Mathematics for Physics 3: Dynamics and Dierential Equations

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20

Lecture 20: Central forces: orbit equation and eective potential

Eective radial potential for central forces

We have analysed conservative forces where F = V (r), and the focused on central forces where the potential depends only on the radial coordinate, V = V (r). In this case we found F (r ) = r Fr (r) = r dV (r)/dr . We have also shown that owing to the spherical symmetry of the potential, angular momentum is conserved. This = h is a constant of motion, and the motion is then described by a single equation for led us to conclude that r2 the radial component: Fr ( r ) h2 r 3 = . (329) r m In term of the potential this equation takes the form: r Multiplying this equation by mr we get: mr r r mh2 dV (r) + r = 0. r3 dr (331) h2 1 dV (r) = . 3 r m dr (330)

Each of the three terms can be written as a time derivative as follows: d m 2 mh2 r + + V ( r ) = 0. dt 2 2r2 or after substituting L = mh d L2 mr 2 + +V (r ) = 0. 2 dt 2 2 mr
T

(332)

(333)

The term in the square brackets is no else than the total mechanical energy E , where the term involving L is the was traded for an r dependent function using = L/(mr2 ). Indeed, as kinetic energy in the direction, where indicated by the brace in (333) the total kinetic energy is: m 2 m 2 m 2 m 2 m T = r = r + (r ) = r + 2 2 2 2 2 L mr 2 = m 2 L2 r + . 2 2mr2

. where we used (305) to substitute for r =r r + r The conclusion is that in any three-dimensional central potential, the total mechanical energy, which is conserved, takes the form: m 2 L2 E= r + + V (r ) . (334) 2 2mr2 Now we recognise that this is similar to the form of one-dimensional motion in some potential U (r ) = L2 + V (r ), 2mr2 E= m 2 r + U (r ) . 2
L2 2mr 2 ,

(335) which represents the eect of the

We therefore call U (r) the eective radial potential. The new piece angular motion, is called the centrifugal potential.

Newtonian gravity as an example: bounded and unbounded orbits

m As an example consider Newtonian gravity where the potential is V (r) = GM r . The eective potential is then:

U (r ) =

L2 GM m , 2 2mr r

E=

m 2 r + U (r ) . 2

(336)

The eective radial potential U (r) is plotted in gure 16 as a function of r. As expected at large r, where it is dominated by the gravitational term 1/r, it is attractive (increasing with r), while at small r, where it is dominated by the centrifugal potential +1/r2 , it is repulsive (decreasing with r). The eective potential in (336)

Mathematics for Physics 3: Dynamics and Dierential Equations

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Figure 16: Eective radial potential for Newtonian gravity plus a centrifugal potential. has a minimum at dU/dr = 0. This is the equilibrium point (where the eective force vanishes). It occurs at: requil. = L2 h2 = 2 GM m GM (337)

The geometrical interpretation of this result is clearly motion with xed r = equil. = a. This can be conrmed recalling eq. (316): (337) is precisely the condition we got in the previous lecture for a circular motion with radius a = requil. , given that the radial force is Fr (r) = GM m/r2 . Furthermore, the fact that dU/dr = 0 corresponds to a minimum of the potential (rather than a saddle point!) implies that small excess of energy above this point will result in oscillations around r = requil. . Indeed, in Newtonian gravity a circular orbit is stable, as can be veried using the general condition we derived in (321) with Fr (r) = GM m/r2 , namely: 1 dFr (a) 2 3 = < . (338) Fr (a) dr a a Let us continue to analyse the eective potential in (336). For any negative energy it has two turning points, corresponding to the two solutions of the equation: E U (r ) = 0 They are given by: rmax = GM m + (GM m)2 + 2EL2 /m 2E rmin = GM m (GM m)2 + 2EL2 /m 2E (340) (339)

This means that for any negative E , the motion is conned to the range rmin < r < rmax , and it is oscillatory in r. This implies that the motion is in bounded orbits. In the following lectures we will show that for the special case of V (r) 1/r these bounded orbits are in fact always closed; Moreover they are described by ellipses. It should be noted that for potentials other than V (r) 1/r (and V (r) r2 ) bounded orbits are not always closed, as we explain below. So far we examined the V (r) 1/r example considering negative total energy, where we observed that there are two turning points. In contrast, for positive energy there is just one (positive) solution to eq. (339), GM m + (GM m)2 + 2EL2 /m rmin = (341) 2E indicating that the motion is only bounded from below rmin < r, but not from above. This means that the orbit is unbounded. We have already seen an example of an unbounded orbit earlier on: the hyperbolic trajectory. Hyperbolic trajectories are characteristic of the V (r) 1/r potential.

General central potential: open and closed orbits

Let us turn now to the question whether the orbit is open or closed. As emphasised above, bounded orbits are not necessarily closed. The denition of a closed orbit is a bound orbit in which r reaches (some of its) minima and maxima points repeatedly at the same angular directions .

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Let us analyse this problem in an arbitrary central potential V (r) in which the motion is conned to the range rmin < r < rmax . Before proceeding it is useful to introduce some terminology. Any point along the orbit where the radial velocity r vanishes is called an apsis, the plural being apsides. The points rmin and rmax are clearly apsidal points, and are usually the only apsidal points in a given bounded orbit. Further to that, rmin is called periapsis and rmax is called the apoapsis. In order to analyse this problem it is useful to express energy conservation condition in terms of U (r ) = L2 + V (r ). 2mr2

Furthermore, it is useful to use angular momentum conservation to rewrite r in terms of r () and r as follows: = hr ()/r2 . r = r ( ) The energy conservation condition derived above then yields: E= m 2 mh2 r + U (r ) = 2 2 r ( ) r2 2 + U (r ) . (342)

This equation can be used to solve for r(). Even if the full solution for the orbit is dicult to obtain, this equation can be used to compute the apsidal angle, dened as the angular span between the apsidal points, corresponding to the minimal and maximal values of r (the equivalent of the two turning points in the eective one dimensional model). As we shall see the apsidal angle is all that one needs in order to determine whether the orbit is open or closed. To this end one extracts the derivative from dr() 2 2 =r E U ( r ) . (343) d mh2 This is a separable rst order equation for r(), which we can integrate between two the two apsidal points: rmax m dr = h . 2 rmin r2 E U (r)

(344)

Upon substituting the eecting potential and integrating, this equation yields the apsidal angle, namely the angular span between the direction where a minimum r and a maximum r is obtained. If happens to be a rational number times then the orbit is closed: namely the radial motion and the angular motion would have a common period. An example if provided by the V (r) 1/r potential, where the apsidal angle is . If is not a rational number times the orbit may be bounded but it is not closed. This is indeed what happens in central potentials that are neither V (r) 1/r nor V (r) r2 .