Cultural Variations in Attachment If attachment is innate and biological (Bowlbys theory), then secure attachment should be optimal for

all human variations. If attachments are found in some cultures and not others, suggests attachment not innately determined but related to child rearing methods. Middle ground is that there is some variation between cultures, due to child rearing practises, but secure attachment is most dominant amongst all. Individualist Focuses on individual & independence UK, USA Social loafing occurs (letting others do work)

Collectivist Focuses on group & interdependence Japan, Russia, India

Some studies support Bowlbys view that attachment is universal and innate Cultural Similarities Ainsworth Uganda Study o o Infants, like in USA and UK, used mother as secure base Mothers of securely attached infants showed greater sensitivity than mothers of insecurely attached infants

Tronick et al. o o o Fox o o o o Studied babies from Israeli Kibbutzim who spent most of time in childrens home led by nurses. Attachment tested in Strange Situation with either mother or nurse. Babies appeared equally attached to both except for reunion behaviour which was greater for mother Suggests mother still primary attachment figure despite shared care Studied African tribe from Zaire who live in extended family groups. Infants cared for and fed by different woman but usually slept with mother at night. At 6 months, still showed one primary attachment

Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg o o Did a meta-analysis on 32 studies from 8 different countries observing Strange Situation of 2000 infants Findings: o Secure attachment most common Supports idea that this attachment is healthiest and best o Difference in distribution of insecure attachment: Western- avoidance Non-Western- resistant o Differences in attachment within a culture greater than those between cultures. Evaluation o Over half of studies were from USA o Only 5/32 were from collectivist cultures o Imposed etic- Strange situation designed for US so may only be culture specific and not suitable for all cultures o Rothbaum believes researchers should be producing theories specific to each culture as each culture has their own concepts

Cultural Differences Grossman and Grossman o o o German infants classified as insecurely attached Could be due to cultural variation: German culture prefers interpersonal space between parents and children Children hence dont engage in proximity seeking behaviour so may appear insecurely attached

Takahashi o o o o o o Studied 60 middle class raised at home Japanese babies and mothers with SS. Found 68% securely attached No evidence of insecure-avoidant attachment but 32% insecure-resistant Infants particularly distressed when left alone Could be due to cultural variations: Japanese infants rarely experience separation from mother Strange situation not valid assessment for Japanese

Evaluation that not so representative and may be ethical issues like psychological harm These studies suggest that despite cultural variations, strongest attachment still formed with mother and difference in pattern is due to cultural attitudes and child-rearing methods.