Culture, Genuineandspurious

Culture, Genuine and Spurious Author(s): E. Sapir Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Jan.
, 1924), pp. 401-429 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2764185 . Accessed: 09/01/2014 08:44
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THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
XXIX VOLUIMEE
JANUARY
I924
NUMBER4
CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

Memorial Ontario Victoria Museum, Ottawa, ABSTRACT or culture-historian's definitions of culture.The ethnologist's use of Varying as a traditional theterm. Individual ideal. Thegeneral culture orthe"genius" spirit France and Russiaas examples. Genuine ofa national as here culture, civilization; culture ofcivilization; onalllevels in the defined, possible maybe buta spurious thing of societies.Efficiency no measure most sophisticated or progressive of culture. cultural between valuesand neweconomic conditions. Maladjustments Immediate a gradual andremoter endsofhuman toward shift ends ofemphaactivity.Tendency endscoming theremoter to be feltas meanstoward sis,theimmediate ends,which resulted from theplay of surplus of thepsychological originally energy.Necessity at individual tomodem man'sinability toarrive within shift owing thesphere mastery of theindividual ends. The relation to theculture of thegroup. A rich of direct neededto enabletheindividual to find cultural himself.The relativity heritage of of thepast. The self, values. The cultural utilization cultural in its itself finding must a primary be granted cultural environment, ofartfor reality. The significance a culture culture.Thedanger ofspreading overa large The independence territory. and cultural bounds. The intensive of economic-political of culture development within a restricted area no bar to internationalism. The unsatisfactory condition of America from thepoint ofviewofa genuine culture. contemporary I. THE VARYING CONCEPTIONS OF CULTURE
E. SAPIR
Thereare certain thathave a peculiar terms property. Ostenthatlay claimto sibly,theymark off specific concepts, concepts a rigorously objectivevalidity. In practice,they label vague thatshift of thought or narrow or widenwiththepointof terrains view of whosomakesuse of them, within their embracing gamut thatnotonlydo notharmonize ofsignificances conceptions but are An analysisof such termssoon discloses in part contradictory.
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thereis a contents the clash of varying the factthatunderneath an for so discordant feeling-tone. Whatmakesit possible unifying precisely to answer to thesame call is, indeed, arrayofconceptions them. Thus, whatis constant halo thatsurrounds thisrelatively " man is to yetbothare agreed ''crime to one "'nobility'" another, category, thatnobility, whatever it is,is an undesirable thatcrime, one. In the same way, such a it is, is an estimable whatever but whatever termas art may be made to mean diversthings, and calls it means,the termitselfdemandsrespectful attention an expectation stateofmind, a pleasantly polished normally, forth, of art that is satisfactions.If the particular conception of lofty in a work ofartis distasteful to us, we advancedor thatis implied like I "Then don't our dissatisfaction do not express by saying, ofmind. art." We say thisonlywhenwe are in a vandalicframe "But that'snot we get aroundthedifficulty by saying, Ordinarily or "It's meresenticonventionality," art,it's onlypretty-pretty material forart, or "It's nothing but raw experience, mentality," on thevalue ofthings and therelations butnotart." We disagree we agreeon the particular value of a but often enough of things, arisesofjust where to put the label. It is onlywhenthequestion begins. These labels-perhapswe had better label, that trouble thrones-are enemies ofmankind, yetwe have no empty call them our recourse but to makepeace withthem. We do thisby seating war to the death; the favorite pretenders.The rivalpretenders in gold. to which thrones serenely splendid theyaspireremain to the throne I desireto advance the claims of a pretender culture is,weknowthatit is,oris concalled"culture." Whatever to givemyidea ofwhatkind to be, a goodthing. I propose sidered culture is. ofa goodthing The word"culture"seemsto be used in threemain sensesor is technically used by the groupsof senses. Firstof all, culture to embody inherited and culture-historian any socially ethnologist elementin the life of man, materialand spiritual. Cultureso savforeven thelowliest withmanhimself, is coterminous defined network of by a complex ages live in a socialworldcharacterized conserved habits,usages,and attitudes. The South traditionally Bushman'smethodof hunting African game, the beliefof the
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NorthAmerican Indian in "medicine,"the PericleanAthenian's industrialdynamo ofmodern and theelectric typeoftragic drama, eachbeing elements ofculture, ismareall,equallyandindifferently, effort of man,each being spiritual an outgrowth of the collective resultant and automatic retained fora giventimenot as thedirect of purelyhereditary qualitiesbut by means of the moreor less by the terms"traimitative processessummarized consciously all human dition"and "socialinheritance."Fromthisstandpoint in though beingsor, at any rate,all humangroupsare cultured, mannersand grades of complexity.For the vastly different variety and an infinite are manytypesof culture ethnologist there of culture, but no values,in theordinary senseof the of elements word,attachto these. His "higher"and "lower,"if he uses the real terms not to a moralscale ofvaluesbut to stages, at all, refer or in scheme. an evolutionary or supposed, in a historic progression sense. I do not intendto use the term"culture"in thistechnical substitute forit, wereit not "Civilization"wouldbe a convenient to themorecomplex and sophistirather usagelimited by common ofculture. To avoidconfusion other with ofthestream catedforms involvethe uses of the word"culture,"uses whichemphatically ofa scaleofvalues,I shall,where use " civilinecessary, application "culture." zation" in lieu of theethnologist's of theterm current. It is morewidely The secondapplication ideal of individualrefinement, refersto a ratherconventional and built up on a certainmodicumof assimilated knowledge ofa setoftypical thathave butmadeup chiefly reactions experience oflongstanding. Sophistiofa classand ofa tradition thesanction is oftheapplicant in therealm ofintellectual goods demanded cation but onlyup to a certain to the titleof "culturedperson," point. of a certain Far moreemphasis is placeduponmanner, preciousness of the to thenature colors according conduct which takesdifferent " ideal. At its that has assimilatedthe " cultured personality from aloofness into a scornful thepreciousness degenerates worst, cultural ofthecrowd;this is thewell-known themanners and tastes snobbishness.At its most subtle,it developsinto a mild and an amusedskepticism thatwouldnot veinof cynicism, whimsical into an unwonted forthe worldfinditself enthusiasm; betrayed
