GUIDE TO THE EPITHERMAL ENVIRONMENT

VEIN ATTRIBUTES, HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AND ORIGIN

Renato E. Bobis Joel S. A !ino

February, 1995

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INTRODU"TION
In an epithermal field, the explorationist should be familiar with two important attributes of any hydrothermal system !ein textures"mineralo#y and alteration assembla#es. $hese attributes pro!ide clues on the character of the minerali%in# fluids and position !is a !is the principal minralised conduits. $he purpose of this #uide is to pro!ide an illustrated reference to the common !ein textures and hydrothermal alteration assembla#es in epithermal systems, to summarise models for distribution of alteration and !ein textural assembla#es within simple !ein systems and emphasise characteristics of %ones coincident with #old mineralisation. &uch of the information on the detailed description of the !arious textures in this #uide are based on the detailed study of the 'cott (ode #old)sil!er, deposit in the *a+in#o epithermal field, ,ueensland -.obis, 1992/ which was conducted in con+unction with the study on textural %onin# in epithermal 0uart% !eins -&orrison et al., 1991/ and the ad!anced ar#illic alteration system at 1i%on porphyry copper)#old deposit in the *hilippines -20uino, 1993/. 4!aluation of 0uart% textures was mainly performed by systematic description of !ein outcrops and intersections in diamond drill holes.

"ON"EPTS
5eald et al -1967/ and 5ayba et al. -1965/ ha!e subdi!ided the !olcanic)hosted epithermal deposits into two classes accordin# to the predominant roc8 alteration assembla#e 9adularia)sericite: and 9acid)sulphate:-fi#.1/. .onham -196;/ used the terms 9low sulphur: and 9hi#h sulphur: correspondin#ly. .er#er and 5enley -1969/ recommended replacin# the fluid term 9acid)sulphate: with the mineralo#ic term 98aolinite)alunite: to achie!e a consistent basis with the 9adularia)sericite: #roupin#. <hite and 5eden0uist -1990/ su##ested the terms 9low sulphidation: for the 9adularia) sericite: class and 9hi#h sulphidation: for the 9acid)sulphate: class referrin# to the redox state of the sulphur present in the minerali%in# fluid -i.e., )2 oxidation state for the 9low sulphidtion: and =4 oxidation state for 9hi#h sulphidation:/. $he distincti!e mineral assembla#es characteri%in# each class reflect formation under different physico)chemical conditions. A#i$%S!l&'ate (A$)an#e$ A*+illi# Alte*ation, $he term >ad!anced ar#illic? alteration was initially coined by 5emley and @ones -19;4/ to indicate a special type of clay alteration representin# extreme base leachin# under acidic to !ery acidic conditions. $ypical minerals associated with this alteration are 0uart%-silica/, alunite, 8aolinite, pyrophyllite, andalusite and corundum formin# o!er a temperature ran#e from surface conditions to abo!e 400 oA. ad!anced ar#illic alteration are commonly texture destructi!e and per!asi!e. From then on, other synonymous terms ha!e been introduced li8e >acid)sulphate? systems -after the process of acid leachin# and presence of sulphatesB systems -due to the hi#h sulphur and oxy#en fu#acitiesB 5eden0uist, 1967/.

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C!er the years, explorationists ha!e reco#ni%ed the occurrence of economic #old and copper #rade mineralisation within ad!anced ar#illic systems. 'ilica)enar#ite #old ore bodies ha!e been mined in Dansatsu, @apanB Ahin0uashih, $aiwanB (epanto, *hillippines and *ueblo Eie+o, 1ominican Fepublic to name a few. Fecent ad!ances in #eothermal research -e.#., &atsuhisa et al., 1991/ and isotope systematics of alunite -Fye et al., 1992/ increased the understandin# of the processes and en!ironments of formation of ad!anced ar#illic systems -Fi#.2/. In mineral exploration, ad!anced ar#illic alteration is belie!ed to form the upper parts of epithermal and "or porphyry hydrothermal systems as result of oxidation of 5 2' #as released by deep boilin# fluids or by 'C2 disproportionation of a de#assin# ma#ma. $his is clearly demonstrated by .uchanan:s model -1961/ of a >sin#le pass? ephitermal system -Fi#.2.a/ where silica G alunite G 8aolinite alteration caps a deeper adularia)sericite systems. (i8ewise the spatial relationships of ad!anced ar#illic alteration o!er selected porphyry systems in western De!ada ha!e been demonstrated by 5udson -1963/ -Fi#.2.b/. the abo!e mechanisms in!o8e a deeper heat and fluid source for the formation of ad!aced ar#illic alteration. 5owe!er, this may not always be the case since acid)sulfate weatherin# products can be de!eloped by surficial oxidation of pyrite and other sulphides -Fi#. 2.1c/.

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ADULARIA%SERI"ITE Fare hypo#ene alunite Holinite subsidiary Do pyrophyllite 2dularia Do enar#ite Aommon selenides Fare tellurides Fare .i)phases &n phases in #an#ue Fluorite, chlorite Eariable *b, In, -Au/ (ow acti!ities C2 J '2 lower ' Dear neutral p5 1eep circulatin# meteoric

A"ID%SULPHATE 4xtensi!e hypo#ene alunite &a+or hypo#ene 8aolinite Aommon pyrophyllite Do adularia 4nar#ite = pyrite = co!ellite Do selenides 'ome tellurides 'ome .i)phases &n minerals rare Fare Au biproduct 5i#h acti!ites C2 J '2 hi#h ' (ow p5 &a#matic !olatiles

Figure 1. Comparison of the two classes of volcanic-hosted epithermal deposits (after Morrison, 1991).

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Lo- S!l&i$ation (A$!la*ia%se*i#ite, .uchanan:s -1961/ model -Fi#s. 1 and 2.a/ represents low sulphidation !eins scaled as a sin#le pass boilin# system and the %onin# patterns are interpreted in terms of the beha!iour of fluid under#oin# boilin#. $his models is based on empirical obser!ation on many epithermal systems in wester K'2. $hus, this model does not apply !ery well in systems where ma#matic in!ol!ement and telescopin# are si#nificant -e.#. island arc settin# li8e the *hillipines/. $he outer, more per!asi!e propylitic alteration #rades to adularia)bearin# and intermediate ar#illic alteration near the principal !ein structure. $he propylitic) adularia)intermediate ar#illic alteration pro#ression towards the principal !ein is almost always obser!ed around !eins hostin# the ore shoots. $he wid of the alteration en!elope is #enerally proportional to the thic8ness of the !ein structureB with the intensity and width enhanced by the series of pre)mineralisation faults occurrin# in the footwall and the han#in#wall of the main !ein structure.

VEIN TE.TURES IN LO/ SULPHIDATION VEINS Don)metallic and metallic mineral constitutin# the different hands in 0uart% !eins and associated wall roc8 alteration and chemistry ha!e been described in detail in many deposits and in some, form the basis of the !ein para#enesis -e.#. Hamilli and Chmoto, 1977B Ei8re, 1965B Aasade!all and Chmoto, 1977B 'lac8, 1960/. 5owe!er, textures at hand specimen scale and microscopic structures in 0uart% within, abo!e, below and away from the ore hori%on are rarely described. .ecause #old occurs mainly in nati!e form and in microscopic dimensions in most of the epithermal deposits, it is a worthwhile research to establish if assembla#es of !ein attributes in hand specimen and microscopic scales can be used to discriminate economic, subeconomic and barren epithermal !eins. $hus, distinct !ein textures mi#ht differentiate hi#h #old #rade %ones !is a !is barren ones. 1owlin# and &orrison -1969/ established a scheme in distin#uishin# 0uart% !eins emplaced in the different mineralisation en!ironments -i.e, epithermal, porphyry, plutonic and slate belt/. $hey ha!e considered multiple #enerations of chalcedonic, microcrystalline and comb)textured 0uart% disposed as crustiform and colloform bands and coc8ade o!er#rowths as characteristic of epithermal !eins. $hus, the epithermal en!ironment #enerated a relati!ely uni0ue set of 0uart% textures.

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Fi#ure 2. 4n!ironments and processes of formation of ad!anced ar#illic systems. 2/ represent low sulphidation !ein scaled as a simple pass boilin# system G .uchanan -1961/B ./ ad!anced ar#illic abo!e porphyry Au systems G 5udson -1963/B A/ ad!anced ar#illic as surficial weatherin# products of sulfide)rich deposits -2fter 20uino, 1993/.

&orrison et al. -1990/ and 1on# et al.-in press/ based on systematic description of 0uart% textures in different ,ueensland epithermal deposits, established a formal definition, classification of epithermal 0uart% textures and %onin# of textures in epitehermal !eins. $his proposed nomenclature of 0uart% sullplemented with the classification of 2dams -1920/ formed the framewor8 on which this re!iew was drawn. $he classification is primarily dwscripti!e but textures are #rouped into #enetic classes primary #rowth, replacement and recrystallisation textures. *rimary #rowth textures indicate precipitation in open space, replacement textures results from silica products partally or completely pseudomorphin# earlier mineral precipitates -e.# carbonates, sulphates, adularia/ and the recrystallisation textures encompass morpholo#ical attributes resultin# from the transformation of essentially metastable phases - e.# chalcedony, silica #el, opal, cristobalite, opal)A$/ to 0uart%. $hree !ein textural super%ones -Fi#.3/, broadly correspondin# to below boilin#, within boilin# and abo!e boilin# inter!als of the .uchanan:s -1961/ model - 1on# et al., in pressB &orrison et al., 1991/ constitute assembla#es which can be identified at hand specimen scale. $hus proper identification of these textures can be usefil in predictin# the !ertical position of an epithermal !ein sample within a !ein system.

