ECLUE Journal Vol 3 No. 2 September

VOL 3, NO 2 SEPTEMBER 2009 ISSN: 1978-3493
(Journal of English Culture, Language. Literature, and Education)

E-CLUE, Vol 3, No 1, pp 699-852, MANADO, SEPTEMBER 2009
E-CLUE
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
MANADO STATE UNIVERSITY
Table of Content
From The Editors
Dari Redaksi
American Individualism Refected in American Pop Culture,
Literature, History and Philosophy
Didik Murwantono ........................................................................................ 705-719
An Investigation into Primacy and Recency Effects on
Vocabulary Memorization
Delli Sabudu................................................................................................. 721-740
Kedwibahasaan Mahasiswa Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris,
Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni, Universitas Negeri Manado
Mikael B.G Sanger................................................................................... 741-772
Enriching Learners Vocabulary by Using Word Cards
Netty Maria Wagiu........................................................................................... 773-796
Viewing Bournes Trans-National America (1916)
as A Criticism to Melting Pot
Mister Gidion Maru.......................................................................................... 797-805
Escapism from Reality in Fantasy Genre as Refected in
the Work of C.S Lewis, The Chronicles of Narnia
Merlin M Maukar........................................................................................... 807-816
The Complexity of American Woman Identity in the Nineteenth Century
As Seen in Theodore Dreiser Sister Carrie (Feminist Perpective)
Delli Sabudu................................................................................................ 817-841
Comparison of House Function Between David Maloufs 12
Edmondstone Street And Jessica Andersons Tirra Lirra by The River
Baharuddin and Eka Fitriana.......................................................................... 843-851
E-CLUE
(Journal of English Culture, Language, Literature, and Education) is biannually
published in Maret and Sebtember (ISSN: 1978-3493) presenst articles on culture,
language, literature, education which are aimed at assisting the English language
learning . The articles are in the forms of analysis, studies, application of theories,
researh reports, teaching material development, or national and international seminar
papers.
Chief Editor : Prof.Dra.A.Doda-Bataragoa.M.Ed.Ph.D
Managing Editor : Mister Gidion Maru .SS,M.Hum
Editors :
Drs.H.Rares M.Pd (Coordinator)
Dra.T.Mogea.M.Hum; Drs. R. Mathindas; Dra. O. Singkoh. M.Hum
Drs. P. Mantiri, Dra. S. T. Olii, M.Hum,Dra. S. Kamagi. M. Hum
Tirza Kumayas S.Pd (Secretary)
Language Consultants:
Dra. Nithta V. L. Liando, MA,Ph. D (coordinator)
Dra. M. A.Liwoso. M,pd; Dra. M. Muntuuntu. M.Pd;
Dra. N. Samola. M. Hum, Dra. J. Wowor. M. Hum, Drs. M. Wantalangi. MA;
Dra. Z. Oroh. M. Hum; Dra. J. Meray. M. Hum; Dra. C. Mamentu. M.Hum
Honorary Advisors:
Prof. Dra. Djuhertati Iman Muhni. MA. Ph.D (UGM)
Prof. Dr. Bakdi Soemanto. SU (UGM)
Dr.Karen Moni (Australia)
Dr. George Jacob (India)
Dr. Inyo Fernandes (UGM)
Prof. Dr. Akun Dani (UNIMA)
Drs. D. Sahulata. MA (UNIMA)
Dr. A. G. Senduk. M.Pd (UNIMA)
Dra. Ekawati M. Dukut. M.Hum (UNIMA Soegijapranata)
E-CLUE
Is published by English Department, UNIMA and supported by Rector, Dean of Faculty
of Language and Arts, Chairperson of English Department, Manado, Indonesia.
Correspondence: English Department Ofce d/h Faculty of Language and Arts,
Tonsaru Campus,Tondano. Phone: 081340075651.
Email: e cluefbsunima@yahoo.com
E-CLUE
(Jurnal Budaya, Bahasa, Kesusastraan, dan pendidikan inggris) yang diterbitkan secara berkala
dua kali dalam setahun yaitu tiap Maret dan September (ISSN : 1978-3493) menyajikan artikel-
artikel seputar budaya,bahasa,kesusastraan,dan pendidikan yang ditujukan untuk pengajaran dan
pembelajaraan bahasa inggris. Artikel-artikel tersebut dapat dalam bentuk analisis, penelitian,
aplikasi teori, laporan penelitian, pengembangan materi pengajaran atau makala-makala yang
dibawakan dalam seminar nasional maupun internasional.
Ketua Penyunting: Prof.Dra.A.Doda-Bataragoa,M.Pd. ph.D
Pendamping Ketua Penyunting : Mister Gidion Maru,SS,M.Hum
Penyunting :
Drs.H.Rares M.Pd (Koordinator)
Dra.T.Mogea.M.Hum; Drs. R. Mathindas(Bendahara), Dra. O. Singkoh. M.Hum
Drs. P. Mantiri, Dra. S. T. Olii, M.Hum,Dra. S. Kamagi. M. Hum
Tirza Kumayas S.Pd (Sekertaris)
Penyunting Bahasa:
Dra. Nithta V. L. Liando, MA,ph. D (Koordinator)
Dra. M. A.Liwoso. M,Pd; Dra. M. Muntuuntu. M.Pd;
Dra. N. Samola. M. Hum, Dra. J. Wowor. M. Hum, Drs. M. Wantalangi. MA;
Dra. Z. Oroh. M. Hum; Dra. J. Meray. M. Hum; Dra. C. Mamentu. M.Hum
Penyunting Ahli:
Prof. Dra. Djuhertati Iman Muhni. MA. Ph.D (UGM)
Prof. Dr. Bakdi Soemanto. SU (UGM)
Dr.Karen Moni (Australia)
Dr. George Jacob (India)
Dr. Inyo Fernandes (UGM)
Prof. Dr. Akun Dani (UNIMA)
Drs. D. Sahulata. MA (UNIMA)
Dr. A. G. Senduk. M.Pd (UNIMA)
Dra. Ekawati M. Dukut. M.Hum (UNIMA Soegijapranata)
E-CLUE
Diterbitkan oleh Jurusan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Negri Manado dan didukung oleh Rektor,
Dekan Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni, Ketua Jurusan Bahasa Inggris,Indonesia. Alamat:Kantor
Jurusan Bahasa Inggris d/h Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni, UNIMA, Kampus Tonsea, Tondano,
Sulut. Indonesia.
Phone : 081340076551. Email : e cluefbsunima@yahoo.com
From The Editors
Greetings
The editors gladly express their sincere and warm gratitude to dear readers
and subscribers of E-CLUE. First of all the editors would apologize for the delay
of the publication. Yet, We hope that it would not be a longer disappointment.
Here we come with more articles deserved to be read to enhance the knowledge
in area of literature and language teaching.
This edition serves the readers and subscribers with variety of ideas
concerning issues of language teaching by suggesting the ideas of enriching
learners vocabulary, and investigating primary and recency efects. Moreover,
the discussion on the bilingualism among students of English Department
adds more variety of ingredients for language concern. The prominence
of this edition goes on with the brilliant conceptual tracing on the notion of
American Individualism through detecting its refection in American pop
culture, literature, history and philosophy. The application of such tendency
identifes in the other writings on the topic of Escapism and the complexity of
American woman identity. The presence of essay discussing American identity
through focusing on Bournes article also colors the richness of this edition and
the investigation of Australian ethos and identity mirrored through its house
functions.
Besides the variety of ideas, not to mention academic variety, this edition
also comes with variety of contributors backgrounds. If in previous editions,
most of the contributors are from Manado State University, the current edition
presents three contributors from other universities and educational institution
such as Mataram University, Mataram and Islamisc Sultan Agung University,
Semarang as well as School supervisor from Irian Jaya.
Thus, it is not too excessive say that this edition is creditable to enrich
readers and subscribers perspective on English literature and language
teaching.
Dari Redaksi
Salam
Dengan hati tim redaksi menyapa kembali para pembaca dan pelanggan
E-CLUE. Pertama-tama tentunya kami memohon maaf atas keterlambatan
penerbitan edisi kali ini. Akan tetapi kami berharap kekecewaan para pembaca
dan pelanggan yang terhormat tidak akan berlangsung lama sebab pada edisi
kali ini kami kembali menghadirkan artikel-artikel yang layak dibaca untuk
memperkaya pengetahuan khususnya yang berkaitan dengan kajian sastra dan
pengajaran bahasa.
E-CLUE kali ini menyajikan beragam gagasan yang berhubungan dengang
pengajaran bahasa yang antaralain mengemukakan cara-cara memperkaya
perbendaharan kata pembelajar dan dampak-dampak dari pemanfaatan
teknik pembelajaran untuk menambah kekayaan kosa kata pembelajar.
Keunggulan edisi ini makin bertambah dengan adanya gagasan tentang
cerminan individualism Amerika yang dilihat dari sudut pandang budaya pop,
kesusastraan, sejarah dan flsafat. Gagasan serupa juga terpancar lewat konsep
eskapisme dan kompleksitas identitas perempuan yang dikemukakan oleh
dua artikel lainnya. Tak hanya sampai disitu, Edisi ini juga diperkaya dengan
pembeberan kemunculan identitas budaya Amerika dan Australia melalui
pembahasaan akan aspek keragaman latar budaya Amerika dan aspek fungsi
rumah terutama ruang-ruang dalam rumah dalam hubungannya dengan etos
dan identitas Australia.
Selain keragaman isi, dengan tanpa menyebut keragaman latar belakang
disiplin para kontributornya, E-CLUE edisi saat ini juga memyiratkan
keragaman institusi kontributornya. Apabila dalam edisi sebelumnya,
kontributornya lebih banyak berasal dari internal UNIMA, kali ini keberadaan
penulis dari Universitas Islam Sultan Agung Semarang, Universitas Mataram
dan Pengawas Sekolah dari Irian Jaya tak pelak menambah khazanah
pengetahuan yang ditawarkan.
Oleh karena itu, tidaklah berlebihan bila edisi kali ini juga layak mendapat
perhatian dan layak dibaca untuk peningkatan pengetahuan seputar sastra,
budaya dan pengajaran bahasa.
ISSN: 1978-3493 705 VOL 3, NO 2 SEPTEMBER 2009
AMERICAN INDIVIDUALISM REFLECTED IN
POP CULTURE, LITERATURE, HISTORY AND
PHILOSOPHY
Didik Murwantono
1
Intisari
Paper ini tidak akan menyoroti makna individualisme secara mendalam atau
tepatnya individualisme di Amerika, namun hanyalah berupa ide-ide terhadap
individualisme Amerika. Pemaknaan individualisme akan tercermin dalam konteks
seperti budaya populer, karya sastra, philosophy serta perspektif penulis terhadap
Indonesia. Banyak konteks-konteks lain dalam pemaknaan individualisme
yang tercermin dalam kehidupan sehari hari, misal, pemberian pemahaman
individualisme sejak usia dini tentang adanya tanggung jawab terhadap diri
sendiri.
Kata kunci: Individualisme, konteks, budaya populer, sejarah, sosial, karya
sastra
INTRODUCTION
All references to America or American refer to the United Stated of
America and its residents unless otherwise noted. Obviously the Asian, the
Spanish, and the Mexican are equally American but globally the use of the word
1 Didik Murwantono, S.S, M.Hum is a secretary of English Department in Sultan Agung Islamic
University, Semarang. He obtained his master in American Studies Program in Gadjah Mada
University dan He is currently pursuing his doctoral program the same University.
American Individualism Didik Murwantono 706
American is understood to mean citizens of the United States of America.
The most important thing to understand about Americans is probably their
devotion to individualism. The stereotypic images associated with American
individuality are not only abundant but abundantly well known the world over.
The American cowboy counts among the most powerful and proliferated of
these images.
But I herewith write not only of the American as individualist in
popular culture but also of some of the highlights and variations of American
Individualism in American literature, history, and philosophy. As the tipping
of the scales toward one end more than the other of the continuum between
individual and community is one of the more frequently invoked binaries of
comparison between East and West an exploration of what various forms of
individualism might mean in the Indonesian context, particularly in Indonesian
literature and culture, would be of great interest.
Which avatars of individualism are already present in Indonesian society,
culture, language and literature? And what might future manifestations
look like? What will modern Southeast Asian individualism look like in the
near future and which traits, if any, will transcend geographic, linguistic,
national, ethnic, economic, and political determinations to reveal more global
confgurations of Individualistic thought and practice, or its curtailment? Or
will such contingencies abnegate all claims of universality? A comparative
approach would, no doubt shed a great deal of light on the topic of individualism.
But frst let us look at the American story.
THE AMERICAN COWBOY
I see the cowboy all over Solo, Semarang and Yogyakarta where he
towers over me on massive billboards. He is most frequently depicted as the
only human in a vast landscape. He is a loner, a free soul, a man who fnds
his strength in the solitude of vast stretches of uninhabited countryside. The
marketing executives for the markers of Marlboro cigarettes would have me
believe that most of his vitality comes from indulgence in their particular brand
of tobacco. The advertisements are effective not only in selling cigarettes but
in propagating the myth of the American cowboy. Americans live in Marlboro
country.
One of Hollywoods most consistent stock character types is that of the
lone hero standing tall against the slings and arrows of an outrageous society,
particularly a society of outlaws. He wins whether the plot allows him to be
triumphant or not. If he stands up to the villains and survives he wins and the
audience is moved. If he is defeated the audience is saddened but heartened
in chalking up a moral victory for ideals worth dying for. We have been
manipulated to identify with him almost regardless of his cause or argument
and not the tyrannical society of outlaws, who see our hero as a rogue
threat to their freely chosen social organization and way of life. One of most
iconic of this character type is the Western cowboy.
In the classic Western flm High Noon (1952) Gary Cooper plays both
cowboy and lone hero. The Western flm celebrates and laments the settling
of the frontier west of Mississippi, the Wild West. In the genre excessive
individualism and brute force are honored, provided the cause is just. He is
left to run the despotic bad guys out of town while being abandoned by the
cowardly townsfolk he is defending. He fghts not for the town so much as
for his own principles and sense of honor. He is an individualist, not a self-
sacrifcing defender of the people.
Despite Hollywoods perpetual revisiting of only the anarchic part of the
Wild West the frontier folk and their townships quickly learned the need for
communities with shared values the brief absence of such society allowing
a furry of Hobbesian State of Nature lawlessness and chaos. In the end
everyone seemed to agree with Alexis de Tocqueville mid-nineteenth century
critique (from Democracy in America, Part II, 1840) of individualisms
tendency to devolve into egoism: Individualism, at frst, only saps the virtues
of public life; but in the long run it attacks and destroys all others and is at
length absorbed in downright selfshness.
The sequel to the Western and its cowboy hero has in large part been the
renegade cop or good soldier genre: Al Pacinos Serpico, Clint Eastwoods
Dirty Harry, Sylvester Stallones Rambo, and most of the roles played by
Arnold Schwarzenegger. All of these characters single-handedly take on the riff
raff of a city (or the world) and win. Each of them is abandoned by supervisors,
societys less effective institutional and bureaucratic leaders, but their rugged
individualism and go-it-alone approach allows them to overcome the odds and
not only survive but triumph. Their victory is portrayed not only as a personal
one but also as a practical and moral victory for all of society and ideals such
as justice and humanity.
These are the images of America and the American character that of the
world is most familiar with. The long reel of Hollywood reaches deep into the
worlds psyche burning in the eidetic image of the American individualist. It
may take the form of the rugged individualist, the libertine, the seemingly ironic
altruist or myriad other manifestations but the overall archetype is undeniable.
American pop culture is our biggest export though it is impossible to measure
its infuence in mere fgures of revenues generated.
Such characterizations from Hollywood and the American music industry
from, by sheer visual and auditory bombardment, the dominant impression
of Americanisms as perceived by the rest of the world. But, for the most
part, this revelation of American character, whether accurate or not, is wholly
a phenomenon of popular culture. There is another very infuential realm of
ideas, images, and metaphors that exists in literary culture. In this realm we
also encounter myriad depictions of the American as Individualist as well as
more systematic outlines of American Individualism as philosophy or general
worldview.
PURITANS AND REBELS
The easiest place to draw a quick terminus of originating literary depictions
of American Individualism is with the writings of Benjamin Franklin. As a
true Renaissance man Franklin was quintessentially an individualist. In his
wide range of genre and topic Franklin would advocate freedom of speech
and of press (himself being a printer). He would laud the American love
of open and spirited debate, depicting a great turn around form the days of
totalitarian rule and the ruthless suppression of dissent in the nascent puritan
colonies. He credited the emergence of a large middle class (when compared
to Europe) to greater egalitarianism and opportunity and spoke of the utter
American disregard, even loathing, of claims to privilege by birth. Franklins
Autobiography relates his personal transcendence above the class and caste of
his birth a feat much less possible had he been born in Europe and lauds the
virtues of individual self improvementgiving the text the character of the
self-help book.
The witty aphorisms proffered in his widely successful journal, Poor
Richards Almanac, admonish the reader to industry, thrift, self-suffciency,
and personal virtue: Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy,
wealthy, and wise; Would you live with ease, / Do what you ought, and not
what you please; God helps them that help themselves There were several
cultural and geographical factors at the time of Franklins Autobiography that
lent the American character to greater receptivity of individualist ideas and
breaking away from the communal pressures of the old Puritan infuence.
To look back in retrospect and conclude a Puritan monopoly on thought,
worldview, and societal arrangement is to, perhaps, make too much of the Puritan
hegemony that colonial American literature seems to indicate. Undisputedly
there were contesting worldviews and infuences. In fact, North America in the
seventeenth century was a veritable testing ground for all manner of societal
arrangements social experiments, really and characters from the hedonists
dancing around the Maypole to colonial pillagers, joint-venture colonies (such
as the one at Jamestown), mini-theocracies, and agricultural settlers with no
thought of returning to Europe.
The demanding landscape into which their fates were thrust meant that
all settlers in a community shared an equal stake. At the Jamestown colony
John Smith would famously proclaim, He who does not work shall not
eat. The elitist settlers at Jamestown were resistant to such lumping of lots
and possessive of little work ethic But the more successful New England
settlements (such as at Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay) were much more
amenable ( largely due to the existence of a shared identity with shared goals,
something which the maintenance of a religious community conferred upon its
members) to the egalitarian lifestyle. Paradoxically, the subjectionwhereas
the Jamestown elites were squabbling over special interests and dispensations
of certain individual aspirations and prerogatives eventually led to a greater
capacity for individualism as equality in the form of basic rights and the
abolishment of hereditary privilege was the gateway to putting the ideals of
humanist individualism into actual practice.
The particular ardor of the ruthless suppression of individuality that
emerged in Plymouth because of the need fro group cohesiveness via iron-
fsted governance in a hostile environment was perhaps more exaggerated
than necessary and the legacy of groupthink and the intolerance of difference
and dissent led eventually to the only in retrospect, universally condemned and
mocked Salem WITCH trials (1960s). Confronted with the new environment
brutally longer and colder winters, the ethnic warfare that the colonial
displacement of the indigenous inhabitants brought, isolation from the larger
(European) society which they had previously defned themselves against, and
the prospect and actually of self-governance of a more effective and absolute
degree the early Puritan leaders seemed to always turn to absolutism.
By the time readers were devouring Franklins Autobiography the
repressive Puritan impulse was on the wane but its traces would leave a heavy
fngerprint on American soul, remaining a persistent obsession in the literature
and psyche of the nation. Now in the ascension was an agrarian society of
small, privately-owned and worked farms that Thomas Jefferson envisioned as
continuing indefnitely. But the expansion of this subsector would prove short
lived. Monumental demographic, economic, and geographical changes from
1800 until the linking of the coasts by railroad in the late 1860s would set the
country on a course of a change at a rate of growth unprecedented in human
history. During that time the American population quadrupled. By the end of
that time the months-long journey to the west coast could be undertaken in a
mere four days.
RENNAISSANCE MEN
When the West was still in Ohio and before the Great War had been waged
over regional autonomy and regional self-determination in the face of a growing
and increasingly threatening federal power, Americans frst great literary fgure
began to deliver well-received, though often controversial, lectures exhorting
American originality and individuality. Ralph Waldo Emerson was the dean of
American letters. His 1837 address, The American Scholar, to the graduating
class of Harvards Phi Beta Kappa Society is often heralded as the beginning of
the American Literary Renaissance.
Among whose members was Henry David Thoreau, who would, late,
with Emersons patronage, argue for civil disobedience and individual rights
if the state violated the moral prerogatives of justice, human rights, or other
liberal humanist universals. Another work of Thoreau is Resistance to Civil
Government. In this work, Thoreau wants to express his laissez faire toward
government. That government is best which governs least (p.1972). Here,
he points out his idea about freedom Even while he is in jail, he says that he is
free. Freedom is associated with the mind, the spiritual rather than the body,
the physical If a man is thought-free, fancy free, imagination-free, that
which is never for a longtime appearing to him... (p. 1805).
The fnal statement in his essay give Thoreau an opportunity to depict the
really free and enlightened state that he imagines in the future. He goes on
to say that he imagines as place where the individual and the state will be in
mutual service. The individual will have a power, rather than to be dominated
by government. The state will recognize the individual as a higher and
independent power (p. 1805). It is almost similar to Emerson ideas on
individualism. In that address Emerson would urge his audience to throw off
the shackles of tradition and conformity The world is nothing, the man is all;
in yourself is the law of all nature in favor of an unabashed self-expression
necessary for America to establish intellectual and literary independence from
the infuence of Europe.