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manner countenance presents a moreengaging thistypeofcultured play onlyrarely getshintsof thediscomfiting to thecrowd, which but it is an attitudeof perhapseven more radical of its irony, of some kind is than snobbishness outright.Aloofness aloofness of generally a sinequa nonofthesecondtypeofculture. Another its indispensable requisitesis intimatecontact with the past. seen in the Presentaction and opinionare, first and foremost, of a fixed and glory; illumination past, a past of infinite richness if at all, are suchactionand opinion cononlyas an afterthought, for the buildingof a future. The strued as instrumentalities oftheremote ofthepast,preferably past,hauntthecultured ghosts to theirslightest responsive man at everystep. He is uncannily of his individuality the employment as a from touch; he shrinks themostextraordinary creative thing about agency. But perhaps of theparticular treasures of the ideal is its selection the cultured of worship. This selection, which past whichit deemsworthiest is generally seembizarreto a mereoutsider, justified by a might of reasons,sometimes endowedwitha philosophic cast, number seemto inclineto theview that these but unsympathetic persons ad hoc,thattheselection of treasare onlyrationalizations reasons ofhistory. to theaccidents ureshas proceeded chiefly according thiscultured idealis a vesture and an air. The vesture In brief, aboutone'sperson and theairhas often much maydrapegracefully is a ready-made forall that and but the vesture garment charm, the air remainsan air. In Americathe culturedideal, in its is a moreexotic classical form, plantthanin thehalls quintessential whence it was imported to theserugged and Cambridge, ofOxford and derivatives of it meet us frequently shores,but fragments ideal embraces of whichthe manyforms, enough. The cultured one of the most typical. There is merely classicalOxonianform we find it, are also Chineseand talmudicparallels. Wherever itselfto our eyes in the guiseof a spiritual heirloom it discloses intact. thatmust,at all cost,be preserved is theleasteasy to define The third use madeoftheterm and to because those use it who are so illustrate perhaps satisfactorily, clear idea of just what they seldomable to give us a perfectly mean by culture. Culturein this thirdsense shares themselves
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an emphasis on the spiritual withour first, technical, conception thanof theindividual. Withour possessions of the grouprather ofselected out ofthe it shares factors secondconception a stressing vast wholeof the ethnologist's streamof cultureas intrinsically in a spiritual morevaluable,morecharacteristic, moresignificant sense than the rest. To say that this cultureembracesall the elements ofcivilizapsychic, as contrasted withthepurely material, tionwouldnotbe accurate, conception partly becausetheresulting would still harbora vast numberof relatively trivialelements, factors mightwell occupy partlybecause certainof the material a decisive as is place in thecultural ensemble. To limittheterm, sometimes and sciencehas again the disdone, to art, religion, advantageof a too rigidexclusiveness.We may perhapscome themark conception we arenow nearest by saying thatthecultural to grasp aims to embracein a singletermthosegeneral trying of civilization manifestations viewsof life,and specific attitudes, place in the world. that give a particular people its distinctive Emphasisis put not so muchon whatis done and believedby a in thewhole functions peopleas on howwhatis doneand believed it has forthem. The very lifeof thatpeople,on whatsignificance in theculture ofcivilization of sameelement maybe a vitalstrand in theculture ofanother. onepeople, anda well-nigh negligible factor in of culture is apt to cropup particularly The present conception of nationality, with attemptsto find connection with problems in the character of a givenpeople some and civilization embodied somedistinguishing thatis strikingly its peculiarexcellence, force, thusbecomes withthe"spirit" own. Culture nearly synonymous " ofa people, for or" genius whereas these loosely yetnotaltogether, or pseudo-psychological, used terms refer rather to a psychological, of national civilization, cultureincludeswith this background a seriesof concrete manifestations whichare believed background to be peculiarly of it. Culture, then, maybe briefly symptomatic in so faras it embodies thenationalgenius. as civilization defined groundhere. The Evidently we are on peculiarly dangerous current thattheso-called assumption "genius" of a peopleis ultito certaininherent traitsof a biohereditary matelyreducible logicaland psychological naturedoes not,forthemostpart,bear
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THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
enoughwhat is assumed very seriousexamination.Frequently an turns out on closerstudyto to be innateracial characteristic of purely historical causes. A modeof thinking, be the resultant in thecourse of a distinctive getsitself established, typeofreaction, as normal;it serves as typical, a complex historical development, ofcivilization. then as a modelfor theworking overofnewelements of suchdistinctive or Fromnumerous modesof thinking examples typesof reaction a basic geniusis abstracted. Thereneed be no ofa national genius so longas it specialquarrel withthisconception fetich. Ethnolois not worshiped as an irreducible psychological and hazilydefined concepts. gistsfight shyofbroadgeneralizations aboutoperating with national spirits Theyaretherefore rather timid of nationalapologists, whichsees and geniuses. The chauvinism in thespirits peculiar excellences utterly denied oftheir ownpeoples to less blesseddenizens of the globe,largely' justifies thistimidity the of thescientific ofcivilization.Yet here,as so often, students lags somewhat behindthemore precise knowledge of the scientist ofnon-professional and experience naivebutmore powerful insights of a an ultimate To to the genius people psychoimpression. deny historical it to thespecific developlogicalsignificance and to refer all is said and done,to analyzeit mentof thatpeopleis not,after out of existence. It remainstrue that large groupsof people withestablished tendto think and to act in accordance everywhere whichare in largemeasure peculiar and all but instinctive forms, to it. The question as to whether theseforms, thatin their interofa people, areprimarily relations constitute thegenius explainable or of in terms of native temperament, of historical development, not to thesocialpsychologist, butneed cause us bothis ofinterest ofthisquestion muchconcern. The relevance is notalwaysapparent. It is enoughto knowthatin actual factnationalities, using have come to bear the the word withoutpoliticalimplication, in thought and action of a certainmold and that this impress in certain of civilization elements moldis moreclearly discernible ofa nationality is thatgroup thanin others. The specific culture ofelements the in its civilization which mostemphatically exhibits the convenient to identify mold. In practiceit is sometimes nationalculture withits genius.
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these ortwoandweshallhavedonewith preliminary Anexample we arenowstruggling The whole terrain through which definitions. ofnational fortheairing ofsubjectivism, a splendid field is a hotbed of international conceits. For all that,thereare a largenumber of characteristics in opinion as to the salientcultural agreements concerned variouspeoples. No one who has even superficially by the can have failedto be impressed culture himself withFrench balance,care in choice lucid systematization, qualitiesof clarity, so manyaspectsof the of means,and good taste,thatpermeate weaker side. We have their nationalcivilization.Thesequalities the emotional timidity are familiar with the overmechanization, emotional restraint), thingfrom or shallowness (quite a different that are the exaggeration of mannerat the expenseof content, spirit. Those oftheFrench revealed in someofthemanifestations evidence that give characteristic elements of Frenchcivilization limited of the qualitiesof its geniusmay be said, in our present of France; or, to put it somewhat the culture sense,to constitute in thecivilization ofanyelement thecultural significance differently, genius. Fromthis ofFranceis in thelight it shedson theFrench in French suchtraits civilizawe can evaluateculturally standpoint tionas theformalism of theFrenchclassicaldrama,theinsistence and of its in Frencheducation on the studyof themother-tongue the in Frenchlifeand letters, of epigram classics,the prevalence inFrance, movements to aesthetic cast so 6ften given intellectualist absence therelative French music, the lack of turgidity in modern thestrong to bureaucracy of theecstatic notein religion, tendency of in French Each and all of theseand hundreds administration. ofEngfrom thecivilization paralleled othertraits couldbe readily I venture relative culturalsignificance, their land. Nevertheless, to think, oneinEnglandthanin France. In Francethey is a lesser of the cultural moldofits seem to lie moredeeplyin thegrooves likea rapidbird'scivilization.Theirstudy wouldyieldsomething ofFrench culture. eye viewof thespirit a of whichhas as definite Let us turnto Russia, the culture cast as thatofFrance. I shallmention onlyone,but thatperhaps themostsignificant, as I seeit-the tendaspectofRussianculture, ofhuman beings notas repreencyoftheRussianto see and think