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EPITHERMAL VEIN TE.TURES Belo- Boilin+ Inte*)al ("*0stalline S!&e*1one, *late I and 2 *ro#radin# fluids which ha!e not under#one !i#orous boilin# is characteri%ed by wea8ly banded crystalline comb 0uart% as the dominant texture. Feplacement textures -those texture mainly inherited from silica #el/ are !irtually absent. $his %one is also characteri%ed by poorly de!eloped crustiform bandin# in dominantly crystalline 0uart%. 2lso !eins in this %one carries sparse sulphides -e# #alena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite/ with sporadic anomalous #old #rades. I$enti2i#ation Arystalline comb 0uart% -*late I/ texture is easily reco#ni%ed by parallel euhedral prisms of 0uart% perpendicular to the walls and pro+ectin# into the free space. Indi!idual crystals are #enerally %oned with each %one defined by multitudes of fluid inclusions and impurities. Indi!idual crystals could also ha!e alternatin# clear and mil8y %ones. Alosely)spaced 0uart% terminations from opposin# walls produce a 9do#)tooth: texture. O*i+in $he coarse #rained and faceted nature of the 0uart% indicate slower rate of precipitation, #radual coolin# of the fluids and silica saturation controlled by 0uart%. $hus, relati!ely slow chan#in# conditions in an open space durin# crystal #rowth. *late 1 Arystalline comb 0uart% with wea8 crustiform texture. <ith propylitised wallroc8s clasts. *late 2 <ea8ly banded coarse crystalline comb 0uart% carryin# sparse sulphides -blac8 dots/. 'ulphides consist of L0.5 mm #rains of sphalerite, #alena and chalcopyrite. 0.24 #"t 2u o!er 1.0 m.

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Plate 4

Plate 5 /it'in Boilin+ Inte*)al ("*!sti2o*3%"ollo2o*3 S!&e*1one,

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*late 3)12 .oilin# of hydrothermal fluids ha!e been to be a principal menchanism in precipitatin# precious metals and associated #an#ue in epithermal deposits. $he !i#orous boilin# inter!al in characteri%ed by increase in p5, coolin#, loss of !olatiles and a faster rate of deposition. Indicators of hydrothermal boilin# include the presence of coexistin# li0uid and #as)rich fluid inclusions in minerali%ed 0uart%, extensi!e !ein brecciation, !ein adularia, bladed calcite and pronounced crustiform) colloform bandin# in 0uart% !eins. $his inter!al #enerally coincides with the locus of economic mineralisation. $his %one is characteri%ed by consistent banin#. $here is a spectrum of textures and minerals within the boilin# inter!al but they are almost always entirely within bands. I$enti2i#ation $he indi!idual bands could !ary from L10 m to se!eral centimeters in thic8ness. .ands are mainly composed of the different !arities of silica -i.e., chalcedonic, microcrystalline to crystalline 0uart%/, sulphides, clays -illite, mixed layer I"', 8aolinite/, adularia, and calcite. $he bands may simply be crustiform -*late 3/ and defined by !ariable composition and physical morpholo#y -#rain si%e, shape, colour/. Aomplex inter#rowths of sulphides and sulphosalts includin# sphalerite, #alena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, hessite and electrum could occur as bands intersitial to, and inter#rown with 0uart%, and blebs within 0uart% -*late 4/. <ell)de!eloped colloform texture occurrin# dominantly in chalcedonic 0uart% is characteri%ed by fine rhythmic bands formin# micro)botroyoidal to micro) mammillary structures -*late 5/. $he indi!idual bands are L10m up to 2 cm wide. $he fine rhythmic bands are typified by !ariability in the #rain si%e of 0uart% from cryptocrystalline -i.e., beyond the resolution of ordinary microscope/ to microcrystalline. &ineral deposition can be accomplished by simple, orderly crustification toward the center of the !ein -*late 3/. 5owe!er, common textures in epithermal !eins point to hydrothermal brecciation and tectonic fracturin# episodically interruptin# and inducin# mineral precipitation. 4arlier !ein material is cut and"or brecciated and subse0uently en!eloped by !ein material of later sta#e -*lates ;, 7, and 6/. $he de!elopment of concentric bands of 0uart% with the direction of #rowth away from the fra#ment is called coc8ade texture -*late 6/. &olds characteri%ed by radiatin# a##re#ates of acicular -needle)li8e/ ca!ities trans#ress crustiform)colloform banded 0uart% -*late 9/. $he ca!ities contain 0uart% and 8aolinite su##estin# they represent former adularia needle sites. Aati!ies locally contain 8aolinite and fine #ranular 0uart% su##estin# partial hydrothermal replacement of adularia needles by 0uart% and partial hydrothermal replacement and"or weatherin# of remainin# adularia by 8aolinite.

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&oss texture has an o!erall appearance similar to moss"dendritic !e#etation. Knder plane polari%ed li#ht, this texture occurs as fine #ranular a##re#ates of apparently spheroidal #rains outlined by concentric %ones of unwor8able fluid)rich and decrepitate inclusions and"or concentration of impurities on the rims of the 0uart% crystals. 1on# -1990/ and &orrison et al. -1990/ attributed the rounded forms to represent recrystallisation of silica #el preser!in# the ori#inal structure and impurities in the 0uart% crystals. $he adularia in epithermal 0uart% !eins exhibits characteristic textures which form an important component in differentiatin# the textural assembla#es -1on#, 1991/. 1on# -1992/ has reco#ni%ed four textural types of adularia in epithermal 0uart% !eins -i/ coarse #rained crystalline, -ii/ fine #rained crystalline, -iii/ microcrystalline or moss, -i!/ needle pseudomorphs. 2lthou#h #enerally pseudomorphed by 0uart%, 8aolinite and illite, the adularia has distincti!e morpholo#ies such as bladed or needle)li8e pseudoorphs, rhombic trains and wed#e)li8e terminations that are typical of adularia in epithermal !eins -e.#. *late 10/. In hand specimen, the adularia in !eins occurs as euhedral to subhedral crystals disposed in sel!a#es alon# 0uart% bands, as a##re#ates of blaed or needle)li8e pseudomorphs or inter#rown with 0uart%. Aoarse #rained -M1mm/ adularia is dominantly associated with crystalline comb 0uart% -*late 7/. 2dularia crystals form euhedral, rhombic trains sometimes with wed#e)li8e terminations mainly disposed alon# !ein mar#ins. Aoarse #rained adualria also forms as a component in coc8ade bands. Fine #rained adularia which usually form tabular crystals is #enerally inter#rown with crystalline 0uart% -*late 7/. 2##re#ates of acicular adularia form discrete bands in chalcedony. Fadiatin# a##re#ates of relic fine adularia needles also trans#ress chalcedony bands. O*i+in $he repetiti!ely banded 0uart% fillin#s in ore hori%ons are indicati!e of open)space deposition and reflect fluctuatin# hydrothermal fluid conditions durin# mineral precipitation. .anded 0uart% is so common in precious metal deposits that it has been considered a dia#nostic feature of epithermal deposits -.uchanan, 1961/. Ro+e*s -1917/ first coined the term 9colloform: to describe the assembla#e of spherical, botryoidal, remiform, stalactitic, and mammillary forms. $he colloform texture is thou#ht to be precipitated as a primary bandin# while in the #el state or by diffusional or rhythmic precipitation throu#h colloidal media -2dams, 1920/. *reser!ation is thou#ht to occur !ia concentration and multista#e diffusion formin# the colloform textures. $hus, the 0uart% bands showin# colloform bandin# could indicate 0uart% #rowin# on earlier colloform bands or recrystallisation of primary banded silica #el with possibilities of silica #el)chalcedony)0uart% order of transformation.

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S&!* -192;/ called the coc8ade texture as 9orbicular !eins: and su##ested that the fra#ments were supported by 9hi#hly concentrated: or dense solution and successi!ely precipitated bands around the fra#ments from the enclosin# fluids. $his model is unli8ely in epithermal systems since hydrothermal fluids responsible for mineralisation are typically of !ery low salinity -i.e., !ery dilute/ and under low pressure. 2 more li8ely explanation would be the deposition of 0uart% around pried off wallroc8 durin# hydrothermal brecciation, tri##ered by rapid pressure drops and release of !olatiles, could account for the 9open space: conditions around newly created clasts and subse0uent silica precipitation. 'udden rupturin# would then result in decompressional boilin# and the emplacement of boilin# fluids into the resultin# fractures and breccias. Resi$en#e o2 Gol$ Nold is #enerally present in the ore inter!al as nati!e #old and electrum. Irre#ular #old and electrum #rains of different si%es occur as free #rains, #rains associated and within base metals, sil!er telluride, tetrahedrite, pet%ite and pyrite and in fractures -*lates 11 and 12/. /it'in Boilin+ 6one 7 List o2 Plates *late 3 Arustiform 0uart% G alternatin# bands of chalcedonic 0uart%, fine clear and mil8y 0uart% and clear)crystalline comb 0uart%. $he other half of the core point to simple symmetrical bandin# parallel to the !ein wall. *late 4 .ase metal)rich crustiform and colloform banded 0uart% !ein. .ands consist of mil8y microcrystalline to crystalline 0uart%, coarse sulphides and adularia -pseudomorphed by hydrothermal 0uart% and 8aolinite/. *late 5 Aolloform bands G finely banded chalcedony with botryoidal surfaces. Aolloform bands alternate with mil8y and clear crystalline 0uart% bands. *late ; Aoarse crystalline sphalerite, #alena, chalcopyrite, hessite, tennantite)tetrahedrite and electrum occurrin# as bands as, matrix to a !ein breccia 6.01 #"t 2u o!er 1.0m. *late 7 .reccia in the boilin# inter!al. Alasts of crustiform)colloform banded 0uart%)sulphide -center and upper ri#ht/ and !eined silicified wallroc8 -left/ o!er#rown by crustiform bands of fibrous chalcedony -#rey/ and saccharoidal 0uart% -white/ 7.92 #"t 2u o!er 1.0m. *late 6