But Emersons individualism is more commonly cited by reference to his
1841 essay on Self Reliance, particularly in the form of aphoristic quotes
plucked from his lectures and essays:
A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds
Whose would be a man must be a nonconformist ... Nothing is at last
sacred but the integrity of your own mind.
Society everywhere is in conspiracy against the manhood of every one
of its members. Society is a joint-stock company in which the member agree
for the better securing of his bread to each shareholder, to surrender the liberty
and culture of the eater. The virtue in most request is conformity. Self-reliance
is its aversion.
Emerson also courageously points out that in every man, there is a unique
power, which enables him to face his destiny. Man has to do his own best
or else this power will lose its strength, and he will have no peace nor can
he achieve any success. A man is a being to whom God has given ability or
inherent strength to trust himself. Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that
iron string (p. 1161). If a man realizes this and develops self-trust, he will
have a new power. On the other hand, if a man is always governed by society
in his every action, he becomes weak, turns into a depending person, as well,
and will never be satisfed with himself.
As for conformist, Emerson says that the sacredness of traditions is useless
since what the tradition explains as good and bad. The only sacred law is that
of ones own nature. To do well is to go upright and be vital, and to tell and ct
the truth in all ways. Someones life is for the life itself, not for spectable. It is
better that it should be genuine and steady rather than glittering and faltering.
Someone has to be himself, and must go alone without any conformity to
anyone else I actually am, an do not need for my own assurance or the
assurance of my fellows any secondary testimony (p. 1163).
Besides that, Emerson believes that conformity makes us false in every
way. A person should have a greater trust in his nature and in God, than in the
laws made by men or in the opinion of society. Furthermore, Emerson argues
for not imitating what other people do. Insist on yourself, we can do what we
like to do with our own gift since we have the whole possession of it, whereas
of others adopted talents, we only get a partial and temporal possession. He
takes as an example traveling abroad in order to adopt and imitate what we see
and fnd. It is actually the result of a lack of our self-reliance. Some educated
Americans think that American culture is poor compared with that of ancient
countries, so that they travel abroad to search for culture, ant then imitate what
they have found without realizing that they their own country has a culture
no less than such action, according o Emerson, really shows a lack of self-
reliance.
When the Romantic Movement fourished in America in the nineteenth
century, some people became increasingly dissatisfed with the idea of
rationalism, which dominated intellectual life in the eighteenth century. From
the above discussion, it is seen that Emersons individualism in his self-
reliance was infuenced by the romantic individualism which proclaimed
that feeling and imagination ware central. Individualism or self-reliance was
connected with the idea that dignity of man requires that a man has to insist on
himself and never imitate other men.
Emersons boldly-stated individualism is tempered by his Transcendalism,
by which all individuals are part of a larger whole, the mystical over-soul
making moot claims of individualityand nature itself. the resolution of
all into the ever blessed one. Self-existence is the attribute of the Supreme
Cause, and it constitutes the erasure of good by the degree in which it enters
into all lower forms. But Emersons exuberant individualism as the above
explanation would raise doubts at least two subsequent literary fgures of the
American Renaissance. Both Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville
would consistently portray the ugly side of unchecked individualism and the
concomitant isolation and self-absorption of those stricken with it.
Nathaniel Hawthorne gave American letters the gift of dark symbolism.
His gothic tales are always more than the surface narrative relates. In The
Scarlet Letter Hawthorne offers up the quintessential romantic image of the
heroic individual rebelling against an oppressive society. Hawthorne remains
haunted by the Puritan legacy and its abuses such as the role of his own ancestor,
a judge at the Salem Witch Trials. His protagonist, Hester Prynne, is punished
for her stubbornly selfess refusal to name the father of her adulterously-
conceived child. But within the same narrative is found a strident, though
symbolic, critique of the self-absorbed Reverend Dimmesdale, the father of
the child, who is egoistic to the point of cowardice.
Perhaps an even more iconic title and primary symbol comes from an
author banished to literary obscurity for the interregnum of over half a century
after his death. I speak of Herman Melvilles Moby Dick. In the fgure of Ahab
is portrayed what the Argentine author Jorge Luis Borges poignantly dubs,
individualism gone away. In Ahabs despotic authoritarian character we see
the dangers and ugliness of excessive individualism brutally exposed.
The rise of industry on the Northeast coast and the concomitant population
shift from rural to urban, the creation of a vast wage labor force, and the
entrance of women into the factories all played vital roles, for better and for
worse, in the evolution of the national character. Melvilles fction will depict
the world of the slave and virtual-slave classes on whose backs nineteenth-
century American progress progressed. In other works Melville will explore
aspects of the disenfranchised individual in society both lamenting the situation
of societys oppressed individuals and complicating recourse to tenets and
practice of individualism (even if fostered by democracy) as the most righteous
from of social justice.
PHILOSOPHY
Individualism in philosophy perspective tends to political philosophy
dealing with liberalism. Liberalism encompasses political, social, and economic
doctrines that emphasize individual freedom, limited government intervention,
gradual social process, and a free market economy. (Rohmann, 1999: 231). As
a political philosophy, it is a basic principle that individual liberty is an ultimate
value for human beings. The primacy of this basic freedom determines the
individual position on every social and political arrangement.
Furthermore, liberty is also an essential attribute for human beings in the
state of nature. Liberals believe that, frst, humans are naturally in a state of
nature / freedom (nothingless). According to John Locke, individuals in state
of nature are in ... a state of perfect to order their actions and dispose of
their possessions and persons as they think ft, within the bounds of the law of
nature, without asking leave or dependency upon the will of any other man.
(Nozick, 1974:10)
Second, as freedom and equality are normatively basic, any limitation of
them should be based on rational justifcations. As rationality in modern liberal
tradition is an individual attribute that is essential to the concept of justice,
political authorities and laws that limit the liberty of citizens must be justifed
rationally, such as by social contract. However, the strategy of justifcation
for this purpose is still debatable. Many classical liberals, who developed
contractarian theories, from Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Immanuel Kant
to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, have distinctive features in their theories.
Classical contractarian theories have an original aim to legitimate political
obligations and to show that acceptance of obligations could be justifed
by rational individuals. In hobbesian tradition, it is argued that persons are
primarily self-interested, and by their rational assessment, they will fnd the
best strategy to maximize their self-interests that, then, it will lead them to
give consent to governmental authority. Meanwhile, Kantian tradition argues
that rationality requires respect to persons, which in turn requires that moral
principles be such that they can be justifed to each person. Thus, individuals
are not taken to be motivated by self-interest but rather by a commitment to
publicly justify the standards of morality to which each will be held. (http://
plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractarianism)
The obvious illumination can be dedicated to American individualism.
The most important thing to understand about American is probably their
devotion to individualism. They are trained from very early in their lives to
consider themselves as separate individuals who are responsible for their own
situations in life and their own destines. They are not trained to see themselves
as members of a close-knit, interdependent family, religious group, tribe,
nation, or any other collectively (Althen, 1998: 5)
Still by borrowing the writing of Athen (6-7), you can see it in the way
Americans treat their children. One day I was at local shopping mall, waiting
in line to buy Orange juice. Behind me in the line was a woman with two
children, a boy who was about three years old and a girl who was fve. The
boy had his hand in a in a pocket of his blue jeans, and I could hear that he had
some coins in there.
The boy asked his mother, Can I get an Orange Juice? No, she said to
him. You dont have enough money left for an Orange Juice. Remember you
bought that cookie a while ago. You do have enough money for a hot dog. So
you could a hot dog now if you want to. Or, you could save your money, and
sometime later when you have enough money, we could come back here and
you could get an Orange juice.
But when Americans hear this story, they usually understand it perfectly
well. This mother is helping her son learn to make his own decisions and to
be accountable for his own money. Some American parents might not expect a
three-year-old make a decision about how to spend money, but they certainly
understand what the mother is doing. She is getting her son ready for a world
in which he will be responsible for his choices and their consequences. Even
his own mother wont be helping him later in life, and he needs to be ready
for that.
THE DISMANTLING OF THE INDIVIDUAL
I skip forward now the mid-twentieth century for a whirlwind tour of
Literary American Individualism in the twentieth century. In the twentieth
century racial, ethnic, and other minorities would return to Hawthornes theme
of the markednow: racially, linguistically, ethically, etc., rather than with
an ambiguous scarlet letterindividual surviving in a tyrannical society. In
Richard Wrights Native son a class-based Communist solidaritywe are all
brothers is the answer to racial injustices that redound upon individuals.
In the autobiographical American Hunger (Black Boy) Wright will take
an Existentialist turn, affrming his Individualism while Ralph Ellisons
Invisible Man will portray the racially marked subject as an individual who
is simultaneously both invisible and hyper visible in a society dominated by
another race. He realizes that it is no use to fght against the whites physically
I want you to overcome em with yeses, undermine em with grins, agree
em to death and destruction, let em swoller you. Till they vomit or bust wide
open (Ellison, 1952:34)
THE INDONESIAN CONTEXT
So what does the American theme of individualism mean in the Indonesian
context? How is it perceived? How is it received? One thing is certain, in
contrast to the American inclination Indonesian literature and culture has
historically been very much less attuned to Individualism. Indonesias most
known author, Pramoedya, is avidly social-realist in his writings. Marxism,
though technically still illegal to teach, is perhaps the most popular of western
philosophies for abstract (though no one is a true Marxist in practice) critiques
of policy (particularly the excesses of capitalism and the devastating impact of
inadequate regulation), ideas, and literature.
Will the burgeoning literature of post-Soeharto Indonesia begin to depict
more individualism in its characters and philosophical understones? Will
social-realism fade as political stability becomes more certain and social,
governmental, and economic reforms continue? If so is this not ironic proof
of the perpetual role of social-realist literasture as it proves that literature does
indeed refect political reality.
In most recent context, individualism is linked with democracy in
Indoensia, for an example, democracy as a practical possibility of individulism
is also linked with the rights of the people pertaining the government.
Democracy refers not only the right of life, liberty and happiness individually
and personally, but also to the rights of people in detrmining their own
government. People have a central and strong position and right in establishing
their own government system. They have rights to abolish the government if
the government is corrupt or weak and institute again a new government that
can secure and save their lives asnd freedom.
REFERENCES
Tocqueville, Alexis de. Democracy in America. Ed. J.P. Mayer. Trans. George
Lawrence. New York: Anchor, 1969.
Althen, Gary et al. 1998. American Ways: A Guide for Foreigners in the United
States. United States: Intercultural Press, Inc.
Nozick, Robert. 1974. Anarchy, State and Utopia. New York: Basic Books
Ellison, Ralph. 1952. Invisible Man. New York: The New American Library.
Roman, Chris. 1999. A World of Ideas. New York: Ballantine Books.
USIS (United States Information Agency). American Reader. Ed. M. Thonas
Inge. Washington: 1990.
(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractarianism) Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO
PRIMACY AND RECENCY EFFECTS ON
VOCABULARY MEMORIZATION
(A Study Conducted at SLTP Negeri I Manado)
Delli Sabudu
1
Intisari
Studi ini mempelajari tentang apakah primacy ataukah recency position yang
lebih dominan dalam menghafal kata, dengan kata lain, studi ini ini bermaksud
menguji manakah yang lebih mudah di ingat kata-kata yang berada pada posisi
atas atau awal ataukah kata-kata yang berada pada posisi bawah atau akhir dalam
daftar hafalan kata. Pada studi ini penulis menggunakan sample siswa SMP
Negeri I kelas satu. Dari sejumlah kelas pararel penulis mengambil kelas sebagai
sample. Pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui tes dalam bentuk post-test. Dengan
menggunakan rumus t-test data yang terkumpul kemudian di analisa untuk menguji
hipotesis apakah terdapat perbedaan yang signifkan antara dua kelompok siswa yang
menghafal pada posisi primacy dengan siswa yang menghafal pada posisi recency.
Kelompok experimental mendapatkan angka yang lebih tinggi dalam menghafal
kata pada posisi primacy dalam menghafal kosakata. Dengan menggunakan two-
tailed test, membuktikan bahwa Ho ditolak. Untuk itu diharapkan bahwa para guru
yang mengajar Bahasa Inggris dapat mengajar kosakata dengan menempatkan
kata-kata yang sulit pada daftar hafalan kata di posisi atas atau awal.
Kata Kunci : Primacy, Recency, kosakata, Penghafalan.
1 Deli Sabudu, S.Pd, MA, is a lecturer at English Department, Manado State University. She
completed her Master of Art program in American Studies Program, Gadjah Mada.
Primacy And Recency Effects Delli Sabudu 722
1. INTRODUCTION
There are various reasons why we remember words better than others. The
nature of words affects our memory (Ur 1996). Words consisting of one or two
syllables are easier to remember that those of three or more. Words reffering to
concrete objects are easier to remember that those referring to abstract nouns.
Another reason why we rember words is circumstances we are learnt. Words
learnt in relax are easier to remember than than those learnt under pressure.
Method of teaching also is another reason. Words taught visually are easier to
remember than words taught through verbal illustrations.
Whether words are easier or diffcult to remember is determined by their
position in a word list. Research fndings show that when given a word list and
we are memorized the words in the period of time, those come at the top of
the list are easier to remember than those occupying mid or fnal position. The
words in top position are the frst that catch out attention, than those in the mid
and fnal position. Effect of top position is called primacy effect (Good &
Broophy, 1982:218).
Research evidences also show that words come at the end position of
word list are easier to remember than those in the top and mid position. They
come with the reason that when a given word list is memorized, word in the
fnal position is the latest information that enters our memory before. Words in
the fnal position interfere our memory (Walker 1996). Still another research
evidences indicate that words in the both top and fnal position are easier to
remember than those in the mid position. The reason is, as Mayer 19982) points
out, because items at the beginnings and ends of lists serve as cognitive
landmarks that provide anchors to which the other items may be attached in
memory.
Based on the three ideas about the above effects on students memorization
in vocabulary, the writer would like to fnd out which of those ideas or theory
is dominant in vocabulary memorization and that is why, this study is done
to investigate the cause. The purpose of this study is particularly intended to
fnd out whether recency effect is more dominant in word recall than primacy
effect? While the hypothesis itself that primacy effect is more dominant than
recency effect in word recall. The students that choose as a sample is assumed
have normal memory and the data in the form of test scores are normally
distributed.
The information that was provided by this study is particularly important
for a number of people: theoreticians in information processing, researchers in
foreign language teaching and teachers of English as a foregn language.
2. WHAT IS LEARNING ?
2. 1. Concept of Learning
Learning is a term that refers to activities made by human being. It is
made to get knowledge or to know about something she or he does not know.
These activities indicate a process of learning, such as : Counting, writing ,
reading, listening, memorizing. According to Bloom (Dimyanti & Mujiono
1994), memorizing is one of the aims of learning. One of the learning process
is memrizing. No learning exists without memorizing. It is clear that the
memory of early social learning experiences colors both our sensation and
our perception of even the world of physical objects. In language learning so
many ways can be acqured by the teacher to make use of the language in any
communicative situation.
In order to be able to cummunicate effectively in a foreign language, in
English for example, a student needs to have good mastery of the language.
He should have good mastery of its pronunciation, grammatical structures, and
suffcient vocabulary.
2.2. Memorizing Vocabulary
Vocabulary can be defned, roughly, as the words we teach in the foreign
language (Ur 1996). Vocabulary can be acquired in many differet ways. One
way is through word memorization. Deighton (1977:1) points out that A
persons vocabulary certainly consists of words and meanings. The words in
your vocabulary are those you understand and use.
Word memorization actually in the form of memory experiment, it is
involving the recall of as many items as possible on a word list. The words,
which are put in the word-list may be taken from dictionary or reading text in
the textbooks. Students are given lists of target language vocabulary words and
their native language equivalents, then students are required to memorize them
and tested regularly. Generally, the memorized words can be easily kept in our
memory, but sometimes they are easily forgotten.
There are a number of reasons why words memorized from word list are
easy or diffcult to be held in our memory. Words are easily kept or held in
our memory and can be easily retrived because we have already had similar
knowledge or experience related to the words we memorize. They can be easily
forgotten because we do not have previous knowledge related to the words.
Position of words in a list plays the most important part in determining
whether or not given word is easy or diffcult to be held in our memory and
recalled. Murdock as quoted by Walker (1996) found that the frst and the last
portions in word list are learned more readily than the middle. He also found
that the last portion is easier to be kept in our memory and recalled than the
frst portion. Ruch (1984 : 280) also points out the same thing. He states that if
a list consisting of 20 words is to be memorized, the frst and the last portions
are better recalled than the middle portion.
Why can the frst and the last portions be the frst and the last words that
we frst and last see? When we are given a word list, we tend to pay minimal
attention to those mentioned in the middle of the list. That is the reason why the
frst and the last portions of words in the word lists are easier to be memorized
and recalled. The effects of the frst and the last portion are called primacy and
recency effects.
2.3. Primacy Effect
Primacy Effect can be expalined as the effect that happens while the items
are arranged in the word lists; for example, list the names and try to memorize
them. After you write down the names again, you can see that the names in the
top position can be memorized better. This happens because the top position is
a prior learning (pro-active inhibition) (Holzman 1978).
2.4. Recency Effect
Recency effect can be explained as the effect that happens while the items
arranged in a list. After students memorize the items, then you can fnd that the
items in the last position can be better memorized. This happens, because what
we learn recently may interfere what we have learned before. In this case, the
words or items in the last portion interfere the recall of words learned before.
This is what Walker (1996:222) calls retroactive inhibition.
3. METHOD OF THE STUDY
3.1. Design of the Study
To carry out this study, the writer is intended to explai the effect of
primacy and recency position on vocabulary memorization by using word list.
This study is quantitative because the data are in the form of numbers (test
scores) and were statistically analyzed with t-test.
This study itself can be classifed as experimental research because the
independent variable was deliberately treated in order to check its effect on
dependent variable. In this case, this research refers to True Experimental
using the post- test only control group design. The design (Best 1981:69) is
shown below.
Figure 1.
R X O.1
R C O.2
Legend :
R = Random selection of subjects or assignment of treatments to
experimental groups
X = Experimental variable manipulated
C = Control variable
O = Observation
___
= A line between levels indicates equated groups
The procedure of this design is as follows:
1) Select subject from a population by random method
2) Divide assignment into groups (Experimental group and Control group) by
random asignment
3) Expose X (presentation) to experimental group for period of time
4) Administer the post-test to the two groups, and fnd the mean score for
both groups.
3.2. Variable of the study
There are two variables in this research: The position of words in the
word list and word recall. The frst is an independent variable and the second
one is dependent variable. The relationship between these two variables can be
shown by the picture below:
Figure 2.
Independent variable Dependent Variable