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of types, sentatives not as creatures thatappeareternally clothed in thegarments of civilization, but as starkhumanbeingsexisting primarily in and forthemselves, onlysecondarily forthe sake of civilization. Russiandemocracy has as its fundamental aim less the creation ofdemocratic institutions thantheeffective liberation of personality itself. The one thingthat the Russian can take seriously is elemental humanity, and elemental humanity, in his view of the world, obtrudes itself at everystep. He is therefore at homewithhimself sublimely and his neighbor and withGod. Indeed,I have no doubtthattheextremest of Russianatheists is on betterspeaking terms withGod thanare the devoutof other lands, to whomGod is alwayssomething of a mystery.For his in that termall themachinery environment, including of civilization,the Russianhas generally not a littlecontempt. The subordination of the deeps of personality to an institution is not readily swallowed by himas a necessary pricefortheblessings of civilization.We can followout this sweepinghumanity, this almostimpertinent of the real selfthat lies swathed prodding in civilization, in numberless forms. In personalrelations we may note the curious of theRussianto ignore all theinstitureadiness tionalbarriers whichseparatemanfrom man; on its weaker side, this involvesat timesa personalirresponsibility that harbors no insincerity. The renunciation ofTolstoiwas no isolated phenomenon, it was a symbolof the deep-seated Russianindifference to institutionalism, to theaccreted valuesofcivilization.In a spiritual sense,it is easy forthe Russianto overthrow of any embodiment the spiritof institutionalism; his real loyaltiesare elsewhere. The Russianpreoccupation withelemental is naturally humanity most in evidencein the realmof art, whereself-expression has freestrein. In the pages of Tolstoi, Dostoyevski,Turgenev, and Chekhov runsriotin its morbid moments Gorki, personality ofplay withcrime, in its depressions in its generous and apathies, in Russian enthusiasms and idealisms. So many of the figures look out upon lifewitha puzzledand incredulous literature gaze. "This thing thatyou call civilization-is thatall there ?" is to life we hear themask a hundred times. In music too the Russian
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spirit delights to unmask to revelin the criesand gestures itself, of man as man. It speaks to us out of the ruggedaccentsof a Moussorgski as outofthewell-nigh unendurable despair ofa Tchaiof themaincurrent kovski. It is hard to think of Russianart as anywhere infected by the dryrot of formalism; we expectsome human or cryto escapefrom flash behindthebars. I have avoidedall attempt to construct a parallelbetween the ofFrench civilization and thatofRussiancivilization, spirit between the culture of Franceand the culture of Russia. Strictparallels forcean emphasis on contrasts. I have been content merely to suggest thatunderlying the elements of civilization, the studyof is theprovince of theethnologist which and culture-historian, is a the adequate interpretation culture, of whichis beset withdifficultiesand which is often leftto menof letters.
II. THE GENUINE CULTURE
The secondand thirdconceptions of the term"culture" are what I wish to make the basis of our genuineculture-thepretender to thethrone we are to consider. whoseclaimsto recognition as signifying moldof a We may accept culture the characteristic of culture, nationalcivilization, whilefrom the secondconception thatof a traditional we willborrow typeofindividual refinement, ofidealform. Let mesay at oncethatnothing thenotion is farther from mymind thantopleadthecauseofanyspecific type ofculture. be idletopraiseorblameanyfundamental ofour It would condition to praiseor blameany strand in thewarpand woofof civilization, its genius. These conditions mustbe accepted and thesestrands as basic. They are slowly to be sure,like everything modifiable, ofman,but radicalmodification elsein thehistory offundamentals forthe production of a genuine does not seemnecessary culture, howevermuch a readjustment of theirrelationsmay be. In other in any type a genuine is perfectly conceivable words, culture or stageof civilization, in themoldofanynational genius. It can be conceivedas easilyin termsof a Mohammedan polygamous society,or of an American Indian "primitive"non-agricultural as in thoseof our familiar occidentalsocieties. On the society,
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otherhand,what may by contrast be called "spurious" cultures are justas easilyconceivable in conditions ofgeneral enlightenment as in thoseofrelative ignorance and squalor. The genuine culture is notofnecessity either highor low; it is merely inherently harmonious, balanced, self-satisfactory. It is the expression ofa richly varied andyetsomehow unified and consistent attitude toward life, an attitude which sees thesignificance of any one element ofcivilization in itsrelation to all others. It is,ideally speaking, a culturein whichnothing is spiritually meaningless, in which no important partof thegeneral functioning brings with it a sense of frustration, of misdirected or unsympathetic effort. It is not a spiritual hybrid ofcontradictory patches, ofwater-tight compartments of consciousness that avoid participation in a harmonious synthesis.If the culture necessitates slavery, it frankly admitsit; if it abhorsslavery, it feelsits way to an economic adjustment thatobviates thenecessity ofits employment. It does not make a greatshowin its ethicalideals of an uncompromising opposition to slavery, onlyto introduce what amountsto a slave ofits industrial intocertain mechanism.Or,if it system portions builds itselfmagnificent houses of worship, it is because of the necessity it feelsto symbolize in beautiful stonea religious impulse thatis deep and vital; if it is readyto discardinstitutionalized religion, it is prepared also to dispense withthehomesof institutionalized religion. It doesnotlooksheepish whena direct appeal is madetoitsreligious then makeamends consciousness, byfurtively ofan African mission. a few themaintenance donating dollars toward Nor doesit carefully instruct in whatit knowsto be of its children no use or vitality either to themor in its own maturelife. Nor suchas otherspiritual does it tolerate a thousand maladjustments It of are patentenough in ourAmerican life today. wouldbe too ofa genuine muchto say thateventhepurest examples yetknown of thedryrotofsocial of spiritual culture have been free discords, thosethatwe instinchabit,devitalized. But the greatcultures, such as the tivelyfeelto have been healthy spiritual organisms, Athenian culture oftheAgeofPericles and,to a lessextent perhaps, of Elizabethandays,have at least tendedto the Englishculture suchharmony.