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Aoc8ade texture G coc8ade rims of crustiform banded 0uart% around wallroc8 fra#ments. Fine bands of mil8y and clear crystalline 0uart% pro#resses to crystallinecomb 0uart% with 9do# tooth: texture. *late 9 Fadiatin# a##re#ate of acicular -needle)li8e/ ca!ities trans#ressin# crustiform) colloform banded chalcedonic 0uart%. Aa!ities contain 0uart% and 8aolinite pseudomorphin# adularia needles which #rew ori#inally with the banded 0uart%. *late 10 Aoarse #rained euhedral adularia -now lar#ely 8aolinite/ alon# !ein sel!a#es of mil8y crystalline 0uart%. $ypical adualaria in deep !eins. *late 11 Aomplex inter#rowths of #alena -#n/, chalcopyrite -cpy/, hessite -hs/ and electrum -elec/. Irre#ular electrum #rains occur as inclusions in #rains of hessite 6.91 #"t 2u o!er 1m. field of !iew O 0.17mm. *late 12 2##re#ates of coarse electrum #rains -finenessO;50/ formin# bands and clots within !ein 0uart%. Field of !iew O 1.02mm.

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Plate 8 Arustiform 0uart% G alternatin# bands of chalcedonic 0uart%, fine clear and mil8y 0uart% and clear)crystalline comb 0uart%. $he other half of the core point to simple symmetrical bandin# parallel to the !ein wall.

Plate 9 .ase metal)rich crustiform and colloform banded 0uart% !ein. .ands consist of mil8y microcrystalline to crystalline 0uart%, coarse sulphides and adularia -pseudomorphed by hydrothermal 0uart% and 8aolinite/.

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Plate : Aolloform bands G finely banded chalcedony with botryoidal surfaces. Aolloform bands alternate with mil8y and clear crystalline 0uart% bands.

Plate ; Aoarse crystalline sphalerite, #alena, chalcopyrite, hessite, tennantite)tetrahedrite and electrum occurrin# as bands as, matrix to a !ein breccia 6.01 #"t 2u o!er 1.0m.

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Plate < .reccia in the boilin# inter!al. Alasts of crustiform)colloform banded 0uart%)sulphide -center and upper ri#ht/ and !eined silicified wallroc8 -left/ o!er#rown by crustiform bands of fibrous chalcedony -#rey/ and saccharoidal 0uart% -white/ 7.92 #"t 2u o!er 1.0m.

Plate = Aoc8ade texture G coc8ade rims of crustiform banded 0uart% around wallroc8 fra#ments. Fine bands of mil8y and clear crystalline 0uart% pro#resses to crystallinecomb 0uart% with 9do# tooth: texture.

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1;

Plate > Fadiatin# a##re#ate of acicular -needle)li8e/ ca!ities trans#ressin# crustiform) colloform banded chalcedonic 0uart%. Aa!ities contain 0uart% and 8aolinite pseudomorphin# adularia needles which #rew ori#inally with the banded 0uart%.

Plate 4? Aoarse #rained euhedral adularia -now lar#ely 8aolinite/ alon# !ein sel!a#es of mil8y crystalline 0uart%. $ypical adualaria in deep !eins.

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Plate 44 Aomplex inter#rowths of #alena -#n/, chalcopyrite -cpy/, hessite -hs/ and electrum -elec/. Irre#ular electrum #rains occur as inclusions in #rains of hessite 6.91 #"t 2u o!er 1m. field of !iew O 0.17mm.

Plate 45 2##re#ates of coarse electrum #rains -finenessO;50/ formin# bands and clots within !ein 0uart%. Field of !iew O 1.02mm. Abo)e Boilin+ Inte*)al ("'al#e$oni#, "a*bonate%Re&la#e3ent S!&e*1one, Plates 48 an$ 49 Chalcedonic quart , !laded pseudomorphs and massive car!onate characteri e this te"tural one (Fig.#). Massive and$or !laded car!onate ma% or ma% not remain, depending on whelther the s%stem is isolated from later fluids effectivel%. I$enti2i#ation

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Aommon replacement textures include 0uart% a##re#ates mimic8in# bladed carbonate and adularia precursors. Ksually, massi!e chalcedonic 0uart% has patches or crude bands of lattice blades. *late 13 shows calcite blades replaced by elon#ated 0uart% crystals. $he extreme thinness of blades, lamellar partin#s, rhombohedral clea!a#e and wed#e)li8e terminations are characteristics of primary bladed carbonate -&orrison et al., 1990/. 'imilar blades composed of an8erite occur as late infill in !eins. O*i+in 2dams -1920/ noted that the 0uart% laminae do not #enerally pseudomorph the rhombohedral clea!a#e directions of the pre)existin# calcite, but replace alon# a set of parallel planes. $hese planes represent the prominent lamellar partin# parallel to the basal pinacoid of carbonate minerals. Feplacement thus proceeds more easily alon# these planes than planes normal to them. $he 0uart% formin# the parallel blades exhibits !ariable #rain si%es or with different contents of impurities. $his selecti!e replacement produces a set of #enerally closely)spaced parallel planes. *late 13 (attice blades G partial to complete replacement of carbonate blades by a##re#ates of 0uart% #rains. *late 14 Ahalcedonic 0uart% G massi!e chalcedonic 0uart% with >phantom? !einlets. Faint multidirectional L0.2 cm wide !einlets trans#ressin# chalcedonic 0uart%. Knder the microscope, these !einlets either disappear or only shom subtle outlines of the !einlet mar#ins.

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Plate 48 (attice blades G partial to complete replacement of carbonate blades by a##re#ates of 0uart% #rains.

Plate 49 Ahalcedonic 0uart% G massi!e chalcedonic 0uart% with >phantom? !einlets. Faint multidirectional L0.2 cm wide !einlets trans#ressin# chalcedonic 0uart%. Knder the microscope, these !einlets either disappear or only shom subtle outlines of the !einlet mar#ins. A"ID SULPHATE (ADVAN"ED ARGILLI", SYSTEMS 2d!anced ar#illic alteration appears to be an inte#ral part of the upper portions of ma#matic hydrothermal systems -5udson, 1963B 5eald, 1967B 'illitoe, 1992/. 5owe!er, they are not exlusi!e to these systems since assembla#es somewhat similar to ad!anced ar#illic assembla#es can form under super#ene"weatherin# conditions as exemplified at Areede, Aolorado -'te!en and 4aton, 1975 and .eth8e and Fye, 1979/, Found &ountain, De!ada -'ander, 1966/, Hidston and &t. (eyshon, 2ustralia -.ird et al., 1969/. &ore recently, 2llibone -1993/ in his wor8 at $emora mine, 1am"(ilydale and *ea8 5ill in eastern 2ustralia has shown that ad!anced ar#illic

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alteration may also de!elop synchronously with re#iaonal deformational e!ents and be focused alon# ma+or shear %ones. In porphyry copper systems, ad!anced ar#illic alteration has been #enerally obser!ed to o!erprint the porphyry system. 5udson -1963/ interprets this as a late sta#e process in porphyry e!olution. In contrast 'ilitoe -1964/ su##ested that it may ha!e formed in the early sta#es of porphyry history but be of lon#er duration, conse0uently o!erprintin# the other porphyry)related alteration %ones. 'patially, ad!anced ar#illic alteration occurs from 0 to M 18m abo!e the porphyry systems implyin# a deep to shallow o!erprintin# relationship -Eilla and 'illitoe, 1991B 'illitoe, 1992/. $his deep o!erprintin# can be explained by the retreat of the exsol!in#, coolin# pluton -5udson, 1963/ or alternati!ely, the #ra!itational collapse of the system coupled by the rapid de#radation of the paleosurface by erosion coe!al with hydrothermal acti!ity -'illitoe, 1991/. In this scenario, the ad!anced ar#illic alteration is related to the de!elopment of the porphyry system, therefore a #radation from deeper le!el hi#h temperature ad!anced ar#illic assembla#e -andalusite, corundum/ to intrmediate temperature -pyrophyllite, diaspore/ to shallow le!el low temperature assembla#e -8aolinite, chalcedonic silica, alunite/ is expected. 2t the deeper le!els of the ad!anced ar#illic alteration, relics of early porphyry alteration -potassic, phyllic)ar#illic and proplitic/ can be reco#ni%ed. Furthermore, the #eometry and morpholo#y of these porphyry)related ad!anced ar#illic systems should be broadly compatible with the shape of the exsol!ed !apour plume which is rou#hly circular -5udson, 1963/. Aorollary to this concept of porphyry)related or intrusi!e) centred ad!anced ar#illic alteration is that structures feedin# the ad!anced ar#illic system should be broadly dippin# towards the heat source. 5owe!er, these feeders could also be multidirectional compatible, with the de!elopment of deeper le!el potassic"'AA !eins, but still centred around the porphyry system. 2d!anced 2r#illic $extural and Aommpositional Ionin# 2bo!e Nold)Fich *orphyry Aopper 1eposit $he #old)rich porphyry copper deposit is located on the southern flan8 of the currently acti!e &t. *inatubo strato!olcano, in the pro!ince of Iambales, (u%on island, *hilippines. It contains a pro!en reser!e ot 190 million tones at 0.355P Au, 0.7; #"t 2u and 2.0 #"t 2u based on 0.20P Au cut)off. Late*al "o3&ositional 6onation $he main sta#e ad!anced ar#illic at the 1i%on porphyry copper deposit in the *hillipines exhibits textural as compositional %onation as depicted in Fi#. It can be di!ided into an upper per!asi!e hori%ontal blan8et and lower %one of structurally controlled !eins and sel!a#es. $he per!asi!e portion is about 150 to 200 metres thic8 where it forms an undulatory surface or fin#er)li8e bodies drapin# and o!erprintin# the 'AA, potassic and propylitic alteration %ones -*late 15/. Dear the present surface