Affect
3.3. Population and Sample
The population of this study was the frst year students of SLTP Negeri 1
Manado. The school had 10 classes in which the third grade accomodated 514
students while the sample itself was derived from the above population. From
10 classes, one class was randomly chosen as the sample in this study. From
this sample, 40 students randomly selected as the subjects of the experiment.
3.4. Data collecting Instrument
Data required toverify the hypothesis of this study was a memory test. The
memory test was in the form of a plain answer sheet in which the students were
to write down all the words they had memorized from a word list previously
given to them. The wordlist itself consisted of 18 words, which was divided
into three position (primacy position), second middle (medial) and the third
last position (recency position).
3.5. Statistical Formulation
In this study, the writer applied the t-test formula in order to compare ability
of the two groups. Basically, this statistical formula follows the assumption of
homogeneity of variance, where:
Position of Words
in the word list
Word recall
(1) The scores in the two groups are randomly sampled how their respective
population and are independent of one another.
(2) The scores in the respective, populations are normally distributed.
(3) The variances of scores in the population are equal so the independent
variable positively affects the dependent variable. To prove whether the
hypothesis was rejected or not, the t-test formula by Shavelson (1981:
424) was used.
Where :
x
1
= Mean score of experimental group
x
1
= Mean score of control group
n
1
= Total number of the experimental group
n
2
= Total number of the control group
S
1
2
= Calculation of variance of the experimental group
S
2
2
= Calculation of variance of the control groupTo test the hypothesis, the
following formula ratio is used :
H
o
=
1
=
2

H
1
=
1

2
A = .05
The criteria for rejecting the null hypothesis are:
(a) Do not reject H
o
if t
obs
< t
erit
(b) Reject H
o
if t
obs
< t
erit
(This means that the alternative hypothesis is accepted)
(
+
(
+
+

=
2 1 2 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
2 1
x x
n
1
n
1
2 n n
S 1) - (n S 1) - (n
X X
(obs) t
4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
To prove wheather the hypothesis is rejected or not, the writer conducted
the True-Experimental Research. The data were concerned with the use of
memory-test. It was in form of a plain answer sheet, in which the subjects
were to write down all the words they had memorized previously from a word
list. The memory test was a post-test which measures the effect of independent
variable on dependent variable.
The population of this research was the students in the frst grade of
SLTP Negeri I Manado, which consisted of 10 classes. One of the ten classes
was chosen randomly and decided to be the sample class. This sample class
consisted of 48 students and 40 were randomly chosen as subjects of this
research.
18 words in the list were divided into three positions that is six on the top
position, which is called primacy position, six in the second position which is
called the middle, and six in the last position, which is called recency position.
The primacy was the Experimental group and Recency as the Control group.
The treatment was the position of words in the word list.
Based on the hypothesis, there were two groups in the research. To fnd
out the difference between two groups, the t-test formula was used to test.
In order to analyze the data the writer used the following steps :
Step 1: Checking the result of post-test in the Experimental Group and the
control group.
Step 2: Checking the frequency distribution of the Experimental group and
Control group.
Step 3: Calculating the result of the post-test in the Experimental and Control
group.
Step 4: Computing t
x1-x2
by inserting the appropriate values into the t-test
formula.
Step 5: Deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis or not.
The following is the result of post-test in the Experimental group and
Control group.
Table1. Result of the post-test in the Experimental group and Control group
n
1
x
1
n
2
x
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
6
5
6
4
6
5
5
6
5
6
3
5
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
6
5
6
4
6
6
5
6
5
5
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
5
4
5
3
5
2
4
5
4
5
0
4
5
4
5
4
4
4
2
3
2
3
3
4
5
4
3
3
5
5
Table 1. continued.
n
1
x
1
n
2
x
2
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
3
6
6
6
6
2
4
3
5
4
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
6
6
6
6
2
6
5
6
5
5
n
1
= 40 n
1
= 204 n
2
= 40 n
2
= 165
Table 2. Frequency Distribution of the Experimental Group (x
1
)
Score Value
(n
1
)
Tally f
6
5
4
3
2
17
15
4
3
1
Table 3. Frequency Distribution of the Control Group (x
2
)
Score Value
(n
2
)
Tally f
6
5
4
3
2
1
6
12
10
7
4
1
Table 4. Calculation of the Result of the Post-test in Experimental Group (x
1
)
n x
1 2 x 1
1
x x
2
2
1
) x (x
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
6
5
6
4
6
5
5
6
5
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
.9
- .1
.9
- 1.1
.9
- .1
- .1
.9
- .1
.81
-.2
.81
-2.2
.81
.01
.02
.81
.02
Table 4 continued
n x
1 2 x 1
1
x x
2
2
1
) x (x
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
6
3
5
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
6
5
6
4
6
6
5
6
5
5
5
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
- .9
- 2.1
- .1
.9
.9
.9
- .1
- .1
- .1
- .1
.9
- .1
.9
1.1
.9
.9
- .1
.9
- .1
- .1
- .1
.81
-4.2
-.2
.81
.81
.81
.2
.2
.2
.2
.81
-.2
.81
-2.2
.81
.81
-.2
.81
.2
-.2
-.2
Table 4. continued
n x
1 2 x 1
1
x x
2
2
1
) x (x
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
3
6
6
6
6
2
4
3
5
4
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
.9
.9
.9
.9
-3.1
-1.1
-2.1
-.1
-1.1
-1.1
-4.2
.81
.81
.81
.81
-6.2
-2.2
-4.2
.2
-2.2
n
2
=
40
n
1
=
174
n
1
= 5,1 n
1
= -16.83

1.659
2.752
2.752
39
107.35

1 - 40
132.65) - (204

1 - n
) x - (x
S
40
204

n
X
x
2
2 1 2
1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1.659
2.752
2.752
39
107.35

1 - 40
132.65) - (204

1 - n
) x - (x
S
40
204

n
X
x
2
2 1 2
1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1.659
2.752
2.752
39
107.35

1 - 40
132.65) - (204

1 - n
) x - (x
S
40
204

n
X
x
2
2 1 2
1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Table 5. Calculation of the Result of the Post-test in Control Group (x
2
)
n X
2 2 x 2
2
x x
2
2
2
) x (x
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
5
4
5
3
5
2
4
5
4
5
0
4
5
4
5
4
4
4
2
3
2
3
3
4
5
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
-1.125
-.125
.875
-.125
.875
-2.215
-.125
.875
-.125
.875
0
-.125
.875
-.125
.875
-.125
-.125
-.125
-2.125
-1.125
-2.125
-1.125
-1.125
-.125
.875
-2.25
-.025
.765
-2.25
.765
-4.25
-.025
.765
-.25
.765
0
-.25
.765
-.25
.765
-.25
-.025
-.025
-4.25
-2.25
-4.25
-2.25
-2.25
-.25
.765
Table 5. continued
n X
2 2 x 2
2
x x
2
2
2
) x (x
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
4
3
3
5
5
3
6
6
6
6
2
6
5
6
5
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
4.125
-.125
-1.125
-1.125
.875
.875
-.125
.875
1.875
1.875
1.875
-2.125
1.875
.875
1.875
.875
-.25
-.25
-2.25
62.25
.765
-2.25
3.51
3.51
3.51
-4.25
3.51
.765
3.51
.765
-5.275
n
2
= 40 x
2
= 165
125 . 4 x2 =
275 . 5 ) x x (
2
2
2
=

In this study, the Experimental group was expected to score higher than the
Control group. And, to test whether there was a signifcant difference between
these two groups, t can be calculated by inserting the values from table 4 and
table 5 in to the following formula :

1.947
3.794 S
2.794
39
147.98

1 - 40
17.015) - (165

1 - n
) x - (x
S
40
165

n
X
x
2
1
2
2 2 2
1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
+
+
=
2 1 2 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
2 1
x - x
n
1

n
1

2 - n n
S ) 1 (n S 1) (n
x - x
(obs.) t

+
+
=
40
1

40
1

2 - 40 40
3.794 ) 1 (40 2.752 1) (40
4.125 - 5.1

+
=

40
2

78
3.794 ) (39 2.752 (39)
4.125 - 5.1

+
=

40
2

78
147.966 107.328
4.125 - 5.1

=

40
2

78
255.294
.975
(obs.) t
2 1
x - x
[ ] [ ] .05 3.275
.975
=
163 .
.975
=
2.413
.404
.975

=
=

+
+
=
40
1

40
1

2 - 40 40
3.794 ) 1 (40 2.752 1) (40
4.125 - 5.1

+
=

40
2

78
3.794 ) (39 2.752 (39)
4.125 - 5.1

+
=

40
2

78
147.966 107.328
4.125 - 5.1

=

40
2

78
255.294
.975
(obs.) t
2 1
x - x
[ ] [ ] .05 3.275
.975
=
163 .
.975
=
2.413
.404
.975