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It shouldbe clearlyunderstood that this ideal of a genuine culture has no necessary connection withwhat we call efficiency. A society maybe admirably efficient in thesensethatall its activiutility tiesare carefully planned with reference to endsofmaximum to the societyas a whole,it may tolerate yet it no lost motion, It is not may well be an inferior organism as a culture-bearer. that enoughthat the ends of activities be sociallysatisfactory, each member of the community feelin some dim way thathe is of a social benefit. This is doinghis bit towardthe attainment all verywell so far as it goes, but a genuineculturerefuses to soleraison consider theindividual as a merecog,as an entity whose d'etrelies in his subservience to a collective purposethathe is not and conscious ofor thathas onlya remote relevancy to hisinterests strivings.The major activities of the individualmust directly his own creative mustalwaysbe satisfy and emotional impulses, morethanmeansto an end. The greatcultural fallacy something of industrialism, time,is that in as developed up to the present harnessing machines to our uses it has not knownhow to avoid the harnessing of the majority of mankind to its machines. The thegreater part of telephone girlwholendshercapacities, during theliving of a technical routine thathas day, to themanipulation an eventually to no spiritual highefficiency value but thatanswers needs of her own is an appallingsacrifice to civilization.As a oftheproblem ofculture sheis a failure-the moredismal solution the greater her naturalendowment.As withthe telephone girl, so, it is to be feared, to ofus, slave-stokers withthegreatmajority fires thatburnfordemons we woulddestroy, wereit not thatthey Indianwho appearin theguiseofourbenefactors.The American solves the economic withsalmon-spear and rabbit-snare problem but he represents low level of civilization, operateson a relatively an incomparably girl of the highersolutionthan our telephone thatculture has to ask of economics. Thereis hereno questions of of the effective directness, questionof the immediate utility, as to thepassing economic norofanysentimentalizing effort, regrets is a culturof the "naturalman." The Indian's salmon-spearing thanthatof the telephone girlor mill ally higher typeof activity frustrais normally no senseofspiritual handsimply becausethere
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tionduring its prosecution, no feeling ofsubservience to tyrannous yet largely inchoate demands, becauseit works in naturally with all the restof the Indian'sactivities out as a insteadof standing desertpatch of merelyeconomic effort in the wholeof life. A genuine culture cannotbe defined as a sumof abstractly desirable ends,as a mechanism.It mustbe lookedupon as a sturdy plant growth, each remotest leafand twigofwhich is organically fedby thesap at thecore. And thisgrowth is notheremeantas a metaphorforthegrouponly; it is meantto applyas well to theindividual. A culturethat does not build itselfout of the central interests and desires ofits bearers, thatworks from general endsto the individual,is an externalculture. The word "external," whichis so often instinctively chosento describe such a culture, is wellchosen. The genuine culture from the is internal, it works individual to ends. We have alreadyseen that thereis no necessary correlation between thedevelopment ofcivilization and therelative genuineness of the culture whichforms its spiritual essence. This requires a wordof further of civilization explanation. By the development is meanttheeverincreasing of sophistication ofour society degree and of ourindividual is the lives. This progressive sophistication ofsocialexperiinevitable cumulative result ofthesifting processes ofourinnumerable ence,oftheeverincreasing complications types of organization; of mostof all of our steadily growing knowledge our natural environment and, as a consequence, our practical mastery, foreconomic thatnatureat once ends,of the resources grants us and hidesfrom us. It is chiefly the cumulative force of thissophistication thatgives us thesenseofwhatwe call"progress." Perched on theheights ofan office building twenty or morestories tallerthanourfathers everdreamed of,we feelthatwe are getting up in the world. Hurling our bodiesthrough space withan ever on. Undersophisaccelerating velocity, we feelthatwe aregetting ticationI includenot merely intellectual and technical advance, but mostof the tendencies thatmake fora cleanerand healthier a morehumanitarian existence. It is exceland, to a largeextent, lent to keep one's hands spotlessly clean, to eliminate smallpox, to administer our ever anesthetics.Our growing sophistication,
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increasing solicitude to obey the dictatesof common sense,make thesetendencies imperative. It would be sheerobscurantism to wishto staytheir can be no stranger progress. But there illusionand it is an illusion we nearly all share-thanthis, thatbecausethe toolsoflifeare todaymorespecialized and morerefined thanever before,that because the technique brought by scienceis more perfectthan anything the worldhas yet known,it necessarily follows thatwe arein likedegree attaining to a profounder harmony oflife, to a deeper and moresatisfying culture. It is as though we believed that an elaborate mathematical computation which involved figures ofsevenand eight digits couldnotbut result in a likefigure. Yet we knowthatonemillion multiplied by zerogivesus zeroquite as effectively as onemultiplied by zero. The truth is thatsophistication, which is whatwe ordinarily meanby theprogress ofcivilization, is, in thelongrun,a merely quantitative concept thatdefines theexternal forthegrowth conditions or decayofculture. We are right to have faith in theprogress ofcivilization.We arewrong to assume thatthemaintenance orevenadvance ofculture is a function of suchprogress. A reading of thefactsof ethnology and culture history provesplainly that maximaof culturehave frequently beenreached in lowlevelsofsophistication; thatminima ofculture havebeenplumbed in someofthehighest. Civilization, as a whole, moveson; culture comesand goes. Everyprofound changein the flowof civilization, particularly tobring initseconomic every change aboutan unsettling bases,tends of culture and readjustment values. Old culture habitual forms, ofreaction, theforce ofinertia. The tendto persist types through ofthese to their newcivilizational habitual reactions maladjustment ofspiritual environment it a measure which with brings disharmony, feel a as fundamental lack themoresensitive individuals eventually corrects itself with ofculture. Sometimes themaladjustment great for at other it maypersist as in thecase times rapidity, generations, has for ofAmerica, a chronic stateofcultural where maladjustment ofourhigher lifeto sterile much so longa period reduced externality. fora genuine culture to subsist on a It is easier, generally speaking, of individuals as lower level of civilization;the differentiation is so muchless thanin functions their socialand economic regards
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the higher levelsthat there is less dangerof the reduction of the of the social organism. individualto an unintelligible fragment How to reap the undeniable benefits of a greatdifferentiation of at the same timelosingsightof the individual functions, without as a nucleus oflivecultural is thegreat and difficult values, problem of any rapidly civilization.We are farfrom complicating having solvedit in America. Indeed,it may be doubted whether more than an insignificant of the minority are aware of the existence problem. Yet the present world-wide labor unresthas as one of its deepestrootssomesortof perception of the cultural of fallacy thepresent form ofindustrialism. It is perhapsthesensitive ethnologist whohas studiedan abocivilization at first riginal handwhois mostimpressed by thefreof culture quent vitality in less sophisticated levels. He cannot but admirethewell-rounded lifeof theaverageparticipant in the civilization of a typical American Indian tribe; the firmness with which everypart of that life-economic,social, religious, and aesthetic-isboundtogether to intoa significant wholein respect whichhe is farfrom a passivepawn; above all, themolding r6le, oftentimes of definitely creative, that he plays in the mechanism his culture. Whenthepolitical integrity of his tribeis destroyed by contactwith the whitesand the old cultural values cease to have the atmosphere needed for their continuedvitality,the Indian finds himself in a stateof bewildered vacuity. Even if he succeedsin making a fairly satisfactory compromise withhis new in making environment, whathis well-wishers consider greatprogress towardenlightenment, he is apt to retainan uneasysenseof theloss of somevagueand greatgood,somestateofmindthathe wouldbe hardput to it to define, butwhich gavehima courage and joy thatlatter-day prosperity neverquite seemsto have regained for him. Whathas happened is thathe has slipped outofthewarm embraceof a culture into the cold air of fragmentary existence. Whatis sad about thepassing of oftheIndianis not thedepletion his numbers by diseasenor even the contempt that is too often meted out to himin hislifeon thereservation, it is thefading away of genuinecultures, built thoughtheywereout of the materials ofa low order ofsophistication.