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the ad!anced ar#illic alteration is per!asi!e, texture destructuti!e and completely obliterates all pre!ious alteration. $he per!asi!e blan8etli8e portion of the main sta#e ad!anced ar#illic alteration exhibits lateral compositional %onin# -Fi# 4/. It is centred on massi!e silica pods which are dominantly composed of microcrystalline 0uart%, alunite and late diaspore. $hese pods are >chalcedonic? in character and are porous, !u##y and brecciated -*late 1;/. 4n!elopin# these pods is an inner pyrophyllite dominant en!elope -*late 17/ and an outer 8aolinite en!elope -*late 16/. $he pyrophllite dominant en!elope is composed of fine #rained 0uart%, pyrophyllite, illite, 8aolinite while the outer en!elope is mostly fine 0uart% and 8aolinite. $he boundaries between these %ones are transitional. In #eneral as one mo!es away from the pods, the alunite and 0uart% proportions diminishes, the pyrophyllite)illite ratio decreases and the intensity and the crystallinity of 8aoline -i.e dic8iteQ/ ad+acent to the pods to less ordered but more abundant away from the pods. *yrophyllite is intimately associated with massi!e silica pods but away from them, illite appears and is inter#rown with pyrophyllite. 'imilarly, the abundance of pyrophyllite decreases with increasin# distance from the pods. Cre minerals pyrite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite)tennantite, pyrite enar#ite are preferably associated with the massi!e silica pods. Ve*ti#al "o3&ositional 6onation $he !ertical %onation in the main ad!ance ar#illic alteration at 1i%on is defined by a transition from predominant 0uart%)musco!ite"illite)8aolinite base metal assembla#e at depth to a predominant 0uart%)pyrophyllite"illite G 8aolinite)alunite)diaspore assembla#e in the upper portions of the system. In the field this transition is mar8ed by the per!asi!e, texture destructi!e of roc8s in the upper %one narrowin# down to discrete fractures of the 0uart%)musco!ite %one at depth. $he transition between the two %ones is mar8ed by the coexistence of pyrophyllite G illite, the common presence of ore minerals G pyrite, chalcopyrite, marcasite and tennantite)tetrahedrite and the compositional chan#e of tennantite)tetrahedrite. $he apperance and coexistence of illite)pyrophyllite within the immediate en!elope of the massi!e silica pods occurs both laterally and !ertically. $he ore minerals pyrite, chalcopyrite, marcasite and tennantite)tetrahedrite are common to both the deep and shallow portions of the system. I$enti2i#ation 9&assi!e 0uart%)alunite alteration is often mista8en for silicification because in surface outcrop it forms lar#e hard boulders. $he presence of alunite can often be confirmed simply by scratchin# a freshly bro8en surface with the point of a pic8B alunite -hardness 4/ scratches to a white powder where as silica dosen:t scratch and a sil!er strea8 of the pic8 is left across the roc8. $he alunite is commonly coarse

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enou#h to be reco#ni%ed with a hand lens, it has a characteristic crystalline appearance with numerous rectan#ular faces which #lint in the sun: -after .a8er, 1993/. 2 field tes, de!eloped by 'challer -from INA $echnical Dotes, !.1, no. 3, 1965/?R boil the powdered sample with water or with hydrochloric acid for se!eral mi+utesB after allowin# the powder to settle, pour off the li0uid and repeat the operation to insure the remo!al of all soluble sulphates. 1ry the powder and heat to a dull red. 2#ain boil in water and, after settlin#, pour offsome of the clear li0uid. $o this add a small fra#ment or a solution of barium chloride. If the mineral is alunite, a hea!y white precipitate will form. .arium sulphate causes precipitation of barite. .e sure the water used in the test does not contain sulphate -usually sweetish in taste/?. *late 15 Field photo of steeply dippin# ad!anced ar#illic cross)cuttin# potassic alteration. *late 1; Fepresentati!e hand specimen of massi!e silica alunite pod showin# !u##y, porous texture. In some cases the !u#s are filled with euhedral 0uart%, alunite and pyrite.

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Plate 4: Field photo of steeply dippin# ad!anced ar#illic cross)cuttin# potassic alteration.

Plate 4; Fepresentati!e hand specimen of massi!e silica alunite pod showin# !u##y, porous texture. In some cases the !u#s are filled with euhedral 0uart%, alunite and pyrite.

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Plate 4< Fepresentati!e hand specimen of 8aolinite dominant en!elope.

Plate 4= Fepresentati!e hand specimen of an ad!anced ar#illic alteration -0uart%,pyrophyllite"illite, 8aolinite/ with relics of porphyry)related alteration.

HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION IN A LO/ SULPHIDATION BONAN6A VEIN SYSTEM

$he *a+in#o epithermal field in ,ueensland, 2ustralia encompasses around ;5 s0. 8m. $he only producin# !ein is the 'cott (ode which contains 1.23 million tons of 9.4 #"t #old and 36.0 #"t sil!er -about 12 tons of #old and 47 tons of sil!er/. 2mon# the !olcaic)hosted epithermal #old)sil!er deposists, 'cott (ode !ein is bonan%a with shoots !ery hi#h #old)sil!er #rades -M100 G 2000 #"t 2uB M50 to 5000 #"t 2#/. 2round 17P of the resource contains more than 30.0 #"t 2u. $he 'cott (ode #old) sil!er deposit pro!ides an example of an epithermal deposit of the low sulphidation type proposed by <hite and 5eden0uist -1990/ which is e0ui!alent to the adularia) sericite type proposed by 5ayba et al. -1965/. &ineralo#ically, it fits well in the adularia)sericite #roup with no hi#h sulphidation metals -e.#., enar#ite and other copper sulphosalts/, a sericite -illite/)dominant alteration assembla#e and 0uart%) adularia !eins -.obis, 1992/.

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$able 1. shows the mineralo#ical components of the !arious alteration types. $he !arious alteration assembla#es are best exhibited in andsitic !olcanics. $he stable hydrothermal mineralo#ical components occurrin# in the wall roc8s ad+acent to the principal !ein is illustrated in Fi#. 5. $able 2 presents a summary of alteration types, assembla#es and their relation to the principal !ein. P*o&0liti# $he propylitised roc8 units retain primary textures and fabric. I$enti2i#ation $he propylitic assembla#e in the andesitic roc8s is characteri%ed by partial to complete albite)chlorite)0uart%)epidote)calcite replacement of the pla#ioclases, chlorite)calcite)an8erite)epidote)actinolite alteration of pyroxenes, pyrite)pyrrhotite) chalcopyrite)rutile replacement of primary ma#netite"ilmenite and an ele!ated content of calcite as replacement and as cross)cuttin# !einlets -$able 1/. 'electi!e replacement of alteration minerals within this assembla#e per!erse primary phenocrysts and #roundmass textures. $he labradorite to andesine pla#ioclase #rains are mainly replaced by nearly pure albite startin# at the rims and alon# clea!a#e planes and fractures. Aoarse boo8s of chlorite locally with pyrite, epidote and calcite replace mafic phenocryst. *la#ioclase and mafic phenocrysts are partially replace by epidote. 4pidote locally occurs as radiatin# fans, in ca!ities or in !eins with calcite and 0uart%. 2ctinolite with chlorite and calcite partally replace mafic phenocrysts. $he #roundmass consists of albitised pla#ioclases, chloritised pyroxene prisms, primary apatite needles and minor rutile, pyrite, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite after primary ma#netite. @l!i$%3ine*al E !ilib*ia D!*in+ P*o&0liti# Alte*ation Feplacement reactions from pla#ioclases and pyroxenes to epidote, chlorite, and albite point to essentially isochemical beha!iour of the reactions. $he ori#inal constituents -pla#ioclase, pyroxene/ are altered with addition of water, AC 2 and little addition or remo!al of other elements. For example, alteration of labradorite to epidote re0uires Aa =2 to be added to the reaction. $his Aa =2 could be con!eniently be deri!ed from further labradorite replacement by albite.