=
=
In order to decide whether or not reject the null bypothesis, the observed
value of t (2,000) was compared to the critical value of t. Since there is a
different critical value of t for each degree of freedom, the frst step is to
determine the number of degree of freedom (df). The degree of freedom for
the critical value of t is:
df = n 2
= 80 2
= 78
In table C (See appendix), it is found that the critical value of t for 78 df at
the level of signifcance .05 is 2,000. this means that since t
obs
is higher than the
t
crit
(2,413 > 2,000), the null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, the alternative
hypothesis is not rejected.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTION
5.1. Conclusions
Based on the discussion, the following points have been concluded:
(1) The scores of the students in the Experimental group were in majority
higher than those in the Control group. This means that there was a
signifcant difference between the number of words which were memorized
by the students in top position (primacy position) and that in last position
(recency position).
(2) Words that were memorized by the students from the word list in the top
position were easier to recall than those in the last position.
(3) The students could better remember the words in the top position than
those in the last position; in other words, primacy effect was more
dominant than recency effect.
5.2. Suggestions
As the completion of this research, the following suggestions have
been pointed out:
(1) Theoreticians can use this research to support their theory which is
stated words in the top position are easy to recall than words in the last
position.
(2) In applying memorizing words to teach vocabulary of a foreign language.
Teachers especially English teachers have to consider the positions of
words. This means that diffcult words are put in the top position, so that
students can recall them better.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Best, JW. 1981. Research in Education. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Brown, D.H. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. San
Fransisco: Prentice Hall
Dimyanti & Mujiono. 1994. Belajar dan Pembelajaran. Jakarta:
DEPDIKBUD
Gay, L.R. 1978. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and
Application. Florida: Merrill Publishing Company.
Good, T.L & Brophy, J.E. 1982. Educational Pschology. New York: Prentice
Hall
Holtzman, W.H. 1978. Introduction to Pschology. New York: Harper & Row,
Publishers.
Larsen, D & Freeman. 1986. Techniques and Priciples in Language Teaching.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Ruch, J.C. 1984. Pschology: The Personal Science. Belmont: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
Saukah, A & Murdibjono. 1995. English For Junior High School: For the First
Grade. Jakarta: DEPDIKBUD.
Shavelson, R. 1981. Statistical Reasoning for the Behavioral Science. Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
Tuckman, B.W. 1988. Conducting Educational Research. New York: Harcourt
Brace Javanovich Publishers.
Ur, P. 1996. A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Walker, J.T 1996. The Psychology of Learning. Upper Saddle River: Prentice
Hall Inc.
Wittig, A.F. 1981. Pschology of Learning. Florida: Mcbraw-Hill
KEDWIBAHASAAN MAHASISWA
JURUSAN PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS
FAKULTAS BAHASA DAN SENI
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MANADO
Maikel B.G. Sanger
1
Abstract
This paper attempts to discuss how the use of Manado Malay (B1) and English
(B2) among the students at English Department, Manado State University and how
the variety of such bilingualism appears. Dealing with bilingualism in terms of the
language use as B1 and B2, Lados perspective is employed while for the purpose
of comprehending the variety of bilingualism, the writer applies Harding and Riley
theory.
The fnding showed that the students use Manado Malay in non-formal
situation as a medium of communication with friends, teachers and family as well
as society. While English is used in classroom teaching and learning process as a
medium of communication among friends and lectures. Indonesian usually spoken
as a medium of communication in general subject class.
The students coming from outside Manado acquired their Manado Malay
through interaction with their friends using that particular language. A half of the
student learnt Manado Malay since their childhood as a mother tounge. There are
some other students used their own mother tounge passively. English is acquired
since their elementary school until university level through class room activities,
courses, reading and watching flms.
Keywords : Bilingualism, Manado Malay (B1) , English (B2), English
Department.
1 Mikael B.G Sanger is a lecturer at English Department, Manado State University. He is
currently in process of completing his master program in Manado State University
Kedwibahasaan Mahasiswa Maikel B.G. Sanger 742
A. PENDAHULUAN
Sosiolinguistik merupakan ilmu antardisiplin antara sosiologi dan
linguistik, dua bidang ilmu empiris yang mempunyai hubungan sangat
erat. Kridalaksana (dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:3) menyebutkan bahwa
sosiolinguistik lazim didefnisikan sebagai ilmu yang mempelajari ciri dan
pelbagai variasi bahasa, serta hubungan di antara para bahasawan dengan ciri
fungsi bahasa itu di dalam suatu masyarakat bahasa. Fishman (dalam Chaer
dan Leonie, 2004:3) menyatakan bahwa sosiolinguistik adalah kajian tentang
ciri khas variasi bahasa, fungsi-fungsi variasi bahasa, dan pemakai bahasa
karena ketiga unsur ini selalu berinteraksi, berubah, dan saling mengubah
satu sama lain dalam masyarakat tutur. Ada banyak pengertian yang diberikan
para ahli tentang sosiolionguistik, namun dari sekian banyak pengertian, dapat
disimpulkan bahwa sosiolinguistik adalah cabang ilmu linguistik yang bersifat
interdispliner dengan ilmu sosiologi, dengan objek penelitian hubungan
antara bahasa dengan faktor-faktor sosial di dalam masyarakat tutur (Chaer
dan Leonie, 2004:4). Konferensi sosiolinguistik pertama yang berlangsung di
University of California, Los Angeles, pada tahun 1964, telah merumuskan
adanya 7 dimensi dalam penelitian sosiolinguistik. Ketujuh dimensi yang
merupakan masalah dalam sosiolinguistik itu adalah (1) identitas sosial penutur,
(2) identitas sosial dari pendengar yang terlibat dalam proses komunikasi, (3)
lingkungan sosial tempat peristiwa tutur terjadi, (4) analisis sinkronik dan
diakronik dari dialek-dialek sosial, (5) penilaian sosial yang berbeda oleh
penutur akan perilaku bentuk-bentuk ujaran, (6) tingkatan variasi dan ragam
linguistik, dan (7) penerapan praktis dari penelitian sosiolinguistik (Chaer dan
Leonie, 2004:5)
Kedwibahasaan yang merupakan topik kajian saat ini, adalah bagian dari
sosiolinguistik. Mackey dan Fishman (dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:84)
menyatakan bahwa kedwibahasaan dapat diartikan sebagai penggunaan dua
bahasa oleh seorang penutur dengan orang lain secara bergantian. Berdasarkan
pengertian ini dapat diasumsikan bahwa Para mahasiswa Jurusan Pendidikan
Bahasa Inggris FBS UNIMA merupakan orang-orang yang bilingual karena
mereka menggunakan dua bahasa secara bergantian. Sebagai orang yang
menetap di Manado, Minahasa, Bitung dan Bolaangmongondow mereka
memiliki dan menguasai bahasa ibu mereka yaitu bahasa Melayu Manado
(B1), sedangkan sebagai mahasiswa pada Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
FBS UNIMA, mereka mamakai bahasa pengantar bahasa Inggris (B2) dalam
Kegiatan Belajar Mengajar.
Ditmar (dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:5) menyatakan bahwa masalah-
masalah yang biasa dibahas dalam kedwibahasaan adalah:
1. Sejauhmana taraf kemampuan seseorang akan B2 (B1 tentunya dapat
dikuasai dengan baik) sehingga dia dapat disebut sebagai seorang yang
bilingual?
2. Apa yang dimaksud dengan bahasa dalam kedwibahasaan ini? Apakah
bahasa dalam pengertian langue, atau sebuah kode, sehingga bisa
termasuk dialek atau sosiolek?
3. Kapan seorang bilingual menggunakan kedua bahasa itu secara
bergantian? Kapan dia harus menggunakan B1-nya, dan kapan pula harus
menggunakan B2-nya? Kapan pula di dapat secara bebas untuk dapat
menggunakan B1-nya atau B2-nya?
4. Sejauhmana B1-nya dapat memengaruhi B2-nya, atau sebaliknya, B2-
nya dapat memengaruhi B1-nya.
5. Apakah kedwibahasaan itu berlaku pada perseorangan (seperti disebut
dalam konsep umum) atau juga berlaku pada satu kelompok masyarakat
tutur?
Tarigan (1988:5) menyatakan bahwa ragam kedwibahasaan dapat
diklasifkasikan dengan berbagai cara, tergantung dari sudut pandangan kita;
antara lain:
a. Berdasarkan hipotesis ambang
b. Berdasarkan tahapan usia pemerolehan
c. Berdasarkan usia belajar B2
d. Berdasarkan konteks
e. Berdasarkan hakikat tanda dalam kontak bahasa
f. Berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan
g. Berdasarkan keresmian
h. Berdasarkan kesosialan
Dalam tulisan ini, penulis hanya mengkaji Kapan seorang bilingual
menggunakan kedua bahasa itu secara bergantian? Kapan dia harus
menggunakan B1-nya, dan kapan pula harus menggunakan B2-nya? Kapan
pula di dapat secara bebas untuk dapat menggunakan B1-nya atau B2-nya?
(lihat masalah nomor 3 di atas). Mengenai masalah ragam kedwibahasaan
penulis hanya akan mengambil dua ragam, yaitu berdasarkan tahapan usia
pemerolehan dan berdasarkan usia belajar B2 (b, c, f dan g). Dengan demikian
masalah yang diangkat dalam tulisan ini adalah bagaimana penggunaan bahasa
Melayu Manado (B1) dan bahasa Inggris (B2) di kalangan mahasiswa bahasa
Inggris FBS UNIMA dan bagaimana ragam kedwibahasaan mahasiswa bahasa
Inggris FBS UNIMA.
B. PEMBAHASAN
a. Kajian tentang Kedwibahasaan
Kajian tentang kedwibahasaan mungkin sudah banyak dilakukan, namun
masih sedikit yang terdaftar dalam daftar penelitian di Fakultas Bahasa dan
Seni (FBS) UNIMA, Balai Bahasa dan Pusat Bahasa. Kajian yang berkaitan
dengan kedwibahasaan dilakukan oleh I Wayan Tama dengan judul Keadaan
Kedwibahasaan pada Latar di dalam Rumah Tangga Masyarakat Kota dan
Desa di Bali, tahun 2002. Dalam kajiannya ini, I Wayan Tama menyimpulkan
bahwa pemakaian bahasa B1 di rumah hanyalah ditemukan dalam masyarakat
kota dengan presentase yang relatif kecil, yaitu frekuensinya 16 atau 00,42%
sedangkan dalam masyarakat desa tidak pernah terdapat atau 0%.
b. Kajian Teori
Istilah kedwibahasaan (Inggris: bilingualism) disebut juga kedwibahasaan
dalam bahasa Indonesia. Menurut Kridalaksana (2001:31), yang dimaksud
dengan kedwibahasaan itu adalah penggunaan dua bahasa atau lebih oleh
seseorang atau oleh suatu masyarakat. Bloomfeld dalam bukunya yang terkenal
Language (1933:56) mengatakan bahwa kedwibahasaan adalah kemampuan
seorang penutur untuk menggunakan dua bahasa dengan sama baiknya. Robert
Lado (dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:86), mengatakan bahwa kedwibahasaan
adalah kemampuan menggunakan bahasa oleh seseorang dengan sama baik
atau hampir sama baiknya, yang secara teknis mengacu pada pengetahuan dua
buah bahasa bagaimana pun tingkatnya. Jadi, menurut Lado penguasaan kedua
bahasa itu tidak perlu sama baiknya; kurang pun boleh. Menurut Haugen
(dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:86), tahu akan dua bahasa atau lebih berarti
bilingual. Menurut Haugen selanjutnya, seseorang bilingual tidak perlu secara
aktif menggunakan kedua bahasa itu, tetapi cukup kalau memahaminya saja.
Haugen juga mengatakan, mempelajari bahasa kedua, apalagi bahasa asing,
tidak dengan sendirinya akan memberi pengaruh terhadap bahasa aslinya.
Lagipula, seseorang yang mempelajari bahasa asing, maka kemampuan bahasa
asingnya atau B2-nya, akan berada pada posisi di bawah penutur asli bahasa
itu.
Berkenaan dengan konsep kedwibahasaan dalam kaitannya dengan
menggunakan B2, Diebold (dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:86) menyebutkan
adanya kedwibahasaan pada tingkat awal (incipient bilingualism), yaitu
kedwibahasaan yang dialami orang-orang, terutama anak-anak yang sedang
mempelajari bahasa kedua pada tahap permulaan. Pada tahap ini kedwibahasaan
itu masih sangat sederhana dan dalam tingkat rendah. Namun, tidak dapat
diabaikan karena pada tahap inilah terletak dasar kedwibahasaan selanjutnya.
Seorang bilingual yang dapat menggunakan B2 sama baiknya dengan B1, oleh
Halliday (dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:87) disebut ambilingual. Oleh Oksaar
(dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:87) disebut ekuilingual; dan oleh Diebold
(dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:87) disebut koordinat bilingual.
Seorang pakar lain, Mackey (dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:87),
mengatakan dengan tegas bahwa kedwibahasaan adalah praktik penggunaan
bahasa secara bergantian, dari bahasa yang satu ke bahasa yang lain, oleh
seorang penutur. Untuk penggunaan dua bahasa diperlukan penguasaan kedua
bahasa itu dengan tingkat yang sama. Jadi, jelas yang dimaksud dengan bahasa
oleh Mackey adalah sama dengan langue. Tetapi pakar lain, Weinrich (dalam
Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:87) memberi pengertian bahasa dalam arti luas, yakni
tanpa membedakan tingkat-tingkat yang ada di dalamnya. Bagi Weinrich
menguasai dua bahasa dapat berarti menguasai dua sistem kode, dua dialek
atau ragam dari bahasa yang sama.
Pendapat yang sama dikemukakan oleh Haugen (dalam Chaer dan Leonie,
2004:87) yang memasukkan penguasaan dua dialek dari satu bahasa yang
sama ke dalam kedwibahasaan. Demikian juga pendapat Rene Appel (dalam
Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:88) yang mengatakan bahwa apa yang disebut dua
bahasa dalam kedwibahasaan adalah termasuk juga dua variasi bahasa.
Dalam buku Sosiolinguistik, Abdul Chaer dan Leonie Agustina (2004:89)
menjelaskan bahwa pengunaan B1 dan B2 tergantung pada lawan bicara, topik
pembicaraan, dan situasi sosial pembicaraan. Lebih lanjut mereka menegaskan
bahwa, penggunaan B1 dan B2 tidaklah bebas.
Nababan (dalam Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:90) menyatakan bahwa, dalam
keadaan penguasaan terhadap B1 lebih baik daripada B2, dan juga kesempatan
untuk menggunakannya lebih luas, maka ada kemungkinan B1 si penutur akan
mempengaruhi B2-nya. Pengaruh ini dapat berupa peristiwa yang disebut
interferansi, baik pada tataran fonologi, morfologi, sintaksis, maupun tataran
leksikon. Seberapa jauh pengaruh B1 terhadap B2 adalah tergantung pada
penguasaannya terhadap B2. Penutur bilingual Sunda (B1)-Indonesia (B2)
yang kurang menguasai sistem fonologi bahasa Indonesia akan mengucapkan
kata-kata bahasa Indonesia /kemana/, /kata/, dan /berapa/ menjadi [kamanah]
atau [kamana?], [kata?], dan [barapah]. Penutur bilingual Indonesia (B1)-
Inggris (B2) yang kurang fasih berbahasa Inggris akan mengucapkan fonem
/t/ bahasa Inggris pada kata <take>, <steak>, dan <pet> dengan ucapan yang
sama: padahal fonem /t/ pada <take> harus diucapkan dengan aspirasi h
[t
h
ake], pada kata <steak> tanpa aspirasi, dan pada kata <pet> tanpa letupan
(eksplosif). Kekurangfasihan seorang penutur bilingual terhadap B2, sehingga
B2-nya sering dipengaruhi oleh B1-nya lazim terjadi pada para penutur yang
sedang mempelajari B2 itu.
Mungkinkah B2 seorang penutur bilingual akan memengaruhi B1-nya?
Kemungkinan itu akan ada kalau si penutur bilingual itu dalam jangka waktu
cukup lama tidak menggunakan B1-nya, dan terus-menerus menggunakan
B2-nya. Umpamanya seorang penutur bilingual Indonesia (B1)-Inggris (B2)
untuk waktu yang cukup lama tinggal dalam masyarakat tutur monolingual
bahasa inggris, dan tidak mempunyai kesempatan untuk menggunakan B1-
nya, pasti B1-nya akan sudah tercampur dengan B2-nya, bahasa Inggris.
Sejauhmana pengaruh bahasa Inggris (B2) terhadap bahasa Indonesianya
(B1)-nya tergantung dari sisa kefasihannya dalam berbahasa Indonesia. Kalau
dalam masyarakat Indonesia dewasa ini banyak penutur Indonesia bahasa
dalam berbahasa Indonesia menyelipkan kosakata bahasa Inggris bukanlah
karena penguasaannya akan bahasa Inggris lebih baik, tetapi mungkin karena
sebab kebutuhan, karena sebab sikap bahasa, atau karena sebab ingin bergengsi
(Chaer dan Leonie, 2004:90).
Harding dan Riley (dalam Tarigan, 1988:6), menyatakan bahwa
berdasarkan tahapan usia seseorang memperoleh B2 yang membuatnya
menjadi seorang dwibahasawan, maka kedwibahasaan dapat dibagi atas empat
jenis, yaitu :
(1) Kedwibahasaan masa kecil (infant bilingualism);
(2) Kedwibahasaan masa kanak-kanak (child bilingualism);
(3) Kedwibahasaan masa remaja (adolescent bilingualism)
(4) Kedwibahasaan masa dewasa (adult bilingualism).
Berdasarkan usia belajar B2, Cummins dan Swain (dalam Tarigan,
1988:78), membagi kedwibahasaan dalam dua jenis, yaitu:
(1) Kedwibahasaan serentak (simultaneous bilingualism), yang sering juga
disebut kedwibahasaan awal (early bilingualism);
(2) Kedwibahasaan berurutan (sequential bilingualism), yang sering juga
disebut kedwibahasaan lanjutan (late bilingualism).
Untuk menganalisis bagaimana penggunaan bahasa Melayu Manado
(B1) dan bahasa Inggris (B2) di kalangan mahasiswa bahasa Inggris FBS
UNIMA, penulis akan menggunakan pendapat Lado. Sedangkan, untuk
mengetahui ragam kedwibahasaan mahasiswa bahasa Inggris FBS UNIMA,
penulis akan menggunakan teori Harding dan Riley. Mahasiswa bahasa Inggris
FBS UNIMA dapat dikatakan sebagai bilingual atau kedwibahasaan, karena
mereka menggunakan dua bahasa, yaitu bahasa Melayu Manado sebagai B1
dan bahasa Inggris sebagai B2-nya. Oleh karena populasi mahasiswa bahasa
Inggris FBS UNIMA cukup banyak, maka yang menjadi objek penelitian tidak
semua mahasiswa, melainkan hanya dibatasi pada mahasiswa semester I kelas
H angkatan 2009.
c. Analisis penggunaan B1 dan B2 dan ragam kedwibahasaan
Mahasiswa Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris semester I
angkatan tahun 2009 Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni Universitas
Negeri Manado.
1. Nama : Helf Ria
Nim : 09 311 514
Jurusan : Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Ammat, 6 November 1990
Jenis kelamin : Perempuan
Kelas : F
Asal : Talaud
Agama : Kristen Protestan
Analisis : Bahasa-bahasa yang dikuasai adalah Bahasa Melayu Manado,
bahasa Talaud, Bahasa Indonesia, dan bahasa Inggris dan bahasa
Jepang. Bahasa Melayu Manado digunakan dalam berkomunikasi
sehari-hari, di rumah, kadang juga di sekolah. Bahasa melayu
Manado diperoleh sejak lahir dari orang tua, teman dan lingkungan.
Bahasa Talaud juga diperoleh dari orang tua, teman-teman dan
lingkungan di Talaud. Walaupun pasif, bahasa ini digunakan di
kampung ketika berada di Talaud. Bahasa Inggris secara aktif
dipakai di kampus untuk berkomunikasi dengan teman-teman
dan dosen, terutama dalam kelas pada matakuliah-matakuliah
kejuruan. Bahasa ini diperoleh dari duduk di Sekolah Dasar
hingga Perguruan Tinggi. Komunikasi dalam Bahasa Jepang
jarang digunakan. Bahasa ini digunakan jika ada yang bertanya
dengan menggunakan bahasa ini. Bahasa ini diperoleh dari guru
sekolah. Bahasa Indonesia diperoleh lewat guru-guru di sekolah
dari SD sampai Perguruan Tinggi
2. Nama : Yunita Sunaryati Monareh
Nim : 09 312 000
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Jakarta/22 Juni 1992
Kelas : H
Asal : Manado
Analisis : Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa Melayu Manado, bahasa
Indonesia, dan bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Melayu Manado diperoleh
dari orang tua dan digunakan di luar kelas untuk berkomunikasi
dengan teman-teman. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan dalam proses
belajar di dalam kelas untuk matakuliah-matakuliah non-kejuruan
seperti Matakuliah Pancasila, Ilmu Sosial Budaya Dasar (ISBD),
dan Pendidikan Agama Kristen. Bahasa Inggris digunakan secara
pasif ketika ada seseorang yang berkomunikasi dengan bahasa
ini. Bahasa ini diperoleh sejak duduk di Sekolah Dasar hingga
Perguruan Tinggi.
3. Nama : Alfonita Rahayu Hipan
Nim : 09 310 602
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Manado, 26 Maret 1992
Kelas : H
Asal : Manado
Indonesia, bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Melayu Manado diperoleh dari
orang tua, dan orang-rang di sekitar rumah dan digunakan untuk
berkomunikasi dengan teman-teman, orang tua dan masyarakat
di sekitar rumah. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan pada situasi
formal dan pada matakuliah umum seperti ISBD, Pancasila dan
Pendidikan Agama Kristen. Bahasa Inggris digunakan untuk
berkomunikasi dengan teman-teman dan dosen di jurusan bahasa
Inggris. Bahasa ini diperoleh sejak duduk di bangku SD hingga
Perguruan Tinggi.
4. Nama : Indry Walandow
Nim : 09 312 218
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Kakas, 20 Oktober 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Kakas, Minahasa
Tolour, bahasa Indonesia, dan bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Melayu
Manado digunakan untuk berkomunikasi sejak kecil dan
diperoleh dari orang tua dan masyarakat di sekitar tempat tinggal.
Bahasa Tolour digunakan untuk berkomunikasi dengan orang
tua di kampung (pasif). Bahasa ini diperoleh dari orang tua dan
masyarakat di sekitar tempat tinggal. Bahasa Indonesia diperoleh
dari pelajaran bahasa Indonesia sejak duduk di bangku SD hingga
Perguruan Tinggi dan digunakan dalam situasi formal baik di
dalam kelas (untuk matakuliah non kejuruan) dan di luar kelas.
Bahasa Inggris digunakan untuk berkomunikasi dengan teman
dan dosen dalam proses belajar mengajar di kelas khususnya pada
matakuliah-matakuliah kejuruan. bahasa ini diperoleh sejak SD
hingga Perguruan Tinggi.
6. Nama : Karlino Naomi Mokoagow
Nim : 09 313 477
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Kawangkoan, 9 Mei 1988
Kelas : H
Asal : Tombasian Atas
Indonesia, bahasa bahasa Tontemboan (pasif), dan bahasa Inggris.
Bahasa Melayu Manado digunakan untuk berkomunikasi sejak
kecil. Bahasa ini diperoleh dari orang-orang yang tinggal di sekitar
rumah. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan di kelas untuk matakuliah
non kejuruan. Bahasa daerah Tountemboan diperoleh dari orang
tua dan dari saudara-saudara dari kampong. Bahasa daerah ini
kadang-kadang digunakan dalam percakapan sehari-hari dengan
keluarga di dalam rumah di kampong. Bahasa Inggris digunakan
di kampus, dalam proses belajar-mengajar untuk matakuliah-
matakuliah kejuruan.
7. Nama : Eunike Soughvan Jafri
Nim : 09 310 843
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Sorong, 18 Oktober 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Sorong, Papua Barat
Analisis : Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia, bahasa Melayu
Manado, bahasa Indonesia, bahasa daerah Sorong, bahasa
Inggris dan bahasa Jerman. Bahasa Indonesia diperoleh dari guru
sejak SD hingga Perguruan Tinggi. Bahasa Indonesia biasanya
digunakan dalam kelas ketika belajar khusus untuk matakuliah
yang menggunakan bahasa pengantar bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa
daerah digunakan secara pasif untuk berkomunikasi dengan orang
tua. Bahasa Melayu Manado dipelajari ketika sejak pindah dan
tinggal di Tataaran II (Tondano Selatan) setahun yang lalu dari
teman-teman kost dan masyarakat yang tinggal di sekitar tempat
kost. Bahasa Melayu Manado digunakan untuk berkomunikasi
dengan teman-teman. Bahasa Inggris digunakan ketika sedang
belajar di kampus dan digunakan untuk berkomunikasi dengan
dosen dan teman. Bahasa ini dipelajari di sekolah dari SD hingga
Perguruan Tinggi atau lewat buku-buku dan flm-flm. Bahasa
Jerman saya pelajari di sekolah waktu duduk di SMA karena
jurusan yang diambil waktu itu adalah jurusan bahasa.
7. Nama : Eko Abdul Rasyid Pua
Nim : 09 310 572
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Manado, 25 Mei 1991
Jenis kelamin : laki-laki
Kelas : H
Asal : Desa Batu Kec. Belang
Agama : Islam
Indonesia, dan bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Melayu Manado dipelajari
sejak kecil lewat orang tua. Bahasa ini digunakan untuk
berkomunikasi dengan saudara, teman dan orang tua. Bahasa
Indonesia digunakan secara pasif. Bahasa ini digunakan hanya
di dalam kelas ketika mengikuti kuliah yang menggunakan
bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh sejak SD hingga
Perguruan Tinggi, lewat membaca buku dan nonton flm. Bahasa
ini digunakan dalam proses belajar-mengajar pada matakuliah
kejuruan secara pasif.
8. Nama : Megasari Jenan
Nim : 09 311 008
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Amurang, 22 November 1991
Jenis kelamin : Laki-laki
Kelas : H
Asal : Amurang
Agama : Islam