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levelsof sophisticato demandof thehigher We have no right functioning, his manifold to theindividual tionthattheypreserve the individual as a compensation, but we may well ask whether, in cultural demandan intensification value, may not reasonably of suchfunctions as are lefthim. Failing heightening, a spiritual in to have retrograded. The limitation this, he mustbe admitted in the economic workschiefly sphere. It is therefore functioning his value as a cultured if theindividual is to preserve imperative, the out of the non-economic, himself being,that he compensate scientific, aesthetic. This religious, spheres-social, non-utilitarian issue, that of idea of compensation bringsto view an important endsofhumaneffort. and theremoter theimmediate is to exist; in other man's onlyfunction As a mereorganism, alive and to propagatehis kind. Hence words,to keep himself forhimself of food,clothing, and shelter and those the procuring end of his effort. the immediate on him constitutes dependent in which likethatoftheEskimo, by farthe Thereare civilizations, in thesatisfaction ofthese is consumed greater partofman'senergy of in most his activities which contribute directly immediate ends, of food and the and preparation to the procuring or indirectly for and shelter. Therearepractically no civilizamaterials clothing at leastsomeoftheavailableenergy in which is not however, tions, fortheremoter as a rule,theseremoter ends set free ends,though, made to seemto contribute to are by a processof rationalization forinstance, ones. (A magicalritual, which, when theimmediate seems toliberate andgiveform topowerconsidered psychologically, of our nature,is nearlyalways elements aesthetic ful emotional utilitarian to somehumdrum end-the catching of put in harness of disease.) As a matter of fact,thereare rabbitsor the curing thatdo not consume an exceedcivilizations veryfew"primitive" in the pursuitof the remoter inglylarge shareof theirenergies truethat theseremoter it remains ends are nearly ends, though or pseudo-functionally interwoven with the always functionally ends. Artforart'ssake maybe a psychological facton immediate not a cultural fact. theseless sophisticated levels; it is certainly theremoter endstendto split On our own levelof civilization from theimmediate onesand to assumetheform ofa off altogether
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from thepursuit ofthelatter. The separaescapeorrefuge spiritual norcan it everbe; tionof thetwoclassesofendsis neverabsolute of a powerful driftof the two it is enoughto note the presence from each It is to this drift by other. easy demonstrate away takenout ofourdailyexperience.Whilein mostprimiexamples at least the dance is apt to be a ritualactivity tive civilizations nature,it is associatedwithpurposesof an economic ostensibly and self-consciously thatnot withus a merely activity pleasurable ofimmediate of thepursuit off from thesphere endsbut onlysplits of hostility to thatsphere. In a even tendsto assumea position a greatchiefdances as a matterof course, civilization primitive a peculiarly privias a matterof exercising honored oftentimes refuses to dance at either lege. Withus the captainof industry of to thetyranny concession all or does so as a half-contemptuous social custom. On the otherhand, the artistof a Ballet Russe of selfhas sublimatedthe dance to an exquisiteinstrument in providing has succeeded himself withan adequate, expression, for his loss ofmastery or morethanadequate,cultural recompense ends. The captainofindustry is one of the in therealmofdirect in small class of individualsthat has inherited, comparatively of of over the control feeling something form, vastlycomplicated of directends that belongsby culturalrightto the attainment for man; the ballet dancerhas saved and intensified primitive ofspontaneous thefeeling in and creativeness himself participation ends that also belongsby culturalrightto the worldof indirect man. Each has saved part of the wreckage of a subprimitive forhimself. culture merged ofdirect and indirect The psychology endsundergoes a gradual as yet,in thehigher levels onlypartlyconsummated modification, of civilization.The immediateends continueto exercisethe ofourlives, butas ourspiritual sametyrannical swayin theordering and developa moreand moreinordinate selvesbecomeenriched of experience, theredevelopsalso an cravingfor subtlerforms of with the of solution the moreimmediate attitude impatience of life. In otherwords, theimmediate endscease to be problems become feltas chief endsand gradually but only necessary means, of the moreremoteends. These means,towardthe attainment remoter beinglooked upon as purely ends,in turn,so far from
4I7
incidentalactivitieswhich resultfromthe spillingover of an energy concentrated almost entirely on thepursuit oftheimmediate ends,becomethe chiefends of life. This changeof attitudeis impliedin the statement that the art, science,and religion of a highercivilization best express its spiritor culture. The transformation ofendsthusbriefly outlined is farfrom an accomplished fact; it is ratheran obscuredrift in the history of values, an of thevolition expression of themoresensitive participants in our culture. Certain temperaments feelthemselves impelled faralong thedrift, others lag behind. The transformation ofendsis ofthegreatest cultural importance becauseit acts as a powerful for force thepreservation ofculture in levels in whicha fragmentary economic functioning of the individual is inevitable. So long as the individual retains a senseof control overthemajorgoodsof life, he is able to takehis place in the cultural patrimony of his people. Now that themajorgoods oflifehave shifted so largely from to that therealmofimmediate of remote ends,it becomes a cultural forall who would necessity not be lookeduponas disinherited of these to sharein thepursuit remoter ends. No harmony and depth oflife, no culture, is possible whenactivity is well-nigh ofimmediate circumscribed by thesphere endsandwhen functioning within thatsphere is sofragmentary as to have no inherent or interest. Here lies thegrimmest intelligibility joke of our present American of civilization.The vast majority of any but an insignificant us, deprived and culturally abortive of the immediate are sharein the satisfaction wantsof mankind, further of both opportunity to sharein deprived and stimulation theproduction ofnon-utilitarian values. Part of the timewe are ofgoods consumers drayhorses;therestofthetimewe arelistless which no least impress of ourpersonality.In other have received selves go hungry, forthe most part,pretty words,our spiritual muchall ofthetime.
III. THE CULTURED INDIVIDUAL AND THE CULTURAL GROUP
at last analysis, Thereis no real opposition, betweenthe conof the groupand the conceptof an individual cept of a culture culture. The twoare interdependent. A healthy national culture is nevera passivelyacceptedheritage from the past, but implies
4I8
THE AMERICAN JOURNAAL OF SOCIOLOGY
of the members the creativeparticipation of the community; in otherwords, thepresence of cultured implies, individuals. An of standardized automatic perpetuation values,not subjectto the of individuals constantremodeling willingto put some part of into the formstheyreceivefrom themselves their predecessors, leads to the dominance of impersonal formulas.The individual is leftout in thecold; theculture a manner becomes rather thana way of life,it ceases to be genuine. It is just as true,however, that theindividual is helpless without a cultural to work heritage on. He cannot, outofhisunaidedspiritual powers, weavea strong ofhisownpersonality.Creacultural fabric instinct withtheflush tionis a bending of form to one's will,not a manufacture of form ex nihilo. If thepassiveperpetuator of a cultural tradition gives us merely a manner, the shellof a lifethatonce was, the creator from out ofa cultural wastegivesus hardly morethana gesture or a yawp,thestrident of a visionraisedby ourdesires. promise Thereis a curious notion afloatthat"new" countries are espesoil forthe formation of a virileculture. By new ciallyfavorable is meant something old that has been transplanted to a background devoidof historical associations. It wouldbe remarkable if a plant,flourishing in heavy black loam, suddenly acquireda newvirility on transplantation into a shallowsandysoil. Metathatprovenothing, but experience phorsare dangerous things sugof thisparticular is geststhe soundness metaphor. Indeed,there more tenuous, moreshamelessly and external, nothing imitative less virile and self-joyous, than the cultures of so-called"new countries." The environments of thesetransplanted cultures are are old withthesickly new,thecultures themselves age ofarrested of cultureare development.If signs of a genuineblossoming to appearin America, it is notbecauseAmerica belatedly beginning is stillnew; rather is America of age, beginning to feela coming littleold. In a genuinely newcountry, thepreoccupation withthe in the sphereof immediate ends of existence reduces creativeness themore remote endstoa minimum.The netresult is a perceptible of culture. The old stock of non-material cultural dwarfing goods on without lingers beingsubjectedto vital remodelings, becomes