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Alte*ation T0&e *ropylitic

Asse3bla+es

Ae0 TeBt!*e

Relation to P*in#i&al Vein

t'e

Ahlorite)albite) epidote) 0uart%=actinolite=pyr ite)pyrrhotite)rutile) chalcopyrite ,uart%)adularia) calcite)chlorite)2& musco!ite)pyrite) chalcopyrite)rutile

2lbite after primary *er!asi!eB increasin# pla#ioclaseBchlorite,c intensity towards the alcite, epidote after principal !ein structure pyroxenes 2dularia after albite *er!asi!e below the intense inter ar#illicB does not contain si#nificant minerali%ation

(ow) temperature potassic

Intermediate 2r#illic"'ilicic

,uart%)illite)mixed) ,uart, illite, mixed) 4n!elopes the precious layer I"' =8aolinite) layer I"' after metal)bearin# !einsB pyrite)chalcopyrite feldspar and chlorite per!asi!e and intensely de!eloped in the ore iner!alB silicic %ones form inner haloes to the principal !ein Haolinite)0uart%) pyrite 'iderite)an8erite) calcite=pyrite Haolinite o!erprint 4xtensi!e o!erprint on on illite, mixed)layer all alteration types I"' 'iderite after all. hydrothermal alteration minerals *er!asi!e distributionB intense alon# permeable units

(ate)sta#e Haolinite (ate)sta#e Aarbonate

Lo- Te3&e*at!*e Potassi# (a$!la*ia, $he adularia)bearin# alteration is desi#nated as low)temperature potassic -adularia/ to emphasi%e the difference with the potassic or H)silicate alteration type encountered in the porphyry copper en!ironment. $he low temperature monoclinic H)feldspar which crystalli%ed from hydrothermal solution particularly as open)space or !ein fill in the epithermal en!ironment is termed adularia -1eer, 5owie and Iussman, 19;;B Aerny and Ahapman, 196;/. $he classic potassic alteration in the porphyry copper en!ironment is characteri%ed by the hi#h temperature -M300oA/ assembla#e of orthoclase, secondary biotite, anhydrite, apatite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, ma#netite and bornite -$itley and .eane, 1975/.

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I$enti2i#ation $he alteration assembla#e includes adularia, 0uart%, chlorite, calcite, musco!ite -2& mica/, pyrite, chalcopyrite and rutile"anatase -$able 1/. $his altertion type is conspicuous in hand specimen le!el as coalescin# reddish pin8 en!elopes around the 0uart%)adularia)calcite !einlets -*late 19/. 'odium cobaltinitrite stainin# of the host roc8s employin# procedures recommednded by 5utchison -1979/ confirmed the presence of per!asi!e H)feldspar -*late 19/. $he distincti!e texture of this alteration is the partial to complete replacement of pla#ioclase phenocryst and the alteration albite -from earlier propylitic/ by nearly pure adularia. 2dularia is almost always accompanied by 0uart%, musco!ite -2& mica/, chlorite, calcite, rutile"anatase and pyrite. Cptically, the adularia #rains are clear #rey with distincti!e anomalous, mottled extinction formin# a 9tle:)li8e appearance. $he adularia replaces primary pla#ioclase and albite alon# #rain boundaries and clea!a#e planes and de!elops in fractures -*late 20/. 2dularia may also occur as 9o!er#rowths: alon# ed#es of pla#ioclase #rains or as micro!einlets within, ad+acent to and cuttin# primary pla#ioclase sites. $he albite #rains and albitised pla#ioclases show pro#ressi!e replacement by adularia particularly in areas where there is e!idence of enhanced fluid flow -e.#. proximal to faults, 0uart% !eins/ and fa!ourable litholo#ies. 'econdary 0uart% is more prominent alteration product of the #roundmass relati!e to the propylitic altertion. $he distincti!e pla#ioclase microlites preser!ed in the propylitic alteration are replaced by fine to medium #rained e0ui#ranular a##re#ates of 0uart% and sericite -*late 20/. $he mica)li8e minerals associated with adularia show sharp symmetrical reflection in the S)ray diffracto#ram at 10 confirmin# 2& mica structure. $his 001 crystallo#raphic trace is different from the broader reflection of illite associated with intermediate ar#illic alteration. Illite also has lower birefrin#ence than sericite. *yrite and occasional chalcopyrite are present mainly as disseminations and are occasional in !einlets with adularia. $he sulphides associated with the low temperature potassic alteration #enerally attain less than 2 !olume percent. $hus the 8ey textures to this alteration transition include the adularia replacement of albite and the dramatic increase in silicification of prominent pla#ioclase laths in the #roundmass by medium #rained e0ui#ranular 0uart%. @l!i$ Mine*al E !ilib*ia D!*in+ A$!la*ia Alte*ation $he replacement of albite to adularia indicates reactions which are lar#ely potassium metasomatism reactions accompanied by silicification. *otassium metasomatism and silicification are common for ascendin# and coolin# solutions affectin# roc8s in or

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close to ma+or upflow %ones in acti!e #eothermal systems and many epithermal deposits -Ni##enbach, 1964B .uchanan, 1961/. .rowne -1979/ has related abundance of adularia with increasin# permeability and increased fluid roc8 ratios in the ma+or upflow re#ions. $he transition of propylitic to low)temperature potassic is also related with coolin# of the pro#radin# fluid. $he probable mechanisms for coolin# includeB i/ mixin#, ii/ coolin# by massi!e incursion of #roundwaters, iii/ boilin#, or i!/ conducti!e heat loss attendin# fluid con!ection. *late 19 (ow temperature potassic -adularia/ altered andesite porphyry intrusi!e. 1istincti!e pin8ish alteration on hand specimen scale. $he yellowish stains in the !einlets and !einlet en!elopes are effects of the sodium cobltinitrate stainin# which confirms thepresence of per!asi!e H)felspar. *otassic assembla#e consists of adularia)chlorite) calcite)0uart%. *late 20 *hotomicro#raph. Hey replacement texture in potassic -adularia/ alteration. *la#ioclase and albitised pla#ioclase -lab/ partially replaced alon# rims by adularia -adu/. Field of !iew O 1.06 mm.

Plate 4>

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Plate 5? Inte*3e$iate A*+illi# $he intermediate ar#illic alteration type is per!asi!e. It is superimposed on propylitic and low temperture potassic -adularia/ alteration types. $he distribution of intense intermediate ar#illic alteration where primary textures are almost always completely obliterated is shown in fi#ure 5. I$enti2i#ation $he intermediate ar#illic alteration is a texture)destructi!e a##re#ate of essential ilite -showin# broad 10 T reflection in S)ray diffracto#ram/, and"or mixedGlayer illite"smectite, 0uart%, and pyrite -$able 1/. Alay composition su##ests that the alteration is best classified as intermediate and not as ad!anced ar#illic -5emley and @ones, 19;4/. $he relic phenocryst sites -i.e., of pla#ioclase, alteration albite and adularia/ in andesitic !olcanics and co#enetic intrusi!es are now masses of L50 micron)si%ed fla8es of illite and"or mixed)layer illite"smectite, and 0uart% -*late 21 and 22/. $he essential clays dominantly occupy pore spaces between 0uart% #rains pointin# to its hydrothermal ori#in. In hand specimen, the clay)0uart% are li#ht #rey to pale #reen in colour. $he #roundmass is altered to patches of clays, anhedral 0uart%, rutile"anatase -after ma#netite"ilmenite/, pyrite and occasional chalcopyrite. Haolinite o!erprints intermediate ar#illic alteration and is therefore mainly late)sta#e. Sili#i#

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$he outer intermediate ar#illic en!elopes to the principal !ein structure and the low temperature potassic -adularia/ types pro#ress inward to a silicic %one characteri%ed by moderate to stron# de!elopment of multidirectional 0uart% !eins"!einlets and almost monomineralic alteration of the host roc8s -Fi#. 5/. Cutside the principal !ein structure, stron#ly silicified host roc8 also forms metre)scale haloes on discontinuous auriferous 0uart% !eins or stowc8wor8 %ones. $he silicic haloes #rade outward to the more per!asi!e en!elopes of intermediate ar#illic alteration. 'ilicification are also locally de!eloped alon# the faulted contact betwwn the 0uart%one sandstones and andesitic !olcanics. I$enti2i#ation Alays of the intermediate ar#illic alteration and relic pla#ioclases by fine to medium mosaic 0uart% -*late 21/, illite and 8aolinite. Illite and subordinate 8aolinite are seen to be inter#rown with 0uart%. 'ilicic alteration renders almost total obliteration of the primary textures lea!in# only 9#host: textural features. *yrite occurs as dissemination in silicificied roc8 and may attain 3)5 !olume P. 'ilicic alteration also hosts disseminated sphalerite, #alena and chalcopyrite.

@l!i$%3ine*al E !ilib*ia D!*in+ Inte*3e$iate A*+illi# an$ Sili#i# Alte*ation $he intermediate ar#illic assembla#e indicates intense hydro#en metasomatism of earler minerals. $he transition from potassic -adularia/ to intermediate ar#illic represents a shift of p5, temperature, cation "5= ratio in the mineral)fluid e0uilibria. $he shift to intermediate ar#illic stability field can be accomplished by coolin# or mixin# -=attendant coolin#/ with more acidic fluids. *late 21 $ypical intermediate ar#illic)altered andesitic la!a. *artial to complete obliteration of primary textures. *la#ioclase phenocrysts replaced by a##re#ates of 0uart%, mixed) layer I"' and pyrite. *late 22 *hotomicro#raph. Hey replacement texture in intermediate ar#illic alteration. Illite) 0uart% assembla#e replacin# pla#ioclase phenocrysts. Nroundmass consists of 0uart%, illite. (ate siderite replacin# clays and feldspars. Field of !iew O 1.15mm.