Analisis : Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa bahasa Indonesia, Melayu
Manado, dan bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Melayu Manado diperoleh
sejak kecil lewat orang tua. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan dalam
proses belajar-mengajar di kelas pada matakuliah non bahasa
Inggris. Bahasa Inggris digunakan ketika sedang belajar di di
kampus pada matakuliah yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris
sebagai pengantar. Bahasa inggris dipelajari dari guru, teman,
dan dari dosen.
9. Nama : Jems Meijer Edam
Nim : 09 310 607
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Karatung, 16 Januari 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Talaud
Talaud, bahasa Indonesia, bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Jepang.
Bahasa Indonesia digunakan dalam percakapan formal misalnya
dalam acara-acara formal dan dalam proses belajar mengajar
matakuliah nonjurusan. Bahasa Melayu Manado digunakan untuk
berkomunikasi dengan teman-teman kampus dan masyarakat di
sekitar asrama di Tataaran II. Bahasa Melayu Manado diperoleh
sejak kecil dari orang tua dan orang-orang yang tinggal di seputar
rumah. Bahasa daerah Talaud digunakan untuk berkomunikasi
dengan sesama orang talaud yang tinggal di Manado dan di
Asrama. Bahasa Inggris digunakan ketika bertemu dengan
orang asing yang tidak tahu berbahasa Indonesia. Bahasa Inggris
digunakan juga untuk berkomunikasi dengan teman dan dosen di
kampus. Bahasa Inggris dipelajari lewat guru, buku-buku bahasa
Inggris, teman, dosen dan bahkan media masa. Bahasa Jepang
dipelajari lewat buku dan teman. Bahasa Jepang digunakan secara
pasif seperti dalam ungkapan ekspresi salam.
10. Nama : Ronald S. Ong. Makadoda
Nim : 09 311 454
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Jakarta, 9 September 1989
Kelas : H
Asal : Jakarta
Analisis : Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa Melayu Jakarta, Melayu
Manado, bahasa Indonesia, dan bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Inggris
digunakan ketika sedang belajar di kampus untuk berkomunikasi
dengan dosen dan teman. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh sejak di
Sekolah Dasar hingga Perguruan Tinggi, dengan cara belajar dari
guru/dosen di sekolah/kampus, melalui kursus atau nonton flm.
Bahasa Melayu Manado dipakai dalam berkomunikasi sehari-
hari dengan teman-teman. Bahasa Melayu Manado dipelajari
saat tinggal di Manado lewat teman-teman. Bahasa Indonesia
digunakan di dalam kelas pada matakuliah yang menggunakan
bahasa pengantar bahasa Indonesia.
11. Nama : Natalia Ch. Roring
Nim : 09 310 260
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Kotamobagu, 23 November 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Tompaso Baru
Indonesia, bahasa Mongondow dan bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Inggris
digunakan ketika sedang belajar di kampus untuk berkomunikasi
dengan dosen dan teman. Bahasa Inggris juga digunakan ketika
berkomunikasi dengan orang asing. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh
sejak di Sekolah Dasar, dengan cara belajar dari guru di sekolah
dan melalui kursus. Bahasa Melayu Manado dipakai dalam
berkomunikasi sehari-hari dengan teman-teman dan orang tua.
Bahasa Melayu Manado diperoleh sejak lahir dari orang tua.
Bahasa Mongondow dipelajari lewat pergaulan dan digunakan
untu berkomunikasi dengan teman.
12. Nama : Jean E. Tindige
Nim : 09 311 354
Jurusan : Pendidikan bahasa Inggris
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Tabang, 23 April 1992
Kelas : H
Asal : Talaud
Indonesia, bahasa Talaud (pasif) dan bahasa Inggris. Bahasa
Melayu Manado digunakan untuk berkomunikasi dengan teman
dan orang tua. Bahasa Melayu Manado diperoleh sejak kecil dari
orang tua. Bahasa daerah Talaud digunakan untuk berkomunikasi
dengan teman walau pun pasif. Bahasa Talaud dipelajari dari
orang tua dan orang-orang di kampong yang memakai bahasa
itu. Bahasa Inggris digunakan ketika sedang belajar di kampus.
Walau bahasa Inggris diperoleh sejak dari SD, penguasaan bahasa
Inggris sangatlah pasif.
13. Nama : Sheyla Desiree Wangka
Nim : 09 313 542
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Manado, 12 Desember 1987
Jenis kelamin : perempuan
Kelas : H
Asal : Manado
Analisis : Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa Inggris, bahasa Melayu
Manado, bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa Inggris digunakan ketika
sedang dalam proses belajar mengajar di kampus khususnya pada
matakuliah matakuliah kejuruan dan waktu mengirim sms via
hand phone. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh dari guru, teman. Bahasa
Melayu Manado diperoleh sejak kecil dari orang tua. Bahasa
Melayu Manado digunakan dalam berkomunikasi dengan teman,
saudara, dan orang tua. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan dalam acara-
acara formal misalnya waktu memimpin ibadah di pemuda atau
membawakan doa dalam ibadah.
14. Nama : Fitriani Mangule
Nim : 09 313 350
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Talaud, 9 Februari 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Talaud
Indonesia, Bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Melayu Manado digunakan
untuk berkomunikasi dengan teman, orang tua, saudara dan orang-
orang terdekat. Bahasa Melayu Manado diperoleh dari kecil
lewat orang tua. Bahasa daerah Talaud diajarkan oleh orang tua.
Walaupun pasif, bahasa daerah ini digunakan untuk berkomunikasi
pendek dengan orang tua dan teman. Bahasa Inggris dipelajari dari
guru, dosen dan tean-teman. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan ketika
diminta untuk menggunakan bahasa itu di kelas pada matakuliah
nonkejuruan, atau pada situasi formal/acara-acara formal.
15. Nama : Aprelia Amantha Fiona
Nim : 09 312 062
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Ternate, 25 April 1992
Kelas : H
Asal : Talaud
Analisis : Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa Inggris, bahasa Melayu
Manado, bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa Inggris digunakan ketika
sedang dalam proses belajar mengajar di kampus khususnya pada
matakuliah matakuliah kejuruan dan waktu mengirim sms via
hand phone. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh dari guru, teman. Bahasa
Melayu Manado diperoleh sejak kecil dari orang tua. Bahasa
Melayu Manado digunakan dalam berkomunikasi dengan teman,
saudara, dan orang tua. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan dalam acara-
acara formal misalnya waktu memimpin ibadah di pemuda atau
membawakan doa dalam ibadah.
16. Nama : Liviani Piri
Nim : 0931306
Semester : I
Agkatan tahun : 2009/2010
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Kiawa / 2 April 1989
Jenis Kelamin : Perempuan
Kelas : H
Asal : Kiawa Kec. Kawangkoan
Analisa : Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa Melayu Manado, bahasa
Inggris (pasif), bahasa Indonesia, dan bahasa daerah (pasif).
Bahasa Melayu Manado diperoleh dari orang Tua dan lingkungan,
digunakan pada saat berkomunikasi dengan orang lain. Walaupun
pasif, bahasa Inggris diperoleh di kelas atau belajar lewat
berkomunikasi dengan turis waktu ketemu di jalan yang meminta
pertolongan. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan hanya pada saat tertentu
misalnya pada acara formal atau punpada saatberkomunikansi
dengan orang yang hanya tahu berbahasa Indonesia.
17. Nama : Ni Ketut Sintia
Nim : 09 312 678
Semester : I/ganjil
Angkatan tahun : 2009/2010
Tempat/tanggal lahir : 7 oktober 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Bolaang Mongodow
Agama : Hindu
Analisa : Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia (aktif), bahasa
Inggris (pasif), bahasa Bali (aktif), bahasa Manado (aktif). Bahasa
melayu Manado (aktif) diperoleh dari lingkungan masyarakat,
karena orang-orang didaerah asal saya selalu aktif menggunakan
bahasa melayu Manado. Saya tidak mempelajari bahasa daerah
(bahasa Bali) karena bahasa daerah yang saya tahu merupakan
bahasa yang sudah tertanam sejak saya lahir, Sejak kecil hingga
besar saya menggunakan bahasa tersebut dan bahasa daerah
tersebut tumbuh dan berkembang dipikiran saya. Walaupun
pasif, bahasa Inggris saya menggunakan ditempat kost lewat saya
menyanyikan lagu bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Indonesia (aktif) saya
gunakan pada saat saya belajar menerima pelajaran dikelas yaitu
pelajaran Pancasila, Ilmu Sosial Budaya (ISBD) dan pelajaran
Agama Hindu.
18. Nama : Yudhiani Sahentobage
Nim : 09 312 332
Semester : I
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Tariang Lama, 4 Januari 1992
Kelas : H
Asal : Sangir
Analisa : Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa daerah (Sangir), Bahasa
melayu Manado, Bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa melayu Manado
diperoleh dari orang tua, orang-orang ditempat saya tinggal, dan
saat saya berkomunikasi dengan mereka atau teman-teman saya.
Saya belajar bahasa daerah dari orang tua, disekolah (SD, SMP)
dan saya menggunakannya saat berkomunikasi dengan orang atau
teman sekampung yang pembicaraannya bersifat rahasia, dan saat
saya menjawab pertanyaan yang dilontarkan dengan menggunakan
bahasa derah. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh pada saat saya mengikuti
matakuliah jurusan bahasa Inggris, berkomunikasi dengan orang
yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris dan waktu duduk dibangku
SMP, SMA. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan hanya saat mengikuti
matakuliah umum ( Agama, Pancasila, dan ISBD ) dan saat pada
forum diskusi.
18. Nama : Lyffa F.W. Lumanauw
Nim : 09 313 555
Semester : I
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Manado, 10 April 1989
Kelas : H
Asal : Tareran
Analisa: Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia, bahasa melayu
Manado, Bahasa Tomohon (logat tareran). Bahasa melayu
Manado diperoleh dari dari orang tua dan saat berkomunikasi
sehari-hari. Bahasa daerah diperoleh dari nenek dan saya tidak
pernah menggunakan bahasa daerah. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh
dari guru, dosen dan orang tua, walaupun hanya sering saya selalu
menggunakan bahasa Inggris saat berkomunikasi dengan guru,
dosen, orang tua dan pada saat saya bertemu dengan orang asing.
Bahasa Indonesia digunakan saat berkomunikasi dengan dosen
dalam matakuliah umum ( ISBD, Pancasila, Agama). Akan tetapi
bukan hanya berkomunikasi dengan dosen, saat dalam kondisi
formalpun saya berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan bahasa
Indonesia.
19. Nama : Rinto Firmus
Nim : 09 312 724
Semester : I (satu)
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Lakapera, 20 Juli 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Kendari, Sulawesi Tenggara
Agama : Kristen Katolik
Analisa: Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia, bahasa
Inggris, bahasa melayu Manado, dan bahasa daerah Muna
Selatan (Sulawesi Tenggara). Bahasa melayu Manado diperoleh
dari teman-teman dilingkungan kampus, tempat tinggal, dan
walaupun saya merasa kaku saya tetap menggunakannya
dalam berkomunikasi dengan teman dikampus dan dirumah.
Bahasa daerah diperoleh dari lingkungan keluarga dan saat saya
berkomunikasi dengan teman-teman sekampung. Bahasa Inggris
diperoleh dari guru-guru, dosen dan digunakan saat berdiskusi
tentang bahasa inggris. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan saat kegiatan
formal atau berkomunikasi dengan teman-teman.
20. Nama : Marni Bawawa
Nim : 09 311 228
Jurusan : Pend Bahasa Inggris
Semester : I
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Tabang, 20 Februari 1990
Kelas : H
Asal : Talaud
Analisa: Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa melayu Manado,
bahasa daerah (Talaud), dan bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa melayu
Manado diperoleh dari lingkungan tempat saya tinggal, dan
saya menggunakannya saat berkomunikasi dengan teman.
Bahasa daerah belajar dari orang tua, disekolah (SD,SMP) dan
saya menggunakannya saat berkomunikasi dengan orang tua
dan teman-teman sekampung yang berasal dari Talaud. Bahasa
Inggris diperoleh saat saya sekolah (SMP, SMA), guru, dosen
dan digunakan saat mengikuti matakuliah jurusan bahasa Inggris.
Bahasa Indonesia digunakan saat mengikuti matakuliah umum
(Agama, Pancasila, dan ISBD).
21. Nama : Ni Made Fitriyanti
Nim : 09 312 362
Semester : I
Angkatan : 2009/2010
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Werdhi Agung, 15 Februari 1992
Jenis Kelamin : perempuan
Kelas : H
Asal : Bali
Agama : Hindu
Analisa: Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia, Bahasa
Inggris, Bahasa Melayu Manado, dan bahasa bali. Bahasa Melayu
Manado diperoleh dari lingkungan saya tinggal, dan digunakan
saat berkomunikasi dengan teman-teman maupun orang-orang
dilingkungan sekitar. Bahasa Bali diperoleh dari orang tua,
tempat saya berasal dan digunakan saat berkomunikasi dengan
orang-orang yang seiman dengan saya. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh
dari waktu saya sekolah dan digunakan bila berkomunikasi
dengan orang asing ataupun pada saat tertentu. Bahasa Indonesia
digunakan disaat tertentu misalnya, berkomunikasi dengan orang-
orang luar daerah dan pada saat menerima matakuliah umum.
22. Nama : Cristi Fandi Mongkareng
Nim : 09 311 214
Semester : I
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Bitung, 17 Januari 1992
Kelas : H
Asal : Bitung (Minahasa Selatan)
Analisa: Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia (aktif), bahasa
melayu (Manado), Bahasa daerah Tontemboan (pasif), bahasa
melayu Jakarta (pasif), bahasa melayu Papua (pasif), bahasa
melayu Ternate/Ambon (pasif), dan bahasa Sangihe Talaud (pasif).
Bahasa melayu Manado diperoleh dari orang tua, teman, orang-
orang dimana saya berada dan digunakan untuk berkomunikasi
setiap hari dengan orang lain. Bahasa daerah diperoleh dari orang
tua, keluarga dikampung dan digunakan apabila saya bertemu
dengan kelurga yang berada dikampung. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh
sejak saya sekolah (SMP) sampai dengan sekarang dikampus, dan
saya menggunakan bahasa Inggris tidak ada batasnya kapanpun
saat didalam kelas atau luar kelas dan saat saya bertemu dengan
turis. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan apabila sedang belajar, berada
dalam forum formal, diskusi, dan dalam berkomunikasi dengan
teman maupun dosen dikampus.
23. Nama : Faramita Muaya
Nim : 09 312 510
Semester : I
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Kotamobagu, 8 Februari 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Desa Sinisir, Kec. Modoinding
Analisa: Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia (aktif), bahasa
melayu Manado(aktif), bahasa Inggris (pasif), bahasa Totabuan
(pasif), bahasa Tontemboan (pasif). Bahasa melayu Manado
( aktif) diperoleh dari orang-orang yang berada dilingkungan
sekitar. Bahasa daerah diperoleh dari orang tua, dan teman-teman
yang asal daerah sama. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh waktu sekolah
(SMP, SMA), sekarang di perguruan tinggi. Bahasa Jepang,
bahasa Arab, dan bahasa Jerman diperoleh dari guru saya waktu
SMA. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan saat berada didalam kelas.
24. Nama : Aika Karundeng
Nim : 09 311 911
Semester : I
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Rumoong Atas, 23 Agustus 1991
Kelas : H
Asal : Bolaang Mongondow Timur (Kotabunan)
Analisa: Bahasa yang saya kuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia, bahasa
Inggris (pasif), bahasa totabuan (pasif), bahasa melayu manado,
bahasa tontemboan (pasif). Bahasa melayu manado diperoleh
dari keluarga, saudara, teman lingkungan sekitar dan digunakan
saat berkomunikasi. Bahasa daerah diperoleh dari orang tua,
keluarga, guru disekolah, teman, orang disekitar, dan digunakan
saat berkomunikasi dengan orang tua, keluarga dan teman-
teman sedaerah. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh saat belajar, waktu
tertentu, dan digunakan saat bercanda bersama teman-teman,
berkomunikasi dengan dosen, guru, teman-teman disekitar, dan
saudara. Bahasa Asing diperoleh dari guru SMA, teman-teman.
Bahasa Indonesia digunakan saat belajar dikelas, berkomunikasi
dengan dosen, orang-orang tertentu, atau saat menghadiri suatu
pelatihan/seminar, dan disamping itu saat mengunjungi tempat-
tempat tertentu/lembaga.
25. Nama : Selvira F. Sero
Nim : 09 311 920
Semester : I
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Poopo, 4 September 1991
Jenis Kelamin : Perempuan
Kelas : H
Asal : Kotamobagu
Analisa: Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia, bahasa Melayu
Manado, bahasa Tontemboan, bahasa totabuan. Bahasa melayu
Manado (aktif) diperoleh dari orang-orang sekitar, dan digunakan
saat berkomunikasi dengan orang-orang sekitar dan masyarakat
setempat. Bahasa daerah diperoleh dari orang-orang sekitar.
Bahasa Inggris digunakan dalam berkomunikasi dikampus,
hanphone, internet, teman disekitar maupun dosen. Bahasa
Indonesia digunakan saat berkomunikasi.
26. Nama : Walangitan Melania
Nim : 09 311 388
Semester : I
Tempat/tanggal lahir : Suluun, 31 Mei 1992
Kelas : H
Asal : Tareran Suluun
Agama : Kristen
Analisa: Bahasa yang dikuasai adalah bahasa Indonesia (aktif), bahasa
daerah Tontemboan (pasif), dan bahasa inggris (pasif). Bahasa
Melayu Manado diperoleh sejak kecil dari orang yang tinggal
disekitar rumah. Bahasa daerah diperoleh dari orang tua. Bahasa
Inggris diperoleh didalam kelas dan sering digunakan dalam
berkomunikasi dengan orang lain diluar kelas. Bahasa Jerman
(pasif) diperoleh waktu belajar di SMA. Bahasa Indonesia
digunakan dalam proses belajar, dilingkungan sekitar, dan dalam
matakuliah umum.
C. KESIMPULAN
Kebanyakan Mahasiswa Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris FBS UNIMA
menguasai setidak-tidaknya tiga bahasa. Ketiga bahasa tersebut adalah bahasa
Melayu Manado sebagai bahasa Ibu, Bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa
nasional, dan Bahasa Inggris. Ada beberapa di antara mereka yang menguasai
lebih dari tiga bahasa seperti yang disebutkan di atas di tambah satu bahasa
asing yaitu bahasa Jepang dan juga ada yang menguasai lebih dari dua bahasa
daerah sekaligus.
Bahasa Melayu Manado digunakan di luar kuliah, sebagai alat untuk
berkomunikasi dengan keluarga, teman, masyarakat dan dosen. Bahasa
Inggris digunakan di dalam kelas, sebagai alat untuk berkomunikasi dengan
teman, dan dosen. Bahasa Inggris juga dipakai ketika berkomunikasi dengan
orang asing yang tidak bisa berbahasa Indonesia. Bahasa Indonesia dipakai
di dalam perkuliahan sebagai alat komunikasi dalam matakuliah-matakuliah
nonkejuruan, misalnya matakuliah Pancasila, Ilmu Sosial Budaya Dasar, dan
Pendidikan Agama. Bahasa Indonesia digunakan untuk berkomunikasi dalam
acara-acara formal seperti forum-forum Ilmiah dan dalam ibadah evanglisasi
Pemuda.
Ada beberapa mahasiswa yang berasal dari luar daerah Sulawesi Utara
misalnya dari Kendari (Sulawesi Tenggara), Bali, dan Sorong (Papua Barat).
Mereka memakai bahasa Melayu Manado sebagai B1 karena sudah menetap
di Manado.
Sebagian besar Mahasiswa Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris FBS
UNIMA memperoleh Bahasa Melayu Manado sebagai bahasa ibu sejak kecil.
Bahasa tersebut diajarkan oleh orang tua dan diperoleh dari komunikasi sehari-
hari dengan penutur bahasa tersebut. Bahasa Inggris diperoleh melalui proses
belajar-mengajar di sekolah dari SD hingga Perguruan Tinggi dan melalui
kursus/pelatihan.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Bloomfeld, Leonard. 1933. Language. New York: Holt, Reinhart and
Winston.
Chaer A. Agustina L. (Ed.) 2004. Sosiolinguistik. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.
Mahsun, 2005, Metode Penelitian Linguistik, Yogyakarta: Gajahmada
University Press.
Tarigan, H.G. 1988. Pengajaran Kedwibahasaan. Bandung: Penerbit
Angkasa.
ENRICHING LEARNERS VOCABULARY
BY USING WORD CARDS
Netty Maria Wagiu
1
Intisari
Tujuan penulisan makalah ini untuk membantu para guru mengembangkan
kosakata siswa dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris. Dalam praktek pembelajaran
bahasa Inggris di kelas, teridentifkasi masalah-masalah form-related dan
meaning-related yang dihadapi siswa, misalnya; kesulitan menysun kalimat
atau mengerjakan production task seperti completion, kurangnya kemampuan
menjawab pertanyaan dan lain-lainnya yang diduga sebagai akibat dari kurangnya
penguasaan kosa kata siswa.
Word cards merupakan salah satu strategi pembelajaran bahasa, secara
khusus pembelajaran vocabulary yang diaplikasikan secara terintegrasi dengan
keterampilan- keterampilan bahasa Inggris. Word cards dengan keempat
langkahnya, selain menarik dan menstimulasi siswa untuk terlibat aktif dalam
pembelajaran, mempunyai esensi menjamin target vocabulary yang dipelajari
dapat bertahan dan tersimpan lama dalam memori pembelajar. (use the words in
long-term memory). Penerapan word cards technique diharapkan dapat membantu
guru memfasilitasi dan memperkaya penguasaan kosakata dan memampukan siswa
menggunakan kosakata dalam praktek berbahasa Inggris, meningkatkan motivasi
dan kepuasan belajar.
Kata kunci: Teknik, kosakata, wordcards, memperkaya, pembelajaran.
1 Dra.Netty Maria Wagiu, M.Pd currently serves as a a lecturer in Sorong Victory University.
She completed her Magister in education in State University Yogyakarta
Enriching Learners Vocabulary Netty Maria Wagiu 774
I. INRODUCTION
English is a well-known language in the world. As an international