4I9
progressively impoverished, and ends by being so hopelessly ill-adjustedto the economicand social environment that the moresensitive spirits tendto breakwithit altogether and to begin ofthenewenvironmental anewwitha frank recognition conditions. Suchnewstarts are invariably crude; theyare longin bearing the fruits of a genuine culture. It is onlyan apparent paradoxthatthe subtlest and themost decisive ofpersonality, themostfruitful cultural influences revolts, are discernible in thoseenvironments that have long and uninterruptedly supported a richly streaming culture. So farfrom being suffocated in an atmosphere of endlessprecedent, the creative spirit gainssustenance and vigorforits ownunfolding and,ifit is strong enough, it may swingfreeof thatveryatmosphere witha poise hardlydreamedof by the timidiconodastsof unformed cultures. Not otherwise couldwe understand thecultural history ofmodern soil Europe. Onlyin a mature and richly differentiated could arise the iconoclasms and visionsof an AnatoleFrance,a an Ibsen,a Tolstoi. In America, at leastin theAmerica Nietzsche, ofyesterday, theseiconoclasms have and thesevisions wouldeither in thecradle, beenstrangled found air to breathe, or,had they they would have half-developed into a crude and patheticisolation. is no sound ofa cultured There andvigorous individual incorporation ideal without thesoilofa genuine communal culture;and no genuinecommunal culture without thetransforming energies ofpersonalities at oncerobust and saturated withthecultural valuesof their timeand place. The highest is thuslockedin the typeof culture ofan endless embrace to theforging ofwhich chain, goesmuch labor, avoidsthe twoextremes of wearyand protracted.Such a culture of which down the "externality"-theexternality surfeit, weighs and the externality of barrenness.The former is the individual, is no more; the in whichtheindividual decay ofAlexandrianism, thecombined and decayofan uprooted latter, immaturity culture, in whichtheindividual is not yet. Both typesofexternality may be combined in the same culture, in the same person. frequently to findin Americaindividuals who Thus, it is not uncommon have had engrafted on a barrenand purelyutilitarian culture a
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cultural tradition thatapes a gracealreadyembalmed. One surmisesthat thisjuxtaposition of incongruous atmospheres is even in certain typical circles. at theplace of theindividual Let us look a littlemoreclosely in a modern sophisticated culture. I haveinsisted throughout that a genuinecultureis one that gives its bearersa sense of inner a feeling of spiritual satisfaction, mastery. In the higher levels ofcivilization thissenseofmastery is all butwithdrawn, as we have theeconomic to an evengreater seen,from sphere. It must, then, thaninmore extent feed on thenon-economic primitive civilizations, ofhuman is thusdriven, orshould spheres activity. The individual be if he would be truly to the identification of himself cultured, of the wide rangeof non-economic withsome portion interests. Fromthestandpoint in thisstudy, thisdoesnotmeanthat adopted theidentification is a purely casual and acquisitive process; it is, indeed, madenot so muchforits ownsake as in orderto give the itspowers. Concretely selfthewherewithal to develop considered, thata mediocre thiswouldmean,forinstance, person moderately his aesthetic in plastic gifted withthe abilityto express instincts form thatgiftin his own sincere and exercising and humble way all other it maybe, of practically is ipso (to theneglect, interests) endowindividual thana personof brilliant factoa morecultured in a general mentswho has acquaintedhimself way withall the and felt and done, butwhohasnever "best" thathas beenthought inbringing ofhisrange ofinterests intodirect succeeded anyportion of his shrine relation withhis volitional self,withthe innermost forall his brilliance, of thelattertype, personality.An individual cultured. He may, we call "flat." A flatpersoncannotbe truly in theconventional senseoftheword of course, be highly cultured "culture,"but thatis another story. I wouldnot be understood is essential, it is highly thatdirect creativeness as claiming though culture. To a large forthe development of individual desirable, to gaina senseoftherequired extent it is possible mastery by linkwiththatof thegreatmindsand hearts ingone's ownpersonality creators. Possible, as its significant that societyhas recognized such vicariousexperience, is that is, so long as such linking, the of the some toward attendedby portion effort, fluttering
42I
effort.It is to be from all creative thatis inseparable realization is none thatis hereimplied thattheself-discipline however, feared, as I have calledit, of selfwith practiced. The linking, too often into a pleasurableservitude, mastersoul too oftendegenerates themoreinsidiofone'sownindividuality, abnegation intoa facile ofcurrent judgment. The pleasurable ous thatit has theapproval stillfurther intoa vice. Thoseofus who servitude maydegenerate if of our acquaintances, blindcan see in certain are not altogether or scientific in aesthetic an indulgence goodsthat not in ourselves, intoxicants.Both to the abuse of alcoholic is strictly comparable or self-submerging habitare signsof a debilitypesof self-ignoring ofculture. to theformation bothare antithetical tatedpersonality; in aspiring fastens uponthe to culture, The individual self, then, not so muchforthesake cultural goodsofits society, accumulated as forthesake of the of their acquirement, of thepassivepleasure and of theorientation personality givento theunfolding stimulus a world)of cultural values. The in the world(or better, derived if onlyto give conventional as it maybe, is necessary orientation, the self a modus vivendiwith societyat large. The individual ofhis society, muchofthecultural background needsto assimilate of his to sentiments his selfpeople, prevent manyof the current into social sterility.A spiritual from degenerating expression but he is hardlysociallyso. hermit cultured, may be genuinely culture mustneeds groworganically out To say that individual is farfrom thatit must culture saying oftherichsoilofa communal of its own tied to that culture by the leadingstrings be forever selfhas grown enoughto strong childhood. Once the individual illuminated in thepathmostclearly it not travel by its ownlight, of much the which it has can scaffolding by but should discard only is more thanthepersistence with pathetic madeitsascent. Nothing to culture to keep up or attempt whichwell-meaning applicants their stimuli whichhave longoutlived significance revivecultural of personality.To keep up or brushup one's for the growth a knowledge casesin which in thosenumerous forexample, Greek, relation to theneedsof the of Greekhas ceasedto bear a genuine crime. It is acting"the dog in the is almosta spiritual spirit, in thepath of the manger"withone's ownsoul. If the traveling
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of the leads to a positionthat is destructive self'sillumination different in very though wasfedon,as happened, valuestheself very and withTolstoi,it has not in the slightest ways,withNietzsche on thecontrary, have culture. It maywell, with genuine losttouch of cultural development. own point possible at its highest arrived ofpersonality. areextreme types andTolstoi, however, Nietzsche will humanity Thereis no dangerthat thevast armyof cultured ofsuchrigor and originality. positions spiritual evercometo occupy by dailyexperience, attested as is so abundantly The real danger, of a common forces, to the remorselessly leveling is in submitting and of the action of averagemind on average heritage cultural willalwaystendto a general standardization mind. These forces so powerfully, indeed, ofculture, and thespirit ofboththecontent of robust,self-sustaining personalities effect that the centrifugal with tradition, need not be feared. The cautionto conformity feelthemselves so often ofculture calledupon thechampions which is one that we can generally dispensewith. It is to announce, with the ratherthe oppositecaution,the cautionto conformity that needs urging.It needs ofone'sownpersonality, nature essential to the flat and tedious to be urgedas a possiblecounter-irritant the smug the anemicmake-believe, of spiritual outlook, sameness so that our American of the souls. imprison intolerance challenging, ofbothindividual and comtestof thegenuineness No greater can be appliedthantheattitude the adoptedtoward munalculture of art and thought. The genuits treasures past,its institutions, inely culturedindividualor society does not contemptuously theworks ofthepast,butnotbecause rejectthepast. Theyhonor not because,beingout of our chance, theyare gemsof historical the enshrining glass reach,theymustneedsbe lookedat through cases. These worksof thepast stillexciteour heartof museum in so faras, they and sympathy may interest because,and only felt ofa human as theexpression despite akin, warmly be recognized spirit of outward all differences garb,to our own. This is verynearly thatthepast is ofcultural to saying interest onlywhen equivalent or become the future. the Paradoxical it is still present may yet ofan has alwaysbeensomething thehistorical as it mayseem, spirit actedin somemeasure has always as an unwitting anticultural force, of the past. The historical of the culturalutilization deterrent
