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Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 772 1259; fax: +30 210 772 3475.
E-mail addresses: dx1961@central.ntua.gr (D.T. Hountalas), r.papagiannakis@gmail.com (R.G. Papagiannakis).
Applied Energy 113 (2014) 10271042
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Applied Energy
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ apener gy
1. Introduction
The diesel engine remains the most efcient liquid fuel burning
unit yet devised and therefore it holds a dominant position in
many applications, i.e. marine propulsion, land transport both
road and rail, power generation etc. [13]. Thus the proper and ef-
cient operation of a diesel engine is a major objective, especially for
marine and stationary applications (i.e. power generation etc.)
[46]. For this reason, condition monitoring and fault diagnosis
techniques hold an important position in the eld especially for
the large-scale two-stroke diesel units due to their high power
output and fuel consumption [46]. The diagnosis procedure (i.e.
detection of the actual cause of a fault, engine mistuning etc.) is
usually very complicated, since engine performance is affected
from a large number of parameters, which are usually very difcult
to measure or estimate. Therefore the actual cause of a malfunction
cannot easily be determined using conventional methodologies. Up
to now, various diagnostic methods and techniques have been
proposed from researchers and manufacturers [710]. Most are
based on the processing of measurement data which are obtained
during engine operation [1113]. A number of these techniques
make use of the measured cylinder pressure trace to estimate
critical engine parameters such as brake power, fuel consumption,
ignition angle etc. [1416]. But for the acquired data to be reliable,
the measurement conditions must meet certain requirements
[7,1719]. One of these which, is the subject of the present work,
is engine load which should remain constant during cylinder
pressure measurement [2022]. According to the conventional
cylinder pressure measurement methodology, one pressure sensor
is used and cylinders are measured consequently one after the
other. The reason is that the simultaneous measurement requires
a great number of sensors, connections, sampling lines etc. that it
is not practical for eld applications and moreover that this results
to high cost. Thus, if load variation occurs during cylinder pressure
measurement and is not accounted for, inaccurate results may be
derived for cylinder condition [2022] and specically for cylinder
tuning if these are directly utilized to adjust per example the fuel
ow (rack position) of individual cylinders. This will most possibly
result to engine mistuning with negative impact on engine perfor-
mance. Therefore it is important to precisely record load variation
during measurement.
As already mentioned one methodology to avoid the effect of
load variation during measurement is the simultaneous pressure
measurement of all cylinders, but for practical eld applications,
it has various drawbacks. For this reason in the present work are
examined and evaluated three methodologies to detect record
and account for load variation during cylinder pressure measure-
ment. The rst is based on the conventional cylinder pressure mea-
surement technique (i.e. cylinders are measured consequently one
after the other) and the simultaneous estimation of the charge
pressure corresponding to compression initiation, which is obvi-
ously affected by uctuation of load. The second methodology is
based on the direct recording of the scavenging air pressure using
a fast response sensor with adequate accuracy, because the
Nomenclature
A area (m
2
)
CF correction factor ()
CQ cylinder compression quality (%)
CR compression ratio ()
c
r
radiation constant (W/m
2
K
4
)
D cylinder bore (m)
f number of cycles per second
h
c
heat transfer coefcient (W/m
2
K)
i cylinder number ()
l length (m)
L percentage of full engine load (%)
m mass (kg)
_ m mass ow rate (kg/s)
P pressure (N/m
2
)
P
e
cylinder brake power output (W)
P
ind
cylinder indicated power output (W)
Q heat (J)
t time (s)
T temperature (K)
V volume (m
3
)
X cylinders parameter ()
Y cylinder performance parameter ()
z number of cylinders
Greek letters
b matrix
b
o
matrix
D deviation (%)
d
r
equivalent cylinder ring clearance (m)
g efciency
h crank angle (deg)
k thermal conductivity (W/m/K)
Subscripts
bl blow-by
calc calculated
compr compression
cumul cumulative
curr current
eff effective
exp experimental
G electric generator
gros gross
g gas
hl heat loss
m mean
max maximum
meas measured
net net
ref reference
scav scavenge
w wall
Dimensionless group
Pr Prandtl number ()
Re Reynolds number ()
Abbreviations
CA crank angle
deg degrees
LHV lower heating value (kJ/kg)
rpm rotations per minute
SOI start of injection (deg CA)
TDC top dead center (abbreviations)
1028 D.T. Hountalas et al. / Applied Energy 113 (2014) 10271042
scavenging air pressure is obviously affected by load variation. The
last methodology, which is the most sophisticated one, is based on
the use of two cylinder pressure sensors, one of which is mounted
periodically on each cylinder as usual and the second is perma-
nently mounted on one cylinder (usually no. 1), called from here
on as the reference cylinder. According this methodology, the
comparison of all measured cylinder pressure traces to the refer-
ence provides the potential to detect load variation directly from
the reference cylinder power output.