language, it is learned and taught in Indonesian schools as a foreign language.
People learn English in order to be able to communicate with the native speakers
of English or others that use the language, to be able to read and comprehend
the written text in English, are generally some of the reasons. Learning English
is closely related to the teaching of the language. In the teaching and learning
of English, learners should master all the language skills namely: listening,
speaking reading and writing. Those skills are taught as an integrated part.
Knowing the skills is also means understanding its grammar and structure,
vocabulary, pronunciation, and the other sub skills. In communication, is said
that vocabulary is often more important than grammar Davies, P & Pearse, E
(2000: 71). What is vocabulary? Linse, C.T. & Nunan, D (2006: 121) write
that language consists of words. Vocabulary is the collection of words than an
individual knows. Further is said that, vocabulary development is an important
aspect of language development and the research that has been conducted in
recent years is very exciting. A variety of studies has proven that appropriate
vocabulary instruction benefts language students, especially school-age
learners. According to McNeon and Beck 2003 (Linse, C.T. & Nunan, D 2006:
122), it is important to use both formal and informal vocabulary instruction
that engages students cognitive skills and gives opportunities for the learners
to actually use the words. Understanding or explaining the meaning of what
something means is more complicated than teachers and students sometime
recognize. In this case, Lewis & Hill (2002: 100) state, language is a system
and each word has its meaning defned in relation to other words. This insight
leads to an easier, more effective and theoretically sounder way of explaining.
It is always more helpful to explain difference of meaning rather than the
meaning it self. Nation, 2003 (Linse, C.T. & Nunan, D 2006: 122) say, Teacher
should facilitate vocabulary learning by teaching learners useful words and by
teaching strategies to help learners fgure out meanings on their own. Useful
words are words that children are likely to encounter-words that occur in a high
frequency. Useful words are also words which are of interest and intriguing to
children. They also added that, learners need to acquire vocabulary learning
strategies in order to discover the meaning of new words. The strategies should
be useful within the classroom as well as when learners are in a situation where
they encounter new and unfamiliar vocabulary words that they hear and see.
Vocabulary should be integrated into teaching the four skills- listening, speaking
reading and writing. Comprehending the description about the importance of
vocabulary in giving information to the readers and the learners, so, it is hoped
that the teaching of vocabulary as an integrated part with the teaching of any
language-skills of English should be given more attention and so does the use
of the appropriate technique as well as strategies to be used in teaching and
learning.
It is understood that, the role of vocabulary as one of the English sub
skills is very important in comprehending written texts and building language
expressions as a means of communication which should be learned and taught
using the suitable ways of presenting, but, it is regretful to say that we still do
not come to that end. There are reasons to arise that learners are still lack of
vocabularies. The examples of mistakes that students make are; the frst is, the
wrong answers of the form-related, and second is the wrong answers of the
meaning-related. This is identifed when the running of teaching and learning
activities, students are noticed facing diffculties in answering questions being
asked, unable to express their sentences, specifcally when they were asked
to use their own words or doing the completion task. The same failure is also
observable at the moment where the teaching of writing is carried out in other
English courses. There are some reasons that might have been the causes of
the diffculties. The identifed problems mentioned above, might be caused by
the internal factors of the students themselves such as the minimum aspect of
motivation in learning the language, as they paid less attention to the learning
process by making noise or disturbing each other. The external factor that
might be affect the effectiveness of the teaching process, for instance, the
inappropriate strategy of teaching the target language or vocabulary used by
the teacher.
Learning words and how to use them is not a simple matter. Teaching
vocabulary is neglected in some English language teaching in schools. So, how
do teachers facilitate and stimulate learners to enrich their vocabulary?
There are so many techniques for handling vocabulary that can be applied in
teaching. The writer eager to say that in her own teaching practice in classes
and as well as modeling the technique as a facilitator in the English Teachers
Forum (MGMP), she used word cards as one of the so many choices to train
good vocabulary learners.
Based on the above description, the writer have a great intention to
pronounce that using word cards is one of the very interesting techniques
to choose because, working with words can be enjoyable and satisfying for
learners. This can help teachers to increase students vocabulary and a strategy
for overcoming problems. This is not a self-made technique but an adoption one.
This is equipped with some additional activities or steps which help students
easily understand and memorize the words. The essence of this technique is,
this is not only easier for teachers to apply but also making students not only
learning but also playing, and to ensure that the target substance or the words
learned keep stored into long-term memory. The basic procedure is simple
because this technique consists of only four major steps.
II. DISCUSSION
Vygotsky (Thornbury S. 2002: 1) said, A word is a microcosm of human
conciousness. All languages have words. Language emerges frst as words,
both historically, and in terms of the way each of us learned our frst and any
subsequent languages. The coining of new words never stops. Nor does the
acquisition of words. So, whats in a word? Thornbury S. (2002: 1) explains
that, there are word classes, word families, word formation, multi-word unit,
collocations, homonyms, polysemes, synonyms and antonyms, hyponyms,
lexical felds, style and connotation.
Lexis is known as the technical name for the vocabulary of a language.
To build a sentence, lexis plays an important role as J. Harmer (1983:
79) says that, lexis is as important as grammar, showing how words combine
together and behave both semantically and grammatically is an important part
of any language-learning programme.
Wilga Rivers, (Thornbury S.2002: 144) wrote:
Vocabulary cannot be taught. It can be presented, explained, included
in all kinds of activities, and experienced in all manner of associations but
ultimately it is learned by the individual. As language teachers, we must arouse
interest in words and a certain excitement in personal development in this
area We can help our students by giving them the ideas on how to learn,
but each will fnally learn a very personal selection of items, organized into
relationship in an individual way.
In connection with this, Thornbury S (2002: 1) asked, how words are
learned and how important is vocabulary? He stated, Without grammar
very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.
Thornbury S (2002: 15) also reminds of talking about the importance of having
an extensive vocabulary -that is, knowing lots of words. But what does it mean
to know a word? And the most basic level, knowing a word involves knowing
its form, and its meaning. Further, he explained how words are remembered.
According to him, research fnding shows the relevant to the subject of word
learning are: Repetition, retrieval, spacing, pacing, use, cognitive depth,
personal organizing, imaging, mnemonics, motivation, attention/ arousal.
It is understandable that through the quotation, both Rivers and Thornbury
want to tell us about how important a vocabulary is, and what activities teachers
can do to arouse interest in words. She said that the idea on how to learn
the words for the students is something important to consider by language
teachers.
About Roots of English words Mikulecky B. S. & Jeffries L, (2007: 48)
writes, knowing the meaning of some common roots can help you understand
the words that are made from those roots. The words build around a single root
are called related words. There are two types of roots: root that can stand alone
as words in English, Example: cheer, happy, usual, break. Roots tat cannot
stand alone in English. This includes many of the roots that come from Latin,
Greek, and other languages. The spelling of the roots from other languages is
often changed when they are part of an English word.
About word study, Dorothy S. Strickland, Lee Galda, and Bernice
Cullinan 2007: 369). State that about learning to read words, children need to
explore words and how they are formed. They need to learn how to make use
of this information in order to read, write, and spell. For many children, some
of the most fundamental understandings about words are learned even before
kindergarten as they learn to recognize their names.
Guidelines for word study. Learning to read and write involves coming
to know the power of written language. Teachers help children develop an
understanding of the reading and writing processes and how they are used to
communicate. Fundamental to these understandings is the ability to recognize
and write words.
Effective teachers help students build a network of understandings about
language. Children apply what they know in order to problem-solve when
faced with challenges in their reading and writing. Teachers and students need
to talk about words, how they are constructed, and their origin. Students should
be encouraged to do their own exploring and make their own discoveries as
independent readers and writers. These discoveries become the focus of class
discussion and further exploration. Classrooms that promote effective word
study are those in which: - students hear written language so they can learn
its structure and take in new information and ideas, children are helped to
become aware of the sounds of language, to enjoy those sounds, and to use
this knowledge as a tool in becoming literate, children have many experiences
working with written symbols so they can learn how to look at letters and use
this information to read and write.
Strategies for word study: learning to recognize words, making and sorting
words, sorting words according to meaning and structure, analyzing words
needed to learn from texts, learning about words through language history and
linguistic diversity.
Importance of building rich vocabulary. A students vocabulary plays
a critical role in every aspect of literacy learning. Words are the keys to
constructing meaning with text. A rich vocabulary boots a students oral and
written expression, reading comprehension, and viewing comprehension.
McArthur 1996, pp 1026-1027 (Dorothy S. Strickland, Lee Galda, and Bernice
Cullinan 2007: 380) identifed eight different kinds of words, three of which
are relevant for vocabulary instruction: Lexical words, grammatical words
and onomastic words. Lexical words: are words have describable meanings.
They are usually nouns (cabin, Rustun, breeze), verbs (hiked, imagine,
standing, or modifers (strong, never, happily). Grammatical words: these are
the structure words that serve to link lexical words. Included are conjunctions
(and, because, in case), determiners (all this, many), interjections (aha, oops,
wow), particles (to see, look up), and pronouns (they, that, she). Onomastic
words: these words are the names of particular persons, places, and things not
usually listed in dictionaries but important and often intriguing to children.
Strategies for vocabulary building. Like all good teaching, vocabulary
instruction should be grounded in how children learn. Bromley 2002, p. p
(Dorothy S. Strickland, Lee Galda, and Bernice Cullinan 2007: 380) offers
four underlying assumptions to guide successful word learning: - it is personal.
It is active. It is fexile.- It is strategic.
Strategies for building a powerful vocabulary stated by Mikulecky, B. S.
& Jeffries L, (2007: 36) are these -check your knowledge of the words used
most frequently in English. focus on the words used in academic text. use the
dictionary effectively. keep a vocabulary notebook. use study cards. They
also said that learning vocabulary can be done by learning new words from
reading, inferring meaning from context, using context to choose a dictionary
defnition, inferring meaning the meaning of a word in paragraph, and using
the larger context to infer meaning.
In line with this, Brown (2001: 377) writes, rather viewing vocabulary
item as a long and boring list of words to be defned and memorized, lexical
forms are seen in their central role in contextualized, meaningful language.
Learners are guided in specifc ways to internalize these important building
blocks of language. He gives guidelines for the communicative treatment
of vocabulary instruction. (1) Allocating specifc class time to vocabulary
learning, (2) helping students to learn vocabulary in context, (3) Playing
down the role of bilingual dictionaries, (4) encouraging students to develop
strategies for determining the meaning of words, (5) engaging in unplanned
vocabulary teaching.
In connection with the teaching o f vocabulary, Nation, P (Richards &
Renandya 2002: 267), offers the best practice in vocabulary teaching and
learning. Research on second language acquisition can be interpreted to show
that a well-balanced courses should contain four major strands: meaning-
focused input, meaning-focused output, fuency development and language-
focused instruction. For most second language learners, language-focused
vocabulary instruction is an essential part of a language course. Further he
explained that language-focused instruction occurs when learners direct
their attention to language items not for producing or comprehending a
particular message, but for gaining knowledge about the item as a part of the
language system. Language-focused instruction thus includes focusing on the
pronunciation and spelling of words; deliberately learning the meanings of
a word; memorizing collocations, phrases and sentences containing a word;
and being corrected for incorrect use of a word. The importance rank order
list for best practice is as follows: (1) guessing unknown words from context,
(2) learning the meanings of unknown words, (3) study of word parts and
mnemonic devices.
Teaching is very complex and important job in todays world. Good
teacher loves and understand learning. The teaching strategy chosen should
be based on the approaches, Richards and Renandya (2002: 258) present a
systematic framework for vocabulary development by combining three
approaches to vocabulary instruction and learning (modifed from Coady,
1977a; Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996). These three approaches: (1)
the incidental learning, (2) explicit instruction and (3) the independent strategy
development. The incidental learning of vocabulary requires that teachers
provide opportunities for extensive reading and listening. Explicit instruction
involves diagnosing the words learners need to know, presenting words for the
frst time, elaborating word knowledge, and developing fuency with known
words. The independent strategy development involves practicing guessing
from context and training learners to use dictionaries. Further is explained
that, although all these approaches and principles have a role to play in
vocabulary instruction, the learners profciency level and learning situation
should be considered when deciding the relative emphasis to be placed on
each approach. In general, emphasizing explicit instruction is probably best
for beginning and intermediate students who have limited vocabularies. On
the other hand, extensive reading and listening might receive more attention
for more profcient intermediate and advanced students. Also, because of its
immediate benefts, dictionary training should begin early in the curriculum.
Having read this explanation, the writer synthesizes that, teachers require to
plan a wide variety of activities and exercises to make good use of vocabulary
learning through incidental, intentional, and independent approaches. As an
addition to consider, Thornbury S, (2002: 22) says, how words are remember.
Learners need not only to learn a lot of words, but to remember them. So,
teachers should bear in mind the importance of bringing students not only to
store the words learnt in the short-term store, working memory but, to make
them memorize and make use the words in long-term memory.
In line with this, Nation, 2003 (Linse, C.T. & Nunan, D 2006: 122) say,
Teacher should facilitate vocabulary learning by teaching learners useful
words and by teaching strategies to help learners fgure out meanings on their
own. Useful words are words that children are likely to encounter-words
that occur in a high frequency. Useful words are also words which are of
interest and intriguing to children. He also added that, learners need to acquire
vocabulary learning strategies in order to discover the meaning of new words.
The strategies should be useful within the classroom as well as when learners
are in a situation where they encounter new and unfamiliar vocabulary words
that they hear and see. Vocabulary should be integrated into teaching the four
skills- listening, speaking reading and writing.
The meaning of new words and expressions can be presented through
translation, In other words, giving an equivalent word or expression in the
learners native language. But there are some several potential disadvantages
to this technique. For example, it may encourage learners to think in their
own language, always translating to and from English. Also, it may encourage
learners to feel they have learnt a word or expression permanently once they
have been given translation, and it may give wrong ideas about a word or
expression. Of course it is natural and useful to use translation from time to
time, but it is important to avoid making it the usual way of presenting the
meaning of new item. Most vocabulary items can be presented very clearly
without translation. In fact, other techniques generally involve the learners
more, and they remember better. Davies, P & Pearse, E (2000: 61).
Harmer, J (1983: 79) says, How, why and where: the actual way we
do things depends not on the choice of a method (though it is possible that
a method-or a version of a method-may be appropriate), but rather on why
and where we are teaching. What do we want to achieve, with whom and in
what context? We need to analyze these features and then choose from the
procedures and techniques at our command those that best ft the situation we
are in. At all levels and at all stages of teaching we should be able to say clearly
why we are doing what we are doing.
There are kinds of strategies for presenting vocabulary introduced by
many writers. Thornbury S.(2002: 75) states that presenting vocabulary by
; translation, real things, pictures, action/gestures, defnitions, situations.
And to put words to work we can use; integrating new knowledge, decision-
making tasks, production tasks, and games such as: -word clap, categories,
noughts and crosses, coffee pot, back to board, pictionary, word snap, word
race, spelling race. And for training good vocabulary learners he introduces;
using mnemonics, word cards, guessing from context, coping strategies for
production, and using dictionaries. While Harmer, J (1983: 229), explains
there are many ways we can explain meaning, and when teaching vocabulary
this a major part of teachers art. Students need to see words in context to see
how they are used. Accordingly, the best way, perhaps, of introducing new
words is for students to read texts or listen to audio tracks and see or hear those
words in action. Further he wrote, when we introduce new vocabulary, there is
always chance, of course, that is not new to some of the students in the class.
Here are some examples of introducing vocabulary:
Example 1. Walking, running, jumping Focus: verbs of movement
Age : adult
Level : beginner
The teacher starts by showing or drawing pictures, or miming the actions.
The words are carefully modeled, and the teacher may well conduct a rapid
cue-response drill where she points to a picture or mimes the action and then
nominates a student to say walk, climb, etc. The next step, students are now
asked to put the correct verb in the sentences. Then ask students to work in
pairs, and teacher makes sure they pronounce the words correctly. Next, do
a quick round of class robot, where one student is a robot and the others give
instructions, such as run to the window, swim to the door, etc. and the robot has
to mime these activities. Finally, students can be asked to write new instructions
using the new words.
Example 2. Inviting Focus: functional language
Age : adult
Level : pre-intermediate