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Plate 54

Plate 55 *hotomicro#raph. Hey replacement texture in intermediate ar#illic alteration. Illite) 0uart% assembla#e replacin# pla#ioclase pehnocrysts. Nroundmass consists of 0uart%, illite. (ate siderite replacin# clays and feldspars. Field of !iew O 1.15mm. Late%sta+e Aaolinite Haolinite has been obser!ed to occur e!en to depths of ;00 metres below the present surface. It is emphasi%ed here that the presence of per!asi!e 8aolinite does not

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indicate typical ad!anced ar#illic alteration such as alunite, cristobalite, nati!e sulphur, !u##y 0uart% and copper sulphosalts are absent. I$enti2i#ation $hin section studies point to dominant 8aolinite o!erprintin# the clays associated with silicic and intermediate ar#illic alteration -plate 23/. Haolinite is #enerally accompanied by 0uart% and pyrite. Haolinite alson occurs as a replacement of bladed, needle)li8e minerals -adulariaQ/ within 0uart% !ein sel!a#es. Haolinite is seen as low bire firin#ent clay and characteri%ed by a sharp pea8 at around 7.10 T below the base of oxidation su##estin# #ood crystallinity of 8aolinite -A. Auff, pers.comm.., 1990/ has been employed to indicate probable hydrothermal ori#in. 'uper#ene 8aolinite #enerally shows a broad SF1 pea8 due to poor crystallinity. 5owe!er, SF1 diffracto#rams of 8aolonite in post)mineralisation @urassic co!er at the Aracow epithermal #old deposit in central ,ueensland also show similar sharp reflections -&. <orsley, pers.comm.., 1992/ and thus could not be employed une0ui!ocally to establish a hydrothermal ori#in of the 8aolinite. &uch of the 8aolinite is interpreted to be of hydrothermal rather than super#ene ori#in based on 1/ presence to depths of ;00 metres below surfaceB 2/ association with 0uart%, mixed)layer illite"smectite, and 3/ association with per!asi!e pyrite. @l!i$%3ine*al E !ilib*ia D!*in+ Aaolinite Alte*ation Feplacement of illite and chlorite by 8aolinite indicates increased hydro#en acti!ity and decreasin# temperature. &ixin# of the deep ascendin# chloride waters with the cooler, acidic #roundwaters will mo!e the fluid in e0uilibrium with the intermediate ar#illic alteration to the 8aolinite stability field because of the decrease in p5 and temperature of the fluid. $he abundant 8aolinite input is thou#ht to be related to the continuous collapse of the hydrothermal system tri##ered by massi!e incursion of coolin# acidic fluids alon# ma+or structures. $hus the extensi!e 8aolinite o!erprint is interpreted to be tri##ered by acidid waters descendin# alon# permeable of the hydrothermal acti!ity. *late 23. Hey texture in late)sta#e 8aolinitic alteration. *henocrysts, lithic are totally replaced by 8aolinite, 0uart% and pyrite. $exture destructi!e.

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Plate 58. @e**oan "a*bonate $he propylitic, low temperature potassic -adularia/, intermediate ar#illic, silicic and 8aolinite alteration types are o!erprinted by per!asi!e reddish brown to oran#e brown)coloured carbonate alteration. $he carbonates clearly replace earlier clays in the phenocryst sites and occur in !eins cuttin# earlier 0uart% !eins. Ferroan carbonates also cement late)mineralisation hydrothermal breccias. SF1 and microprobe analyses point to carbonates consistin# of calcite, an8erite -AaU&#,Fe =2, &nV UAC3V2/ and siderite -FeAC3/. $he dominant carbonate !arieties howe!er are siderite and an8erite based on SF1 analyses. Knder the microscope, an8erite and siderite replace earlier calcite, clays and other relic hydrothermal minerals.

SYSTHESIS O@ ALTERATION PARAGENESIS

2 model for the pro#ression of alteration mineral assembla#es related with the epithermal mineralisation is presented in $able 3. 2ltered litholo#ies contain se!eral o!erprintin# hydrothermal minral assembla#es as well as super#ene minerals. Neometry, o!erprintin# relationships of minerals and cross)cuttin# relationships of coe!al !eins"!einlets allow the se0uence of alteration assembla#es to be established. 2lteration on andesitic !olcanics best exhibits the para#enetic relationships. Fi#ure summarises the mineralo#ical components occurrin# in the wall roc8s ad+eacent to the principal !ein at the 'cott (ode. C!erprintin# and crosscuttin# relationships su##est propylitic is earliest, pro#ressi!ely followed by the low temperature potassic -adularia/, then intermediate ar#illic and

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silicic alteration. &ain sta#e ore)bearin# !ein emplacement immediately followed adularia and was probably lar#ely coe!al with silicic and intermediate ar#illic alteration based on clasts of the latter in the !ein structures and similarity in mineralo#ical components. Haolinite and ferroan carbonate occur as late)sta#e alteration products post)datin# the main precious metals mineralisation. 'uper#ene minerals consist of alunite, #ypsum, 8aolinite, and smectite. &ain sta#e ore)bearin# !ein replacement is interpreted to immediately follow and probably be lar#ely coe!al with silicic and intermediate ar#illic alteration based onB 1/ clasts of the latter in the !ein structures, 2/ similarity in #an#ue mineralo#ical components i.e., 0uart% inter#rown with illite -and"or mixed)layer I"'/ and locally 8aolinite, and 3/ silicic and intermediate ar#illic alteration form symmentrical %oned en!elopes around the auriferous !eins. 1irect e!idence for dominant late)sta#e 8aolinite alteration is seen from pseudomorphous replacement of !ein adularia alon# !ein sel!a#es and 8aolinite replacement of illite and"or mixed)layer I"'. 8aolinite also replaces phenocryst sites within the silicic %one whilst secondary 0uart% in the #roundmass remains unaffected. $he ferroan carbonate alteration assembla#e o!erprints all alteration types. Cne or more carbonate phases are often seen clearly replacin# and enclosin# remnant 8aolinite in phenocryst sites. $he ferroan carbonate alteration type is clearly late) sta#e and postdates the main sta#e 0uart% !ein emplacement as indicated by the followin# features -i/ carbonate in !eins and as breccia matrix contain fra#ments of !ein 0uart%, -ii/ !eins containin# 0uart%, illite and adularia are refractured, rebrecciated and filled by carbonates, and -iii/ carbonate replaces clays and adularia.

ORIGIN O@ THE CUART6 SULPHIDATION VEINS

TE.TURES

IN

LO/

$he ori#in and %onation of the 0uart% textures can be interpreted in terms of fluid conditions and physico)chemical processes affectin# silica and calcite solubilities

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prior to and coe!al with !i#orous boilin# of hydrothermal fluids -Fi#. ; and 7/. $he %onin# of 0uart% -=calcite/ textures depends on the 8inetics of dissolution and rate o f precipitation of the !arious forms of silica and calcite. Aoolin# is the most si#nificant factor controllin# the solubility of the !arious polymorphs of 0uart% under epithermal conditions. $he continuous drop in temperature increases silica saturation of the fluids. $he morpholo#y of the precipitated silica depends on the pre!ailin# hydrothermal conditions and the de#ree of silica supersaturation of the solution. <here fluid cools #radually by re!ersible expansion under hi#her temperatures, relati!ely slow conditions of precipitation dominate and the silica saturation is controlled by 0uart%. Knder this condition, faceted crystalline comb 0uart% is expected to precipitate. $he deposition of amorphous silica, on the other hand, re0uires !ery hi#h de#ree of silica supersaturation with respect to 0uart% and #enerally indicati!e of lar#e and rapid chan#es in the physical and chemical nature of the solution -Fournier, 1965b/. sli#ht silica supersaturation is re0uired for chalcedony to precipitate out of solution. $he solubility of calcite"carbonates is #o!erned by temperature, pressure, solubility of AC2 -Fournier, 1965cB &orrison et al., 1990/. Aalcite exhibits retro#rade solubility. $hat is, continuous coolin# of hydrothermal fluids will ma8e the fluid undersaturated with respect to calcite. 2lso, the partitionin# of the AC 2 in the #aseous phase and decrease in partial pressure of AC2 lar#ely affect the solubility of calcite. Boilin+ 6ones TeBt!*es *ro#radin# fluids which ha!e not under#one boilin# is characteri%ed by wea8ly banded crystalline comb 0uart% as the dominant texture. $he coarse #rained and faceted nature of the 0uart% indicate slower rate of precipitation, #radual coolin# of the fluids and silica saturation controlled by 0uart% -Fi#. ; and 7/. Aoolin# as a conse0uence of boilin#, had been indicated earlier to ma8e the solution undersaturated with respect tocalcite and thus will hinder calcite precipitation. 5owe!er, the effect of AC2 loss is much #reater than the effect of coolin#. Further loss of AC2 will not cause precipitation of calcite but will lead to its dissolution. Feplacement of calcite -or other carbonates/ by 0uart% producin# bladed 0uart% pseudomorphs is a conse0uent of retro#rade solubility of silica. $hus boilin# presents an effecti!e mechanism of precipitatin# calcite from epithermal fluids. $he continuous loss of 52C to the !apour phase durin# prolon#ed boilin# will increase the concentration of 'iC2 in the remainin# fluid, thus more silica will be precipitated. $he crustiform bands reflect episodic fluid batches and repeated boilin# episodes. Eein breccias with clasts of earlier)formed banded 0uart% also point to multi)#eneration boilin# e!ents. $he sealin# of the fluid channelways producin# locali%ed o!erpressure because of restriction to fluid circulation can also #enerate the !ein breccias ubi0uitous in ore shoots.