Beyond load variation detection the purpose of these methodol-
ogies is to generate, if possible, results equivalent to the ones that
would have been derived if all cylinders were measured simulta-
neously. Measured cylinder pressure data are processed using an
existing diagnostic technique which has been applied up to now
on a great number of diesel engines the ability of which to estimate
engine operating condition and tuning has been veried by ex-
tended lab and eld tests [2326]. To evaluate the aforementioned
methodologies on the eld a detailed experimental investigation
has been conducted on a large-scale two-stroke diesel engine used
for power generation on a Greek island. The use of a stationary en-
gine for the present work is more favorable compared to marine
due to the controlled environment and the constant rotational
speed which guarantees variation of engine load alone. Another
advantage is the direct recording of engine power from the mea-
sured electric power, utilizing of the known generator efciency.
Cylinder pressure measurements have been obtained from the en-
gine together with various periphery engine parameters at two dif-
ferent engine operating points, corresponding to 50% and 100% of
full engine load at 143 rpm engine speed respectively (constant
due to the nature of the engine i.e. electric power generation).
The diagnostic procedure [2730] is applied at both load points
to derive cylinder power, cylinder fuel consumption, cylinder com-
pression quality etc., using the following methods:
(a) Sequential cylinder pressure measurement (conventional
methodology).
(b) Sequential cylinder pressure measurement and estimation
of charge pressure at compression initiation which for a 2-
stroke engine corresponds to the exhaust valve closure event
(rst methodology).
(c) Sequential cylinder pressure measurement and in parallel
precise measurement of scavenging air pressure using an
appropriate pressure sensor (i.e. second methodology).
(d) Use of two cylinder pressure sensors, one sensor mounted
periodically on each cylinder and a second permanently
installed on cylinder No.1, which is the reference cylinder
(i.e. third methodology).
The evaluation of all methodologies is based on the comparative
evaluation of the diagnosis results estimated at each operating
point examined. From the comparison it is revealed that the meth-
odology based on the use of two cylinder pressure sensors (i.e.
methodology [d]) is advantageous because it detects accurately
load variation during the measurement since it is always measured
in parallel the cylinder pressure of the same cylinder (reference).
From the analysis it is rst shown that with the use of the con-
ventional methodology (i.e. methodology [a]) improper conclu-
sions can be derived for cylinder loading or compression
condition. This is a common problem, especially for marine appli-
cations, where relatively high power uctuations can occur during
cylinder pressure measurement. Furthermore it is demonstrated
that utilization of the conventional diagnosis methodology to tune
the engines can nally result to cylinder power misbalancing and
deterioration of performance.
As shown the problem is overcame using the proposed method-
ologies. Results obtained from the application of methodology [d]
are the most promising and practically independent of engine load.
Satisfactory results are also obtained from methodology [c]. Final-
ly, acceptable results are obtained using the purely computational
methodology based on the estimation of the in-cylinder charge
pressure at compression initiation (i.e. methodology [b]). Despite
the promising results additional validation is necessary, especially
for marine engines. However, indications exist that the methodol-
ogy based on the use of two cylinder pressure sensors (i.e. method-
ology [d]) is a very promising alternative against simultaneous
cylinder pressure measurement. The remaining two methodologies
based on the instantaneous charge air pressure could offer an ade-
quate, low cost solution to detect and account for the effect of load
variation during measurement. Finally, methodology [c] is a good
alternative solution but it requires use of an additional high fre-
quency response scavenging air pressure sensor. On the other
hand, methodology [b] could offer an acceptable low cost and eas-
ily applicable solution even though its accuracy is relatively lower.