The following get students to make invitations and to accept or refuse
them. Students are shown a picture of a lake or river where people are rowing
each other around. In the foreground, a woman is talking to a young man with
a broken arm. We will tell the students that they should read the following
dialogue and see if they can guess the word or words that are missing in each
of the blanks. Next, they compared their possible answers, hear the dialogue
spoken on an audio track so that they can see if they were right. We can then
get them to practice speaking the dialogue. The next step, get them to make
invitations by completing the phrase stems. Finally, the students read out (act
out) their dialogues and we give them feedback.
Example 3. Explaining what you mean Focus: type, kind, something you use
Age : young adult plus
Level : intermediate
This helps students with vocabulary that they can use when they do not
know the words to describe things. The sequence starts when students talk to
each other in pair or groups and discuss situations in which they need to explain
things to visitors, family and friends. They read some descriptions, they check
their answers with words written at the bottom of the page. Now the words
and phrases have been properly introduced, the students do a practice exercise
to help them get used to them. The next stage, students compile lists of things
so that they can use these things in subsequent exercises. In groups, they have
to a) draw things, b) name animals, c) name things. Then they compare their
choices. Next, they are now in a position to describe things for each other.
Example 4. Word formation Focus: prefxes and suffxes
Level : upper-intermediate

Students are reminded of a sentence from a sentence they have just read.
They are asked to say what various prefxes mean, discuss this with the teacher.
Then they look at a number of words with suffxes. They are not given a kind
of construction-kit exercise where they have to try to make as many words as
they can by adding prefxes and suffxes. This can be done in pair or groups.
Finally, they are asked to choose six of the words that thy have formed so that
they can write a sentence for each.
Example 5. Word circle Focus: compound nouns
Level : intermediate
In this activity, students look at a wheel of words and try to say which
words with book and TV to make compound words. Start showing students
the wheel and make sure they realize that while book + case doesnt work in
the same way. Student are put into pair or groups and told to come up with the
combination as quickly as possible. Do this without using dictionaries frst,
then when checking the answers ask them to check with their dictionaries.
They can now use these compound words in sentences.

Example 6. Word map Focus: houses, rooms, object
Age : any
Level : any
Word map are extremely engaging way of building up vocabulary
knowledge as well as provoking students into retrieving and sing what they
know. Students are going to work on aspects of houses and the things in them.
Start putting the beginnings of a map on the board. Students come to the board
and add some rooms to the diagram. Students should by now have begun to get
the idea. We now put them in groups, and allocate one room per group. They
told to add as many words as they can. They can look at the dictionary and may
ask the words that they do not know. Once the map is complete, make sure they
say the words correctly, then ask them to describe their favourite room.
Example 7. In the queue Focus: physical description
Age : adult
Level : beginner
This is designed to get students using the language of description (e.g.
hes quite tall, she has blonde hair, he has a beard), an artifcial information gap
is created by getting the students to look at different pictures. The teacher starts
by putting a picture of people in a queue on the board and giving the students
a list o names. They can then ask question. Then comes up and points to the
correct person in the picture. Put them in pairs. In each pair one student is A and
the other is B. They questioned each other describing the name in the picture.
When the activity is over, the teacher has different students describe the various
characters to check that they are happy using the description language.
Harmer, J (1983: 238) introduces also, vocabulary games such as Got It,
Backs to the board and Snap. And using dictionaries techniques like: reference
and production dictionary, dictionary activities; (1) pairing activities, (2)
defnition game, (3) At home with do, make and take, (4) Monday morning,
(5) Films. Riddell (2003: 62) gives the ten strategies to be used: (1) use
pictures or drawings, for example, rather than explaining word, (2) use mime,
(3) use contrasts, (4) use synonyms, (5) use realia, (6) use spoken gap-fll
sentences, (7) With higher levels, try to use student-centred approaches to
increase learners independence, (8) matching exercises can combine some of
the above approaches, (9) following a reading task, (10) course books. And
bedroom
House
Kitchen
Lewis & Hill (2002: 98) lists some of the vocabulary teaching techniques such
as: (1) A vocabulary item can be more than one word, (2) Do not discuss the
structure of lexical items, (3) There is a difference between active and passive
vocabulary, (4) explain difference of meaning, not meaning, (5) words are best
taught in groups: a) synonyms b) antonyms c) complements d) converses e)
hyponyms, (6) vary the way you explain: a) demonstrate, b) use the real thing
c) draw as sketch d) use the blackboard to show scales or grades e) antonyms
f) synonyms g) the dictionary h) verbal explanations i) translation, (7) words
can link grammatically as well as thematically.
Talking about teaching vocabulary to learners is not as simply as we
think. It is challenged, but if we teachers can do it enjoyably and satisfactorily,
the writer assumed that it would be benefts the students by helping them build
up the useful and powerful vocabulary. This is, of course, needs to be well-
prepared. On the teachers side, they have to make an overall plan includes
everything needed as an important source of knowledge for reaching the goal
setting. The choice of guidelines and the strategy should be based on the
teaching strategy related to objectives to be achieved, the teaching strategy
based on group size, the teaching strategy related to needs and characteristics
of students, the teaching strategy related to motivation of students as stated
by Reece and Walker (1997:129). In their explanation, added that objectives
are at the heart of teaching and that all of aspects fow from them. Thus, when
teacher come to choose his or her teaching strategy it is logical that they make
the domain and level of objective they are seeking to achieve the basis for the
choice. Next, in order of group size we have small groups of, say, between 5
and 20 students. With such a group teacher may fnd that a discussion method
is suitable. It has been said repeatedly that students learn in different ways:
an approach that is appropriate to one student may well be in appropriate for
another. How teacher choose his/her teaching strategy has a direct infuence
on how they manage their classrooms. Some people learn better in a group
through the interaction with both the teacher and other students. Others fnd
interactions diffcult and use the group sessions for gathering of information
and only learn when they are on their own. Some learn by reading and listening,
others learn through the application of the knowledge gained. The ability of
students relates to their temperament and special aptitudes. When choosing
a strategy teacher needs to consider the attention span of the students and the
ability they have to cope with the adopted approach. The choice of the teaching
strategy can have an effect upon the motivation and interest of the student. The
manner in which the teacher approaches the teaching strategy will have an
effect upon motivation.
Learners should have a good mood of motivation. Classes are places where
students are motivated to learn which enable them to absorb what is being
learnt. By this means that teachers are those to know how to create the positive
classroom learning environments that meet the needs of individual student
within group context. This will bring students to the top of learning condition.
To help them all getting fying colors, teachers encourage all members of the
class to do their best work. According to what Parkay and Standford (1998: 6)
say that students learn best when they are actively engaged in the classroom.
It is obviously seen from the brief description above that there are various
kinds of techniques and strategies introduced by some writers that can be
chosen to be used in the classroom teaching activities, especially for presenting
vocabulary.
It has been mentioned in the beginning, that the teaching of English
in classes has not been always successful. There were problems arise in the
teaching and learning process. As Thornbury S. (2002: 27) asked, what makes
a word diffcult? The answer is cognates and loan words. Thornbury stated the
other factors, that make some words diffcult than others are: -pronunciation
-spelling, -length and complexity, -grammar, -meaning, -range, connotation
and idiomaticity. The next question asked is, what kind of mistakes do
learners make? He categorized the errors into two major types: -form-related,
and meaning related. By form-related errors include mis-selections, mis-
formations, and spelling and pronunciation errors, while meaning-related errors
typically occur when words that have similar related meanings are confused and
the wrong choice is made. In her teaching experience the writer identifed that
learners are still lack of vocabularies. The examples of mistakes that students
make are; the frst is, the wrong answers of the form-related, for example they
said: I feel sleep as I dont sleep last night (for like sleepy and for didnt), his
father was very hungry with him (for angry), the mike is on the table (for mug)
and second is the wrong answers of the meaning-related. They wrote: I make
my homework last night (instead of did), I save my money in the bank and I
receive its fower (instead of interest), We have mango three at the backyard
(instead of tree). These are found when the running of teaching and learning
activities, students are noticed facing diffculties in answering questions being
asked, unable to express their sentences, specifcally when they were asked
to use their own words or doing the completion task. The same failure is also
observable when the teaching of writing is carried out in other English courses.
There are some reasons that cause these diffculties to happen. The internal and
external factors might be the causes of these problems. Problems identifed
being mentioned above can be overcome by choosing one of the teaching
strategies available which suits or fts to the needs of the learners. One of the
techniques for presenting vocabulary introduced by Thornbury (2002: 146) is
the use of word cards. The word cards technique involves these steps:
1. Learners write a word to be learned on one side of a small card (about the
size of a business card) and its mother tongue translation on the other.
2. Depending on the diffculty of the words a full set at any one time should
consist of between 20 and 50 cards.
3. Words do not have to belong to lexical sets- in fact it is probably better
that they dont, so as to avoid the interference effect of words of similar
meaning being learned together -i.e. looking at each new word and
then checking their understanding of each one by looking at the words
translation.
4. Then they reverse the process, using the translation to trigger the form of
the new word.
5. Words that cause diffculty should be moved to the top of the pile. In any
case, the cards should be shuffed periodically to avoid serial effects-that
is, remembering words because of the order they come in and not for any
other reason.
6. The sequence of learning and review should become increasingly spaced
(according to the principle of spacing).
7. As words are learned they should be discarded, and new word cards made
and added to the set.
The basic procedure of word cards is as follows:
1. Look at the second language (L2) word frst (eat) and then check the
meaning (makan). Repeat this with the whole set.
2. Look at the frst language (L1 makan) and try to recall the L2 word (eat);
check and continue through the whole set.
3. Repeat the sequence two or three times.
4. Shuffe the cards so that they are in a different order, and repeat steps 1 to
3.
Ask learners to produce their word card sets, and invite them to comment
on their usefulness, how many words they have learned, and how often they
reviewed them. Some learners, of course, will not have used their cards at all.
Others will be in the habbit. Continue incorporating word card activities into
lessons, until the majority learners are using them on a regular basis.
Here are some other activities that can be done in class to encourage
the independent use of word cards. Some of them depend on learners sharing
the same L1:
1. Peer teaching and testing
2. Association games
3. Guess my word
4. De-vowelled words
5. Ghost writing
6. Categories.
The identifed problems being mentioned above can be overcome by
choosing one of the teaching strategies available which suits or fts to the needs
of the learners. The writer took word cards as one of the teaching strategies
introduced by Thornbury (2002: 146) that she used in her teaching activity
to increase students vocabulary as well as an improvement strategy to the
mistakes they made. The teaching is done as an integrative part with the other
English sub-skills, especially in the teaching of reading which was carried
on at that time. The writer used text as context for learning. She divided the
activity into two parts.
I. Preparation: cards made about 700-800 for 35 students.
II . The teaching
The Topic: Traffc Signs
The fst stage:
- Distributes cards to the students
- Ask them to choose new English words from the text given
- Tell them to write one word on the front of each card, and for the frst time
they should fnd three words.
- Monitor to make sure they have already written the words on the front of
the card
- Instruct them fnd the meaning of each word and should write its translation
at the back side of the card
- Next, they take a look at the word L2 (English) frst, then followed by
checking the meaning of its translation at the back side of the cards (three
words) (Indonesian). This is done for the whole set.
- After that, instruct the students to look at the frst language (Indonesian)
(tanda) then ask them to recall or mention its sources word (English)
(sign). Check all the three words out while checking their answers.
- Repeat the sequence two or three times
The second stage:
- Redo the activities done in the frst stage by adding one more word to fnd
(four)
The third stage:
- Redo the activities done in the frst stage by adding one or more words to
be fond (fve or more)
- Ensure all the cards have been used, and student have mastered the words
they found
- Then, ask learners to produce their word card sets, and invite them to
comment on their usefulness, how many words they have learned, and
how often they reviewed them.
- Being done the activities above, ask students to make use of those new
words by instructing them to put the words in their own sentences (three
sentences) for sentence-building.
- Finally, doing categorizing. Ask learners organize the words into
categories.
The addition words in the activity practice is meant to carry out a step
by step increase in absorbing knowledge, because it helps them to be easier to
remind the words.
Students who were found have diffculties in following these activities,
were given assistance by facilitating them with some helping questions or
defnition questions leading them to the fnding of the meanings of the words.
III. CONCLUSION
The aim of teaching and learning English are, to enable learners to use
the language orally as a means of communication, understand the message
conveyed in the written form by reading it, be able to respond to what is being
heard through listening and able to express ideas by writing it down in the
form of combination of words to make logical sentence.
Teaching is very complex and important. The English teaching strategy
are available and introduced in many ways. English should be taught as an
integrated part all together with the language-skills, and so does the teaching
of vocabulary.
There are different ways of presenting vocabulary and teacher might
choose the one or some which are considered fts to the needs of the students.
The teaching strategy chosen should be based on the approaches, they are;
the incidental learning, explicit instruction and the independent strategy
development. Learners need not only to learn a lot of words, but to remember
them. So, teachers should bear in mind the importance of bringing students not
only to store the words learned in the short-term store, working memory, but to
make them memorize and make use the words in long-term memory.
Word cards is one of the teaching strategies that is found effective and
interesting. The essence of this technique is ensuring the target substance or
the words learned keep stored into long-term memory because, it attracting
learners attention and encourage their motivation to be more actively engaged
in the learning process which is meant to build their vocabulary raising up
to the certain targets. Using word cards technique is also helps both learners
and teachers, enriching learners vocabulary, increasing motivation and giving
satisfaction.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, H. D. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy, 2
nd
ed, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 2001.
Davies, P., & Pearse, E. Success in English Teaching, Hong Kong: Oxford
University Press. 2000.
Harmer Jeremy. The Practice of English Language Teaching, 4
th
ed, Pearson
Longman.
Linse, C.T. & Nunan, D. Practical English Language Teaching, Young Learners,
McGrawHill. 2006.
Lewis, M. & Hill, J. Practical Techniques for Language Teaching, Boston
Heinle Thompson Corporation. 2002.
Mikulecky B. S. & Jeffries L, Advanced Reading Power, New York; Pearson
Education, Inc. 2007
Murphy Raymond, English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press.
1985.
Napa, P.A. Vocabulary Development Skills. Yogyakarta. Kanisius. 1993.
Nation, I. S.P. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language, Cambridge
University Press. 2001.
Parkay, F.W., & Standford, B.H. Becoming a teacher. Nedham Heights: Allyn
and Bacon. 1998
Richards, J.C. & Renandya, W.A. Methodology in Language Teaching.
Cambridge University Press. 2002.
Riddell David, Teaching English as A Foreign Language, USA: The: McGraw-
Hill Companies.2003.
Strickland, D.S., Galda, L. & Cullinan, B.E. Language Arts: Learning and
Teaching, USA Thompson Wadsworth. 2007.
Thornbury Scott, how to Teach Vocabulary, Malaysia: Pearson Education
Limited 2002