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'i#nificant and rapid coolin# because of adiabatic boilin# and the continuous loss of water to the !apour phase can ma8e the fluid hi#hly supersaturated with respect to amorphous silica and cause the formation of silica #el -1on#, 1992/. $he textures that are probably inherited from silica #el include colloform, moss and related recrystallisation textures. $he increased le!els of silica supersaturation may result in the deposition of amorphous silica at the surface in the form of sinters or silica"ad!anced ar#illic caps common in many epithermal deposits. $hus, !eins with hi#h #rade 2u #rade in the boilin# inter!al will #enerally be associated with well) de!eloped crustiform)colloform bandin# -=sulphide bands/, stron# !ein brecciation, and pronounced moss and needle adularia. TRANSPORT AND METAL PRE"IPITATION ME"HANISMS Fi#ure 6 presents the results of chemical e0uilibrium computations done to model transport, precipitation and dissolution of the si#nificant mineralo#ical components associated with adiabatic boilin# in a low sulphidation !ein deposit. $he fluid composition used are #i!en in .obis -1994/. $he results presented fi#s. 6a to 6e illustrates the profound effects of adiabatic boilin# on the total molalities of the si#nificant metals ions, molalities of important dissol!ed #ases, and precipitation of #an#ue minerals and metals -expressed in the more readable #"t unit of the precipitated solids/. 2lso presented is the acti!ity of 5 =. all 0uantities presented in Fi#s. 6a)6e are 9per8ilo#ram of fluid:. $he initial fluid at 300 oA is ta8en to be in e0uilibrium with 0uart%, H)feldspar, albite, musco!ite, chlorite, pyrite and calcite. 2t 300oA, the homo#enous a0ueous phase is satured with respect to #old, *b', and In' but respect to sil!er. $his homo#enous a0ueous phase is simulated to adiabatically boil successi!ely from 300oA. For example, a 26 wt P loss of fluid due to boilin# induces the fluid to cool from 300 oA. For example, a 26 wt P loss of fluid due to boilin# induces the fluid to cool from 300oA to 161oA. Fapid loss of the more !olatile components li8e AC2, 5Al and 52' -Fi#. 6a/ results in the increase of p5 -fi#. 6b/. $he loss of AC 2 in early boilin# si#nificantly increases the p5. $his increase in p5 leads to the deposition of potash feldspar, carbonate and pyrite -Fi#. 6c/. howe!er, with continuous coolin#, calcite will dissol!e and most li8ely be replaced by the deposition of adularia in the initial sta#es of boilin#. $he beha!iour of pyrite precipitation !irtually parallels that of adularia -Fi#.6c/. 0uart% constitutes more than 96 wt P of the total minerals precipitated and the amount deposited increases with decreasin# temperature -Fi#.6c/. multiple e!ents of 0uart% deposition due to repeated boilin# of hydrothermal fluids results in the crustiform banded 0uart%. 'ince 2u -5'/2 G is the dominant #old complex. $he loss of 5 2' from the fluid will cause #old to precipitate but the p5 increase will stabili%e 2u-5'/ 2). $he increase in p5 from 20oA temperature drop and resultin# ; wt P loss of fluid will not precipitate #old -see also Fi#.6b and 6d/ because the solution becomes more undersaturated in #old. Cnly after the fluid has boiled to temperatures below 275 oA will #old and sil!er precipitate -Fi#. 6d and 6e/. 2t temperatures below 275oA processes that will reduce

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a 52' will cause #old precipitation. 2t these temperatures, a 8ilo#ram of fluid is capable of depositin# 10)11 #"t 2u and 240)2;7 #"t 2# of the precipitated solids -Fi#.6d/. 2n increase in p5 will destabili%e the sil!er chloride complex. Aoolin# by boilin# will cause the hydrothermal fluids to be saturated with respect to sil!er. 2t temperature immediately below 275oA sil!er, li8e #old, will start to precipitate -Fi#s. 6b)6d/. $hus the initiation of two)phase separation will not immediately deposit sil!er. 2t 200oA, sil!er solubility is approximately 1 ppb representin# a decrease in sil!er solubility by 100 times. Aoolin# to 242oA !ia boilin# will precipitate 91P of sil!er out of solution. $he increasin# p5 destabili%es the sil!er chloride species but increase the stability of 2# -5'/2). $o form a hi#h #rade #old deposit, the decrease in #old solubility should be !ery si#nificant and efficient o!er a restricted !ertical inter!al. Cne of the most efficient mechanism for dramatically decreasin# #old solubility should be boilin# abo!e 9throttle points:. $hrottlin# is an irre!ersible adiabatic process causin# rapid expansion of an a0ueous fluid, as it passes throu#h constrictions in a !ein system -.arton and $oulmin, 19;1/. $he much more dilated en!ironment for boilin# and"or open system #as remo!al because of the lar#e pressure decrease. Aonclusion B Multa fiunt eodem, sed nod semper in eodem mod -&any thin#s are formed to loo8 the same but not always in the same way/ -Famdohr, 19;9/.

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PROPYLITI"

LO/% TEMPERATURE POTASSI"

INTERMEDIATE ARGILLI"

SILI"I"

AAOLINITI"

"ARBONATE

Andesitic Volcanics *la#ioclase 2lbite=epidote= ,uart%=adularia= Illite=mixed ,uart%=mixed 2& mica layer=0uart%=8aol layer chlorite=calcite inite=calcite =0uart% =pyrite =chlorite=pyrite I"'=illite=8aolinit e Ahlorite=epidot Illite=mixed layer Illite=mixed layer ,uart%=mixed e=actinolite=cal I"'=0uart%=8aoli I"'=0uart%=8aolin layer nite=calcite ite=calcite cite=pyrite I"'=illite=8aolinit e *yrite=chalcopy *yrite=chalcopyri *yrite=rutile"anat *yrite=rutile"anat ase=chalcopyrite rite=pyrrhotite= te=rutile"anatase ase=chalcopyrite rutile"anatse 2lbite=chlorite =calcite=0uart% =adularia 4pidote=calcite =chlorite=0uart % ,uart%=adularia= pyrite=chalcopyri te=rutile"anatase ,uart%=adularia= calcite=chlorite Illite=mixed layerI"'=0uart%=8 aolinite=calcite ,uart%=pyrite=illi te=8aolinite ,uart%=mixed layer I"'=illinite=8aoli nite ,uart%=pyrite=ba se metal sulphides=electru m Haolinite=0uart%= 'iderite) pyrite an8erite=calcite Haolinite=0uart%= 'iderite) pyrite an8erite=calcite *yrite=rutile=chal *yrite copyrite Haolinite=0uart%= 'iderite) pyrite an8erite=calcite Haolinite=0uart%= 'iderite) pyrite an8erite=calcite

*yroxene

&a#netite"ilmenite

Nroundmass

Cpen 'pace"Eeins

$able1.&ineralo#ical components of the !arious alteration types present at the 'cott (ode low sulphidation !ein deposit, ,ueensland. 2fter .obis, 1992.

P*o&0liti#

Lo-%Te3&e*at!*e Potassi#

Inte*3e$iate A*+illi#

Sili#i#

Late%sta+e Aaolinite

Late%sta+e "a*bonate

,uart% Ahlorite 2lbite Aalcite 4pidote 2ctinolite 2dularia &usco!ite -2& mica/ Illite &ixed)layer I"' Haolinite 2n8erite 'iderite Futile"anatase *yrite *yrrhotite Ahalcopyrite 4arly (ate

$able 3. &odel for the pro#ression of alteration mineral assembla#es with the epithermal mineralisation ato 'cott (ode, $emp " A ,ueensland. 2fter .obis, 1992. Fluid *hysio)chemical conditions *rocesses 100 200 300
Eery hi#h silica supersaturation acid) sulphate waters low p5
*pt of amorphous silica as silica cap and sinter. Aondensation = oxidation of acidic #ases. 2d!anced ar#illic alteration releases 'iC2

MI.ING 6ONE BELO/ BOILING Fe!ersible BOILING 6ONE expansion 6ONE

100
Increase in silica concentration due to coolin# Increase in p5 and concentration of silica. 1ecrease in temperature (oss of AC2,52',5Al,52C Fapid ascension, expansion

H5S H5O

H"l "O5
200

*recipitation of 0uart% due to rapid coolin#, precipitation of calcite due to AC2 loss

'low coolin#, moderate 'low precipitation of silica saturation, neutral coarse crystalline 0uart% p5 due to re!ersible expansion

300

$emp " oA Fi#ure ;. 1ia#rammatic representation of initial of boilin# in epithermal system and depositon of silica cap"sinter. Fapidly risin# fluid boils and cools, Fluid *hysio)chemical #i!in# rise to hi#h le!els of silica saturation. Aondensation and oxidation of acidic #ases form acid sulphate waters, causin# ad!anced ar#illic 300 conditions *rocesses 100 200 alteration. .elow the le!el of boilin# slowly chan#in# conditions precipitate coarse crystalline 0uart%. 1eposition of 0uart% within the boilin# %one *recipitation of calcite due 1ecrease in calcite caused by coolin#. 2fter 1i#weed, 1991. to mixin# of fluid and
solubility due to addition of AC2
#aseous AC2

'low coolin#, moderate 'low precipitation of 214055452.doc silica saturation, neutral coarse crystalline 0uart% p5 due to re!ersible expansion

MI.ING 6ONE Fe!ersible expansion

43

Increase in silica concentration due to decrease in temperature

100
&ultiple boilin# -throttlin#/. &ultiple episodes of 0uart% precipitation due to coolin#. Ni!in# rise to crustiform 0uart%. Influx of fluid batches from below, renewed boilin#. Eapour becomes more 52C rich, less AC2 with

H5O

"O5
BOILING 6ONE

200

$hrottlin#

continued boilin#.

300

BELO/ BOILING 6ONE

Fi#ure 7. 1ia#rammatic representation of throttlin# causin# multiple episodes of 0uart% deposition, leadin# to the formation of crustiform 0uart%. &ixin# of meteoric water and AC2 leads to precipitation of bladed calcite. 2fter 1i#weed, 1991.

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Fi#ures 6a G 6e. Fesults of the chemical e0uilibrium computations modelin# transport, precipitation and dissolution of the si#nificant species and mineralo#ical components associated with adiabatic boilin# of a fluid saturated with respect f #old, #alena and sphalerite and undersaturated with respect to sil!er at 300 oA a/. Ahan#es in the acti!ity of dissol!ed #ases Fu#acity of 52 reflects the chan#es in the redox state of the fluid on boilin#B 2/ chan#e in p5 and the molalitites of total dissol!ed 2u, 2#, *b and InB c/ amount of minerals -#"t/ precipitatin# durin# boilin#, d/ amount of 2u, 2#, *b, #alena, sphalerite -#"t/ precipitatin# durin# boilin#B e/ percent fluid boiled with fall in temperature.