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and thosefeelings thatyou so spirit says,"Beware,thosethoughts rashly think to embody in thewarpand woofofyourownspiritissuefrom alien place and they theyare ofothertimeand ofother them youdo but obscure withthe motives. In bending overthem is an excellent mood shadowofyourownspirit." This coolreserve forthemaking ofhistorical science; its usefulness to thebuilding in the present is doubtful. We knowimmensely of culture more in thesedays thandid the scholars about Hellenicantiquity and thatour artistsof the Renaissance;it wouldbe follyto pretend oftheHellenic accurately as we merely know liveutilization spirit, thecreative to theinspiration, thatthose stimulus, it,is comparable from obtained its fragmentary and garbled menoftheRenaissance of a renaissance to think of that typeas tradition. It is difficult in the critical of today. We shouldwalk so thriving atmosphere ofstepping onanachronisms, in thepathsofthepastfor fear gingerly we should sinkintoa heavydoze, withfatigue, finally that,wearied ofthepresent. It may clatter to be awakened onlyby theinsistent stateof sophistication sucha spirit of critibe thatin ourpresent is not onlyunavoidable but essential forthe cism,of detachment, of our own individualities. The past is now more preservation of a past than ever before. Perhapswe shouldexpectless of it thaneverbefore. Or rather expectno moreofit thanit holdits in and despoil it ofwhatbits wideopen,thatwe mayenter portals we choose forour prettymosaics. Can it be that the critical whichgalvanizesthe past into scientific sense of history, life,is to slayit forthelifeofculture? Moreprobably, whatis destined of today are running is that the spiritual currents so happening to get a culturally that we findit difficult fast,so turbulently, of thepast,which is thus,forthetimebeing, left vitalperspective in the handsof the pundits. And,forthe as a glorified mummy neither as timebeing,thoseothersof us who take theirculture nor as manner, but as life,will ask of thepast not so knowledge much"what?" and "when?" and "where?" as "how?" and the in accordance withthe accentof their"how" will be modulated ofeach,a spirit thatis free toglorify, totransform, needsofthespirit and to reject. in ourtheory ofculture, To summarize theplaceoftheindividual of genuine culture two types we may say thatthepursuit implies
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for mastery. In the The selfseeksinstinctively ofreconciliation. thatis not crudebut proa senseof mastery processof acquiring properto our time,the portioned to the degreeof sophistication a molding. to suffer an abridgment and to undergo selfis compelled of man of function whichtheprogress differentiation The extreme menacesthe spirit; we have no has forced upon the individual of our withgood graceto thisabridgment recourse but to submit the of the spirit wings not allowed to clip be activity, but it must reconciliation-the and mostimportant unduly. This is the first of a fullworldof spiritual satisfactions within thestraight finding economicactivity. The self confined limitsof an unwontedly at a pointwhereit can, if not embracethe whole mustset itself lifeofits group, at least catchenough ofits raysto burst spiritual the selfmustlearnto reconcile into lightand flame. Moreover, its own strivings, necessities, withthe general its own imperious life of the community.It must be contentto borrow spiritual of thatcommunity and consciousness from thespiritual sustenance to grow ofits past,not merely thatit mayobtainthewherewithal where its power, willbe greator little, at all, but thatit maygrow to bear on a spiritual lifethatis of intimate concern to brought right to the self has a reconciliations, all other wills. Yet, despite whose spiritual growth, feelthatit grows as an integral, self-poised, restin itself, whosesacrifices and compensaultimate justifications to itself. The conception of the selfas a tionsmustbe justified theattainment ofcommunal instrument toward whether mere ends, of state or othersocial body,is to be discarded as leadingin the absurdities and to spiritualslavery. long run to psychological ifthere thatconcedes, is tobe anyconcession. Spiritual It is theself nowindifferently, is ofit,is notalmsdispensed, freedom, whatthere now grudgingly, philosophy by the socialbody. That a different of theindividual to his groupis now so prevalent, of the relation of to insist on thespiritual primacy necessary makesit all themore theindividual soul. of fact that wherever thereis discussion It is a noteworthy is instinctively placed upon art. This applies emphasis culture, as wellto individual as to communal culture. We applytheterm in whoselife the to an individual "cultured" only withreserve
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moment aesthetic playsno part. So also,ifwe wouldcatchsomeof a bygone of thespirit, thegenius, thing periodor of an exotic to its art. A thoughtless civilization, we turnfirst and foremost on thebeautiful, buttheemphasis analysis wouldsee in this nothing of thedecorative, thatcomports withtheconventional conception cultureas a life of traditionaLly molded refinement. A more For it the penetrating analysisdiscardssuch an interpretation. of the highestmanifestations of culture,the very quintessence restin art,forthe reasonthat geniusof a civilization, necessarily of experience; in satisfying art is the authentic expression, form, not as logically and experience ordered by science, but as directly intuitively presented to us in life. As culturerests,in essence, on theharmonious development ofthesenseofmastery instinctively soughtby each individual soul, thiscan onlymean that art, the in which oftheself is mostdirect, form ofconsciousness theimpress is above all other least hampered by outward necessity, undertakculture. To relateour ingsof the humanspirit bound to reflect ourpassing of expression that lives,ourintuitions, moodsto forms conviction to others is carry and makeus live againin theseothers we knowof,the highest the highest satisfaction welding spiritual of one's individuality with the spiritof his civilization.Were in expression, it wouldindeedbe immortal. art everreaLly perfect of ofconventionality, Even thegreatest art,however, is full thedross of theparticular of its age. As thesechange,the sophistications ofart tendsto be increasingly ofexpression in anywork directness feltas hampered fixed and alien,untilit gradually by a something fallsinto oblivion. Whileart lives,it belongsto culture;in the ofdeath, it becomes ofinterest thatit takeson thefrigidity degree (and only to the studyof civilization.Thus all art appreciation that forthatmatter) has twofaces. It is unfortunate production, to civilization the face directed is so oftenconfounded withthat on culture. is fixed which
IV. THE GEOGRAPHY OF CULTURE
of culture is the of the development An oft-noted peculiarity in comparatively fact that it reachesits greatest small, heights if a genuineculture autonomous groups. In fact,it is doubtful
