robert Errickson, Second Edition; Kluwer Acadamic Publishers. [5] Electric Drive suitable for Flywheel Energy Storage System - R.Anbarasu; Ph.D Thesis, IIT, Delhi (1987). [6] Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Design Fundamentals - Iqbal Husain; CRC Press (2003). [7] The key factors in the design and construction of advanced ywheel system and their application to improve telecommunication power back up - Roger E Horner, International Energy Systems, England, UK; (07803-3507-4/96, 1996 IEEE)
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Bi-directional Power Converter for Flywheel Energy Storage Systems

A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of

i To my mother and to the memory of my father

Acknowledgements work of the project. I am very much thankful to him.

Bi-directional Power Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principle of working of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4 Scope of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Organization of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

3.4 Transfer function of BDC in CVD mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Diameter of the ywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Timer interrupt service routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Main program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Controller hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6 Testing and performance analysis of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BDC + vdc T Motor

Figure 1.1: Block schematic of two quadrant BLDC drive

1.2. Two quadrant BLDC drive

Two quadrant BLDC drive

1.2. Two quadrant BLDC drive

Bi-directional Power Converter

Figure 1.2: Bi-directional Power Converter circuit

Current Armature current

Figure 1.3: Current vs Time characteristics

1.2. Two quadrant BLDC drive 1.2.2.2 Sizing

Energy harvesting time Time

Figure 1.4: Voltage vs Time characteristics

(D) Flywheel Bearing (C) (B)

TwoQuadrant Rotor Position Signals drive motor

Figure 1.5: Typical ywheel energy storage system

1.3. Overall system

Principle of working of the system

Figure 1.6: Speed vs Time characteristics

Scope of the Thesis

1.5. Organization of the thesis

Organization of the thesis

Chapter 2 Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine

Selection of the type of machine

Chapter 2. Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine

Basic design of the BLDC machine

IaRM S No of slots and poles:

A suitable magnet of dimensions 12 mm x 18 mm is selected for the permanent magnets.

Chapter 2. Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine

Rotor shaft 180o

Figure 2.3: Placement of magnets in the interior of rotor

2.5. Equation for the induced voltage

Figure 2.4: Magnetic eld produced in the air gap

Equation for the induced voltage

Chapter 2. Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine

Figure 2.5: Aig gap ux density vs mechanical angle

Figure 2.6: Stator winding connection

Induced voltage equation

2.5. Equation for the induced voltage

Chapter 2. Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine

The plot of the induced voltage waveforms is given in the g 2.7.

Computation of phase and line voltages

Armature leakage inductance and coil resistance

2.6. Armature leakage inductance and coil resistance

Armature coil Permanant Magnet Air gaps length lg w lg

Rotor core Stator core

Chapter 2. Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine

Model of the machine

2.9. Experimental results

Figure 2.11: FEM generated air gap ux density plot

Chapter 2. Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine

Figure 2.13: Induced voltage vs speed characteristics

Table 2.1: Comparison of results at 10000 RPM

Chapter 2. Selection, Design and Analysis of Brushless DC Machine