2. Brief description of the engine simulation model
The diagnosis technique used in the present work is based on
the processing of measured cylinder pressure data using an engine
simulation model. The simulation model is a phenomenological
one based mainly on thermodynamics and it is capable of describ-
ing a variety of engine congurations. For the compression stroke a
single zone model is used while a multi-zone one is used during
combustion and expansion. The use of a multi-zone combustion
model instead of a two-zone one, as in the past, expands model
prediction capability on different engine congurations and re-
duces the need for constant tuning with engine operating condi-
tions because a more realistic representation of the airfuel
mixing mechanism is used. The last is important for diagnosis
which is based on the comparison of current constants values
against the reference (derived from shop test data). Furthermore
it provides emission prediction capabilities for future use. An ana-
lytical description of the multi-zone simulation model has been
published by detail in the past [23,25,3136]. Since the basic scope
of the present work is not to describe the simulation code but its
use for estimation of cylinder brake power output, fuel consump-
tion and engine tuning, in the following paragraphs is given only
a general description of the diagnosis methodology with special
emphasis on the mechanisms (i.e. sub-models) related to the
determination of the TDC position and the heat release rate from
which the power output and fuel consumption are derived.
2.1. Brief description of the sub-models affecting estimation of brake
power, fuel consumption and compression quality
In the present diagnosis methodology TDC position is estimated
form a thermodynamic methodology developed in the past which
has been extensively tested and evaluated during both lab and eld
tests [37]. The method has been introduced to overcome practical
difculties since for eld applications, it is usually not possible to
install a TDC sensor and measure with the required accuracy. The
proposed TDC estimation methodology and thus all values derived
from its use are affected from the mechanisms which affect the
compression stroke [33,34]. For this reason in the following para-
graphs are summarized these mechanisms with special reference
to the constants values that are used for their calibration using
the measured cylinder pressure trace from compression initiation
up to ignition.
2.1.1. Heat transfer
An important parameter which affects TDC estimation and thus
cylinder power and heat release is heat transfer between the
D.T. Hountalas et al. / Applied Energy 113 (2014) 10271042 1029
cylinder charge and the surrounding walls. In the thermodynamic
simulation model a turbulent kinetic energy viscous dissipation
rate k-e approach is adopted to determine the characteristic veloc-
ity for the heat transfer calculations as proposed by Assanis and
Heywood [3840] and described by detail in references
[31,32,41]. The heat transfer coefcient is estimated from the fol-
lowing relation,
h
c
= c Re
0:8
Pr
0:33
k
l
car
(1)
while the instantaneous heat transfer rate is obtained from:
dQ
hl
dh
= A h
c
(T
g
T
w
) c
r
T
4
g
T
4
w
_ _ _ _
(2)
The mean gas temperature (T
g
) is derived taking into account the
specic heat capacity, the local temperature and the mass of each
zone. Moreover, after combustion initiation the overall estimated
heat exchange rate obtained from Eq. (2) is distributed among the
surrounding air and the jet zones according to their mass, temper-
ature and specic heat capacity [31,32,41]. For the compression
stroke the procedure is simpler due to the existence of only one
zone.
2.1.2. Cylinder blow-by
Blow-by affects all the processes of the closed cycle and thus
[34,3941] TDC estimation. The last affects also the heat release
rate, from which fuel consumption is determined, as described lat-
ter on. In the proposed methodology a simplied model, developed
by the authors in the past [34], is used instead of a detailed one
which requires the knowledge of engine data which are usually
not available during eld applications. According to this simplied
model approach, blow-by rate is estimated using an equivalent
blow-by area (A
eq
) between the cylinder rings and the cylinder
bore [23] as follows:
A
eq
= p D d
r
(3)
where (d
r
) is the equivalent cylinder-ring clearance that denes the
level of cylinder linerring wear. The corresponding mass ow
(blow by) rate is then calculated using standard isentropic com-
pressible ow relations [34,3941]. As long as the fresh air zone ex-
ists blow-by is abstracted from it assuming that this is mostly in the
vicinity of the combustion chamber walls. When the burning zone
(i.e. fuel jet) occupies the entire combustion chamber, blow-by
mass is distributed to each zone taking into account its mass and
the total instantaneous cylinder charge mass.