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a group to morethansucha restricted group, everproperly belongs of whichtherecan be said to be something themembers between like direct intensivespiritualcontact. This direct contact is ofall on which theminds cultural heritage enriched by thecommon of swift by the thousands and pregnant are fed; it is rendered and ideas that are tacitlyassumedand that constantly feelings autonomous in the background.Such small,culturally glimmer Age,theRomeofAugustus, ofthePericlean groups weretheAthens of Italy in late medievaltimes,the city-states the independent centuries. days, and theParisofthelastthree LondonofElizabethan of of certain thesegroupsand of their to speak It is customary or represented, widely as though wereidentical with, they cultures large extentsuch extended groupsand cultures. To a curiously of speech, of a part forthe substitutions usagesare reallyfigures for is how much the so-called whole. It astonishing, instance, is really activofFrench thehistory ofliterary literature" "history a narrowly localizedculture ityin thecityofParis. True enough, farbeyondits properly does, spreadits influence may,and often it setsthepace fora whole nationalrestricted sphere. Sometimes only at the empire. It can do so, however, ity, fora far-flung in spiritas it movesaway from its home,of expenseof diluting If we realized more intoan imitative attitudinizing. degenerating to of a culture whattherapidspreador imposition entails, keenly the germsof healthier what an extentit conquersby crushing we wouldbe less eagerto welcome uniformizautonomous growths, less readyto think of themas progressive in charing tendencies, acter. A culturemay well be quickenedfrom but its without, or is no whether gain. cultural superior not, supersession byanother, or not it is attended Whether gaindoes not concern by a political to imposea culture us here. That is whythe deliberate attempt no matter and speedily, how backed by good will,is an directly affront tothehuman is backed, notby spirit. When suchan attempt it is thegreatest conceivable ruthlessness, goodwill, but bymilitary it is theverydenialof culture. crime againstthehumanspirit, ourback on all internationalDoes thismeanthatwe mustturn in our nationalisms?Here istic tendencies and vegetateforever thatinternationalism we are confronted is fallacy by theprevalent
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of autonomous development in spiritopposed to the intensive a failure to realizethatinterfrom proceeds cultures. The fallacy and localism are formsthat can be nationalism, nationalism, discuss intergiven various contents. We cannot intelligently we knowwhat it is that we are to be internationalism before by theidea we are so obsessed about. Unfortunately nationalistic to the state and all forms of humanassociation of subordinating ofactivity as conterminous ofall types with therange ofregarding forus to reconcile theidea thatit is difficult boundaries, political of culturewith a national autonomy of a local or restrictedly and with an economic-political purelypoliticalstate-sovereignty internationalism. outcome to be thelarger whatis destined No one can see clearly rather than of thepresent worldconflicts.They may exacerbate the animosities and thustendto strengthen allaynational-political resultcannotwell be of the state. But this deplorable prestige thatthewar otherthana passingphase. Even nowit is evident and, has, in moreways thanone,paved theway foran economic All thosespheres internationalism. a semi-political as a corollary, ofimmediate ends,which, thatrelateto thesatisfaction ofactivity but fromthe vantage point that we have gained,are nothing functions.However means, will tend to become international in detail, willshapethemselves they theinternationalizing processes of of thatgrowing be but thereflection impatience willat bottom withdirect I ends,which withthepreoccupation thehumanspirit as the distribution problems spokeof before. Such transnational of commodities, the control of economic goods,the transportation must eventually the coinage,and numerous others, of highways, forthe simple organizations pass into the handsof international to theuselessly loyalty givetheir reasonthatmenwillnoteternally that are of inherently of functions internationaladministration scope gets to be thoroughly nationalscope. As thisinternational in theecoprestige infatuations withnational ourpresent realized, for the spiritual imbecilities nomic spherewill show themselves thattheyare. theeventual ofculture. todo with development Allthis hasmuch is lookeduponas a decorative appanageoflarge As longas culture
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is politicalunits,one can plausiblyargue that its preservation of the of the maintenance these But units. prestige boundup with excepton the basis of a highly is inconceivable genuineculture it rarelyremains healthyand spiritual consciousness, individual overan interminable area,and in itshigher subtle whenspreadthin bonds. and political to economic it is in no moodto submit reaches thinkable. The culture is hardly Now a generalized international to itself and up to culture unittendsto arrogate national-political in doingso, but onlyat thepriceofseria certain pointit succeeds ofits terrain. If the ofvast portions impoverishment ous cultural units ofthese largestate-controlled and political integrity economic by the growthof international becomesgraduallyundermined raisond'etremust also tend to weaken. theircultural functions, to clingto mustthentendwitheverincreasing intensity Culture unitsthat are smallsocial and to minor politicalunits, relatively thatis to culture as theindividuality not too largeto incorporate theintegraoflife. Betweenthesetwoprocesses, theverybreath tion of economicand politicalforcesinto a world sovereignty culture unitsinto of our present unwieldy and the disintegration of the fetich virileand individual, smallunitswhoselifeis truly may in the sovereignty, the present state,withits uncontrolled has stateoftoday away. The political be trusted tomelt dimfuture long been on trial and has been foundwanting. Our nationalunitsare too smallforpeace, too largeforsafety. They political in of the largeproblems solution are too smallforthe intelligent enrichofdirect ends; theyare toolargeforthefruitful thesphere mentoftheremoter ends,forculture. partof morethanin anyother perhaps It is in theNew World, wideof a geographically nature theglobe,thattheunsatisfactory to beginwith,is of littledepthor individuality spread culture, thesame cultural manifestations, manifest. To findsubstantially details,in oftenindeed to the minutest materialand spiritual, is saddening. It argues New Yorkand Chicagoand San Francisco in its to imitation a shallowness in theculture itself and a readiness thatis not reassuring.Even ifno definite bearers way out of the there is no forthepresent, discernible flatcultural morass is clearly forever in self-sufficiency. It canonlybe ofbenefit goodin basking
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and to find wherein to search out thedepths ofourhearts theyare it does not wanting. If we exaggerate ourweakness, matter;better We have been in the habit of chastening than self-glorification. foressentially quantitative results thatare giving ourselves credit natureand to a favoring set due rather to an unusually favoring than to anything in ourselves. Our vicof economic conditions have beenbrilliant, but they have also too often beenbarren tories withloaded dice has givenus a forculture. The habitofplaying attitudeof passivity-dangerous, that is, for culture. dangerous back opulently in our easy chairs,we expect great Stretching tohappen tous. We havewound up themachinery, cultural things it is; it is "up to" culture to comeforth, and admirable machinery increment of individuality which in heavypanoply. The minute alonemakesculture in theselfand eventually builds up a culture in is the community so somehow overlooked. Canned culture seems mucheasierto administer. nowwe are expecting theEuropeanwar. Just a greatdeal from No doubtthewarand its aftermath willshakeus out ofsomepart ofoursmugness invigorating aircurrents ofcultural andletin a few theseinfluences may soon influence, but, if we are not careful, or becomedilutedinto another hardenintonew standardizations stockofimitative attitudes and reactions. The war and its aftermath cannotbe a sufficient culturalcause, theyare at bestbut astonanother setoffavoring conditions.We neednotbe toomuch ishedif a Periclean culture burst automatically does not somehow intobloom. Sooner orlater weshallhavetogetdownto thehumble to task of exploring and dragging thedepthsof our consciousness the lightwhat sincerebits of reflected experience we can find. they willnotalways be pleasThesebitswillnotalways be beautiful, in we can build. In time, ing,but they willbe genuine. And then cultureplentyof time-forwe musthave patience-a genuine better cultures-will graceour yet,a seriesof linkedautonomous lives. And New York and Chicagoand San Franciscowill live eachin its owncultural notsquinting from one to another strength, to see whichgets ahead in a race forexternal values, but each in a soil ofgenuine serenely oblivious ofits rivalsbecausegrowing cultural values.

Culture, Genuineandspurious

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Culture, Genuine and Spurious Author(s): E. Sapir Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Jan.

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

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