Nan#ue
4mpty -Alays/ Ieolites, Aalcite Alays -2#ate/ Aalcite Ieolites 2#ase 'ubrute Feal#as ,uart% Aalcite *yrite -.ar/ -Aal,Ahl,FI/ ,uart% Fluorite *yrite *yrrhotite *yrite 2rsenopyrite

$extures
AFW'$2((ID4 A2F.CD2$4 (2$$IA4 .(214 = .(2141 A2F.CD2$4 &2''IE4 A52(A41CDIA &C'' = A52(A41CDIAMAFW'$2((ID4

AFW'$2((ID4 M &C''=A52(A41CDIA

AFW'$2((ID4 ,K2F$I = 21K(2FI2='K(FI14 -=crustiform/ AFW'$2((ID4 ,K2F$I = A2F.CD2$4 -crustiform/

1epth -m/

$ -o A/ Fi#ure 3. &orrison et al. -1991/ textural model superimposed on .uchanan -1961/ model on low sulphidation epithermal !eins.

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Fi#ure 4. (ateral and !ertical compositional %onation of the ad!anced ar#illic system at the 1i%on fold)rich porphyry copper deposit, *hilippines.

RE@EREN"ES 2dams, '.F., 1920, 2 microscopic study of !ein 0uart% 4con. Neol., !.15. p.;23);;4. 20uiono, @'., 1993, 'patio)temporal relationships and e!olution of the ad!anced ar#illic alteration system at 1i%on porphyry copper)#old deposit, *hilippines Knpub. *h1 thesis, @ames Aoo8 Kni!ersity, ,ueensland, 2ustralia, 263 p. 2llibone, 2. 5., 1993, *ara#enetic relations and the ori#in of ad!anced ar#illic alteration in shear)hosted hydrothermal systems of the central (achlan Fold .elt, 2ustralia Knpub *h.1. thesis, @ames Aoo8 Kni!ersity, ,ueensland, 2ustralia. .obis, F.4., 1992, 'ettin# and ori#in of an epithermal)#old deposit at *a+in#o, Dortheast ,ueensland, 2ustralia Knpub *h.1. thesis, @ames Aoo8 Kni!ersity, ,ueensland, 2ustralia. .onham, 5.F., @r., 196;, &odels for !olcanic)hosted epithermal precious metal deposits 2 re!iew in International Eolcanolo#ical Aon#ress, Dew Iealand, *roc. 'ymposium 5, p.13)17. Aasade!all, $., and Chmoto, 5., 1977, 'unnyside &ine, 4ure8a minin# district, 'an @uan Aounty, Aolorado)#eochemistry of #old and base)metal ore deposition in !olcanic en!ironment 4con. Neol., !.72, p. 1265)1320. 1eer, <.2., 5owie, F.2., and Iussman, @., 1969, 2n Introduction to the Foc8) formin# &inerals 'ixtieenth impression -really impressi!eX/, (on#man 'cientific and $echnical, 4n#land. 1i#weed, @.&., 1991, $he #eolo#y and %onin# of epithermal #old)0uart% !eins at <ool#ar, Dorth ,ueensland Knpub. &'c. $hesis, Neolo#y 1epartment, @ames Aoo8 Kni!ersity of Dorth ,ueensland. 1on#, N., 1990, Alassification and ori#in of 0uart% textures in epithermal !ein deposits Knpub 2&IF2 *247 1990 2nnual Feport. 1on#, N., 1992, ,uart% and adularia, and their textural %onin# in epithermal !eins Knpub 2&IF2 *247 1992 2nnual Feport, p. 163)240. 1owlin#, H., and &orrison, N.<., 1969, 2pplication of 0uart% textures to the classification of #old deposits usin# Dorth ,ueensland examples 4con. Neol. &ono#raph ;, p 342)355. Fournier, F.C., 1965a, 'ilica minerals as indicators of conditions durin# #old deposition K.' Neol 'ur!. .ull., !. 1;4;, p.15)2;.

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Fournier, F.C., 1965b, $he beha!ior of silica in hydrothermal solutions in .er#er, ..F and .eth8e, *. &. -eds./, Neolo#y and Neochemistry of 4pithermal 'ystem, Fe!iews in 4con. Neol. E. 2., p.45);1. Fournier, F.C., 1965c, Aarbonate transport and deposition in the epithermal en!ironment in .er#er, .. F. 2nd .eth8e, *.&. -eds/, Neolo#y and Neochemistry of 4pithermal systems, Fe!iews in 4con. Neol., !. 2, p.;3)72. 5ayba, 1.C., .eth8e, *.&., 5eald, *., and Foley, D.H., 1965, Neolo#ic, mineralo#ic and #eochemical charactristics of !olcanic)hosted epithermal precious)metal deposits in .er#er, ..F. and .eth8e, *.&. -eds./, Neolo#y and Neochemistry of 4pithermal systems, Fe!iews in 4con. Neol., !. 2, p.129) 1;7. 5eald, *., Foley, D.H, and 5ayba, 1.C, 1967, Aomparati!e anatomy of !olcanic) hosted epithermal deposits acid sulfate and adularia)sericite typesB 4con. Neol., !.62, p. 1)2;. 5emley, @.@., and @ones, <.F., 19;4, chemical aspects of hydrothermal alteration with emphasis on hydro#en metasomatism 4con. Neol. E. 59, p.536)5;9. 5udson, 1.&., 1963, 2lteration and #eochemical characteristics of the upper parts of selected porphyry systems, western De!ada Knpub *h1 thesis, Kni!ersity of De!ada, Feno. Hamilli, F.@., and Chmoto, 5., 1977, *ara#enesis, %onin#, inclusions, and isotopic studies of the Finlandia !ein, Aentral district, central *eruB 4con.Neol.,!.72, p.950)962. &atsuhisa, W., 2o8i, &. 5eden0uist, @.<., -eds/, 1991, 5i#h temperature acid fluids and associated alteration and mineralisation extended abstracts of the 3rd 'ymposium on 1eep)crustal fluids, held at $su8uba, @apan, Cctober, 1990, Neolo#ical 'ur!ey of @apan report no.277, 111 p. &orrison, N.<., 1on# Nuoyi, @aireth, '., 1990, Field manual textural %onin# in epithermal 0uart% !eins 2&IF2 pro+ect *247, @ames Aoo8 Kni!ersity of Dorth ,ueensland. Cehlers, @.5., 197;, 5ydrothermal crystalli%ation of silica #el Neol.'oc 2m..ull., !. 67, p.1143)1152. Fye, F.C., .eth8e, *.&. and <asserman, &.1., 1992, $he stable isotope #eochemistry of acid sulphate alteration 4con. Neol., !.67, no.2,p.225)2;2.

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'ander, &.E., and 4inaudi, &$., 1990, 4pithermal deposition of #old durin# transition from propylitic to potassic alteration at Found &ountain, De!ada 4con. Neol, !.65, p.265)311. 'haub, ..&., 1934, $he cause of bandin# in fissure !eins 2merican &ineralo#is, !.19, no.9, p.393)400. 'illitoe, F.5., 1966, Nold and sil!er deposits in porphyry systems in 'chafer, F.<., Aooper, @.@., and Ei8re, *.N. -eds./, .ul8 &ineable *recious 1eposits of the <estern K.'., *roceedin#s of 'ymposium, Neol. 'oc. De!ada, p.233)257. 'illitoe, F.5., and .onham, 5.F., 1964, Eolcanic landforms and ore deposits 4con. Neol. E.79, p.126;)1269. 'illitoe, F.5., 1991, $he porphyry epithermal transition ma#matic contributions to hydrothermal systems Neolo#ical 'ur!ey of @apan Feport Do. 279, p.15;) 1;0. 'lac8, @.F., 1960, &ultista#e !ein ores of the (a8e Aity 1istrict, <estern 'an @uan &ountains, Aolorado 4con. Neol., !.5, p.9;3)990. 'purr, @.4., 192;, 'uccessi!e bandin# around roc8 fra#ments in !eins 4con. Neol., !.21, p.519)537. 'te!en, $.2., and 4aton, N.F., 1975, 4n!ironment of deposition in the Areede minin# district, 'an @uan &ountains, AoloradoB I Neolo#ic,, hydrolo#ic and #eophysical settin# 4con. Neol., !.70, p.1023)1037. $itley, '.F., and .eane, F.4., 1961, *orphyry copper deposits, *art I, Neolo#ic 'ettin#s, petrolo#y and tecto#enesis 4con. Neol. 75th 2nni!. Eol., p.214) 235. Ei8re, *.N., 1965, *recious metal !ein systems in the Dational district, 5umboldt Aounty, De!ada 4con Neol., !.60, p.3;0)393. Eilla, $. 2nd 'illitoe, F.5., 1991, Nold)rich porphyry systems in the &acirun#a belt, northern Ahile 4con Neol.,!.6;, p.1236)12;0. <hite, D.A., and 5eden0uist, @.<., 1990, 4pithermal en!ironment and styles of minerali%ation !ariations and their causes, and #uidelines for exploration in 5eden0uist, @.<., <hite, D.A., and 'iddeley, N., -eds./, 4pithermal Nold &inerali%ation of the Aircum)*acific Neolo#y, Neochemistry, Cri#in and 4xploration, II @. Neochem. 4xplor., !.3;, p.445)474.

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