2.1.3. Inlet and exhaust system
In the present work the llingemptying method
[29,30,39,40,42] is used to estimate the pressuretemperature ver-
sus time history in the two manifolds (intakeexhaust). The mass
ow rate through the turbine nozzle is calculated using isentropic
ow relations and the effective turbine nozzle ow area. This is
adequate for the specic engine which is equipped with a constant
pressure turbo-charging system.
2.1.4. The scavenging model
Scavenging is an important process for a two-stroke turbo-
charged engine [29,30,39,40]. For this reason a two-zone scaveng-
ing model is used [29,30,39,40,42], which divides the combustion
chamber contents into two parts: one consisting only of fresh en-
trained air, and a second consisting of combustion products from
the previous cycle and freshly entrained air. With this approach,
part of the intake air escapes directly into the exhaust manifold
(short-circuiting) affecting the exhaust gas temperature. At the
end of scavenging (start of compression stroke), perfect mixing be-
tween the two zones is assumed resulting into a single zone which
is a mixture of fresh air and combustion products from the previ-
ous cycle.
2.2. Brief description of the constants determination methodology and
the diagnosis procedure
For diagnosis, use is made of both cylinder pressure and con-
ventional data (i.e. pressure, temperature of the engine subsys-
tems). But their values are inuenced from a number of
subsystems making the distinction of the actual cause for a fault
extremely difcult. For example, a low peak combustion pressure
may be the result of low fuel ow rate, a faulty injector, low SOI
advance, low boost pressure or increased blow-by, etc. Therefore,
it is necessary to develop a methodology to provide the actual
cause. This is achieved using a stepwise approach which manages
to distinguish the parameters affecting the compression stroke, the
combustion expansion stroke and the gas exchange. The method is
based on the determination of model constants that express the
quality/condition of subsystems or mechanisms. The simulation
model is initially auto-calibrated using shop test data (i.e. brake
power output, fuel ow rate, peak compression pressure, peak r-
ing pressure, etc.). From the aforementioned brief description of
sub-models it has been show that a number of constants are used
in the corresponding mathematical relations/correlations which
are generally unknown even though statistical values are available.
These constants are related to geometrical characteristics of the
engine (i.e. compression ratio, equivalent piston ring clearance
etc.) and other physical processes inside the combustion chamber
(i.e. heat transfer). The TDC position is also considered to be an un-
known constant which represents the angular phasing of the mea-
sured cylinder pressure [37]. The cylinder pressure trace is
obviously affected by various mechanisms and for this reason a
methodology is required to dene the effect of each one upon it.
For this reason it has been conducted a detailed sensitivity analysis
fromwhich the following important conclusions have been derived
[28,30]:
v Compression ratio has the strongest effect on the initial part of
the compression stroke.
v Constant (d
r
), which provides the degree of cylinder/ring wear,
affects mostly the part around TDC, shifting the peak compres-
sion pressure angle to the left relative to TDC.
v Cylinder wall temperature has a similar effect, as (d
r
), but less
pronounced.
v Constant (c) in Eq. (1) affects mainly the late part of compres-
sion and is obtained using the shop test data, because it is a
characteristic for a specic engine.
Utilizing these results it is derived the methodology for their
determination and also their relation to the condition of engine
components. Thus, constants value is considered to be an index
for the current condition of the various engine components or sub-
systems. The constants values for the compression part are esti-
mated so that the calculated cylinder compression pressure trace
(up to ignition) matches accurately the measured one using a spe-
cial constant determination procedure developed in the past
[24,2730]. The procedure is applied initially using the shop test
data providing a set of constants values that are the reference
and the corresponding engine simulator is referred to as the refer-
ence engine. A detailed description of the mathematical proce-
dure for the determination of model constants is provided in
[24,2730]. The procedure is then applied at the present operating
conditions and a new set of model constants is estimated. The cor-
responding engine simulator is now referred to as the current
engine. Matrix (b
oj
) lists models constants corresponding to the
reference engine while matrix (b
j
) lists the respective constants
1030 D.T. Hountalas et al. / Applied Energy 113 (2014) 10271042
corresponding to the current engine. The direct comparison, on a
percentage basis, of the aforementioned matrices provides an indi-
cation for the condition of the various engine subsystems. Taking
these into account, a fault or malfunction exists if the following cri-
terion is satised:
b
j
b
oj
b
oj