VIEWING BOURNES
TRANS -NATIONAL AMERICA (1916)
AS A CRITICISM TO MELTING POT
Mister Gidion Maru
1
Intisari
Makalah ini mendiskusikan pengungkapan identitas Amerika sebagai
bangsa yang memiliki masyarakay yang multietnis melalui perspecktif yang
diutarakan oleh Ralp Bourne lewat kritiknya terhadap penggunaan istilah
Melting pot (periuk pelebur) sebagai sebutan untuk keberagaman yang ada
dalam masyarakat. Bagi Bourne, istilah tersebut tidak tepat sebab kaum
immigrant yang datang ke Amerika dari berbagai penjuru disertai dengan
keragaman latar belakang budayanya tidak dapat begitu saja melebur menjadi
suatu masyarakat homogeny tetapi cenderung terus mengembangkan budaya
leluhurnya. Hal ini dibuktikan antaralain oleh kuatnya orientasi pada budaya
Inggris yang terus dipelihari dikalangan masyarakat kulit putih keturunan
para pemukim yang pertama ke Amerika. Istilah yang tepat menurut Bourne
adalah kosmopolitanisme Amerika. Terminology ini dilihat tepat untuk
mendeskripsikan identitas Amerika ditengah derasnya arus imigrasi kenegara
tersebut. Dalam konsep kosmopolitanisme, tiap individu dengan latar belakang
berbeda dapat dengan muda berinteraksi dan hidup berdampingan dengan
rukun.
Kata kunci: Kritik, Melting Pot,cosmopolitan, multietnis, Bourne
1 Mister Gidion Maru, S.S, M.Hum is a lecturer at English Department, Manado State University.
He gained his master program in American Studies master Program, Gadjah Mada University.
Viewing Bournes
Mister Gidion Maru 798
Introduction
J.Hector st. John de Crevecoeur once asked this question, What then
is the American , the new man?. This question, according to Arthur Mann
in one of the articles in Making America edited by Luedtke, raises the idea
of the interplay between ethnic diversity and national unity (68)). This
means that the existence of various ethnics in America will infuence the
idea of national unity. As a nation of immigrants (Gordon 1984), America
encounters experience with the immigrants of different cultural backgrounds.
The ancestors of most American are, even, the immigrants. It can be traced
by looking at the frst settlement by the puritan from England in Plymouth.
In addition, America welcomes the immigrants for several reasons; Americas
vast expanse was under-populated; immigrant will help to fll it. Americas
boundless resources were unexploited; immigrants manpower and skills and
captal will contribute to developing them (Luedtke 71). The coming of more
immigrants to America opens a room for more diversity of ethnics, languages
or races as well as religions. It seems to challenge the national unity. It is in
this condition that Randolph Bournes idea in his Trans-National America
comes to be challenging for more discussion in order to reveal the identity of
American through Bournes criticism toward inappropriateness of the Melting
Pot as a terminology used to associate American people with its multi-ethnic
society.
A. The Immigrants with their diverse ethnic backgrounds
Bourne begins his writing by stating the peoples shock over the emerging
realization that they have diverse national feelings (172). In this sense, he,
then asserts the failure of melting pot. This term is usually referred by some
people to describe the American diversity. The term is frst introduced by
Zangwill, an immigrant and a script writer (Fuchs 3). The idea behind it is that
America consists of variety of people from various origins attached with their
own culture but they melt into one, America as a nation. It is likely similar to
our national slogan, Bhineka Tunggal Ika. We are diverse in many sides but
one as a nation. Even though recently this slogan seems to be stained by the
intolerance and political tricks of a very few people. They make use certain
racial issue in order to attain their political ambition.
Bourne proposes that the failure of melting pot is due to the loyalty
of the group of people (ethnic) particularly the immigrants to their ancestral
culture. After settling in America, the immigrants become more established
and more prosperous. The situation leads them to the tendency to cultivate
more the literature and cultural tradition of their homeland. The assimilation
offered to washing out their origin memories appear to be unsuccessful, it even
makes them to be real in American society. This phenomenon has actually
been reminded by Horace M Kaleen as quoted by Cayton, Men change
their clothes, their politics, their wives, Their religion, their philosophies, to
a greater or lesser; they can not change their grandfathers(103). It means
that it hardly possible for ethnic groups to forget their own original culture.
Marcus lee Hansen also emphasizes a similar notion that member of the second
generation favor assimilation, whereas the third generation tried to reverse to
their origin past rather that to continue the present. This idea can be fgured
out in his statement, what the son wishes to forget, the grandson wishes to
remember (Cayton 104). In other words, there is natural tendency of every
generation to adore their own original tradition. It may be marked by the
existence of associations of ethnic groups. These associations usually become
an arena for the ethnic group to interact and share their problems as well as to
be a means of supporting the survival of a member of theirs in new community.
Therefore the ethnic group can preserve its establishment. An example for this
is the experience of Cherokee tribe of Indian related government program to
concentrate the tribe in Sequoyah Training School in order to minimize the
infuence of Cherokees background for their children. This attempt fails
Viewing Bournes
because, in the training school, the Cherokee children gather and interact to
strengthen their cultural value. It may be inferred that ethnic groups tend grow
when they live in the same community. In fact the ethnic group, here according
to Max Weber, means those human groups that entertain a subjective belief
in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or custom or
because of memories of colonialization and migration (Cayton 101). For the
purpose of this writing, the similarities of the descent and custom are employed
as the basis for defning ethnic group. .
Related to the existence of the immigrants with their original ethnic
affliation Luetdke (1988 : 78) suggest four types of immigrants in American
society;
1. Total identifers.
They live out their lives entirely within the ethnic group. They reside
within their own kind. Total identifers are recent immigrants who, for reason
of poverty and prejudice have to live completely by themselves.
2. Partial Identifers.
They take their ethnicity in measured and selective doses. It usually most
important to them in primary association but they are apt to defne themselves
in nonethnic terms at work, in the community, or at college.
3. Disaffliates.
They grow up in ethnic or ethno-religious neighborhoods but can not go
home again because they have chosen not to. They are most often found in the
world of the academia, the media and the arts.
4. Hybrids.
They cannot identify themselves through a single stock. They are of mixed
ancestry and come from families that, for long time, have intermarried.
All these categories of immigrants fourish American society. It refects
that the expectation of the melted society is far from the fact. Ralph Bourne
disagrees the idea of melting the diverse immigrants (who are now American
citizens) in a kind of uniformity of culture. Such effort, in his opinion, is called
Americanization, the attempt to make someone or something to be Americanized.
He asserts that the American are foreign-born or the descendant of foreign-
born. Hence Assimilation, a combination which erases original culture to form
a new one, will not be a good solution. It is important to give place for the
differences without endeavoring to put it into uniformity. Leslie Lewis in his
Ethnic Minorities actually describes other model for the understanding the
diversity of American cultural ethnic that is the pluralist model. Lewis states
that assimilation de-emphasizes difference, pluralism advocates recognizing,
tolerating and or celebrating difference. Thus, in this context we have to see the
multicultural aspects exhibited by American ethnic group as they are and not
to be united merely for the reason of creating a nation culture. The differences
should be viewed the richness of the nation. To make this clear, it is useful to
consider the notion of cultural pluralism as theorized by Horace Kallen, as an
orchestra of mankind (Cayton 103). Every type of instrument has its specifc
tonality, founded in its substance and from. Every type has its appropriate
theme and melody in the whole symphony. It is such way that American
society should be. Every ethnic group is the natural instrument; its culture is
its theme and melody. The harmony, dissonance and discords of these aspects
will result the symphony of the society, the symphony of American society and
culture. This view is not only applicable for the American but it is applicable
for Indonesian society. We need to see our difference as an orchestra made
of instrument from thousands of ethnic groups. Javanese plays his own tone,
and man of Sulawesi, man of Papua, man of Sumatra play their own tone.
The harmony of the nation is, then, at hands. In brief, similar to American
orchestra, every ethnic has to play each role for the a symphony in the unity
of the nation
Viewing Bournes
B. The English orientation
Besides the idea of melting, Bourne condemns the English-American
conservatism. In other words, he opposes the orientation to English culture.
He argues that America is getting more English than English. All aspects are
associated with English. We can detect it in acronym like WASP (White Anglo-
saxon, Protestant), which becomes a sort of conventional requirements for a
president of America. Here Bourne suggests to get rid of English infuence
for the nation needs more dynamic view. The idea of getting from English
infuence reminds us of the work of Nathaniel Hawthorne entitled My Kinsman,
Major Molienux. This short story tells about the effort of a young man to look
for more his kinsman. He never meets his kinsman because the kinsman is
being punished. According to some critics, the young mans journey to fnd
his kinsman symbolizes the effort of the America( as a young Nation at the
time) to search for its own identity and the punishment for his kinsman, major
Molienux symbolizes the way of getting rid of the infuence of the old world,.
England. Thus, if Bourne emphasizes to get rid from English focus, it would
give us new perception. America has to be open for the arising of more culture
due to the coming of more people to the states. Ethnic cultural groups should
be equally given the same opportunity to develop themselves as a whole
nation. A nation is not merely matter of territorial unit. The people lives in the
same area can not directly called as a nation. They may be foreigners staying
there for certain purpose. A nation is also a race. Race from other nation can
be a citizen of certain nation. An Indonesian may hold America as his nation
after certain administrative procedures. Nation can not either be determined
from linguistic unit. English is spoken several nations for instance; America,
English, South Africa or Singapore. German is spoken in Austria. According
to Cayton, Nation is a body of people united by a corporate sentiment of
peculiar intensity, intimacy, and dignity, related to a defnite home country.
Thus, America is people united to defnite country and not merely of territory
or other cultural unit. America is a mixed up but believes in unity. This may
answer Croveceurs question. America should have tried to build its own
identity by considering the existing diversity.
The diversity of the origin of the ethnic group like English, Irish, German
and more others has formed America into the world federation in miniature.
Ethnic groups of multi countries along with their cultural heritage have been
portrayed in American society. They live together in pluralism. The multi
ethnic society has actually been predicted by the frst white settler in new
land by the signing on Mayfower Compact. It is a compact that become the
ethical foundation for the setters as they stepped in new land. The early settlers
have tried to anticipate the possible confict due to various differences among
them. This, then, is supported by John Winthrop in his futuristic writing A
Model of Christian Charity. It provides codes for living together as a nation.
Hence, the American should have been ready for multiethnic interaction. The
consistent interaction of ethnic group frequently result what is called the
hyphenated American. It refers to an American of mixed blood, for instance,
Italo-American, Polish-American or Afro-American. The effort to outlaw the
original traits of each ethnic as offered in melting pot should be avoided.
America has to be ready for cosmopolitanism.
C. American Cosmopolitan
Cosmopolitanism is in contrast to the melting pot. In cosmopolitan,
all people with their diverse characteristics and backgrounds feel secure to
live side by side. Bourne suggests that he cosmopolitan life should today be
familiar for college or school life. The American youths may fnd a friend
out of his own nation or ethnic background. Their interaction may head them
to evolution in terms of understanding each others cultural origin without
losing his native background. They socialize each other in equality. They
put respect with each other in developing and preserving their nativity or
Viewing Bournes
origin. There is no effort to segregate particular ethnic or race. As we know
that American has a quite long experience with segregation especially with
implementation of slavery codes and Jim Crow law which suggest the absence
of Afro-Americans rights and the separation of white race and colored race.
In other words, cosmopolitanism guarantees the equal and peaceful as well as
harmonious existence of multiethnic nation.
D. Trans-national America as an open space for diversity
The uniformity of cultural life as proposed by melting pot has no place
in cosmopolitan society. Ethnic group can not be forced to leave out their
own culture for creating new one. Assimilation is unacceptable because it
brings the elimination of the ethnic traits. The suitable model for multiethnic
or pluralistic society as American is most likely, advised by Luedtke, process
of acculturation (79). It leaves room for different antecedents and ethnic
affliation while upholding the values of common civic culture. It means that
this concept is a sort of integration which coordinates the diverse elements
and turns them consciously to working out together the place of America in
the world situation. People from different nations may come without fearing
of losing their affliation to their origin. America becomes a nation of nations.
Trans-national becomes the appropriate terms for its characteristic. In this
context, We can fgure out why Bourne presents the notion of dual citizenship.
The dual citizenship means the citizen for immigrants who come to the U.S
and for the increasing of internationally oriented individual who has been born
in one country but lives in another country like American Expatriates.
Closing
Finally, it can be inferred that Randolph Bourne is against the idea of
melting pot. Melting pot urges the uniformity of culture for the multiethnic
nation. It is unacceptable for it gives no space for the affliation to the ethnic
background culture. It also does not guarantee the national unity. The national
unity may be developed through the diversity for the richness of the existing
multicultural life contributes to the vitality and the strength of the nation. In
short, America shall be trans-national. It welcomes all differences and prefers
acculturation, assimilation. The idea of melting pot is vividly criticized
here.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cayton, Mary Kupiec. And Peter W. Williams. Encylopedia of American
Cultural and Intellectual History. New York: Charles Scribner, 2001.
Fuchs, Lawrence. L. Kaleidoskop Amerika. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya,
1994.
Gordon, Irving. L. American Studies: A Conceptual Approach. New York :
Amsco, 1984.
Hirsch, E.D. Cultural Literacy. Boston: Houghton, 1987.
Holinger, David. A and Charles Capper. The American Intellectual Tradition.
New York: Oxford, 2001.
Lewis, Leslie.Ethnic Minorities. American Popular Culture. Thomas Inge
and Dennis Hall. London: Greenwood, 2002.
Luedtke, Luther. S. Making America. Washington: USIA. 1988.
Tocqueville, de Alexis. Democracy in America. New York: Bantam Classic,
2000.
Zimmen, Alfret E. Nationalism and Internationalism. The American
Encounter.James F Huge. New York: Basic, 1997.

THE ESCAPISM FROM REALITY IN FANTASY GENRE
AS REFLECTED IN THE WORK OF C.S. LEWIS
THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA
Merlin M. Maukar
1
Intisari
Fantasi merupakan salah satu genre dalam sastra popular yang berhubungan
dengan dunia khayalan diluar jangkauan manusia dimana pembaca bebas
bereksplorasi dengan imajinasi mereka. Tulisan ini memaparkan mengenai
bagaimana dunia kedua yang merupakan produk khayalan manusia berfungsi
sebagai pelarian dari realita atau kenyataan tercermin dalam karya C.S Lewis The
Chronicles of Narnia yang terdiri dari 7 (tujuh) seri. Dalam ketujuh seri tersebut
digambarkan tentang keberadaan sebuah dunia yang disebut Narnia dimana
kekuatan sihir memegang peranan dalam kehidupan dan makhluk-mahluk yang
hidup di dunia tersebut merupakan mahluk-mahluk khayalan pula seperti mahluk
setengah manusia setengah binatang, binatang dan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang bisa
berbicara dan berlaku seperti layaknya manusia, ataupun mahluk seperti manusia
yang memiliki kekuatan sihir. Dunia seperti itu berfungsi sebagai tempat pelarian
pembaca dari kejenuhan dan rutinitas kehidupan sehari-hari yang memperbolehkan
mereka untuk memasuki dunia kedua yang penuh dengan hal-hal baru dan menarik
yang tidak mungkin ditemui dalam kenyataan hidup sehari-hari.
Kata kunci: fantasi, pelarian, khayalan, kenyataan
1 Merlin M Maukar, S.S, is a lecturer at English Department, Manado State University. She
is now in process of fnishing her study in American studies master program in Gadjah Mada
University.
The Escapism From Reality In Fantasy Merlin M. Maukar 808
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Popular literature is sometimes considered as a cheap literature that
consumed only by the common people. Tracing back to the origin of popular
literature publishing, the purpose was to meet the need of people from middle
to low class for books to read considering the fact that they could not afford to
buy classics. Victor E. Neuberg in his book Popular Literature A History and
Guide stated that popular literature can be defned as what the unsophisticated
reader has chosen for pleasure. Such a reader may, of course, come from any
class in society, although the primary appeal of popular literature has been to
the poor and, by the end of eighteen century, also to children(12).
There are certainly differences between popular literatures and classic
literatures or some people call it high literatures, yet the limitation is nowadays
very fuid and fexible. The so called classic literatures are sometimes can be
seen as popular literature and vice versa. The most signifcant difference is in
the genre. The classic literature genre consists of drama, poetry and prose or
short stories whereas the popular literature genre consists of many different
genres such as romance, detective, adventure, western, fantasy and many
more.
A genre is a loose set of criteria for a category of composition; the term
is often used to categorize literature and speech, but is also used for any other
form of art or utterance. Genres are vague categories with no fxed boundaries,
they are formed by sets of conventions, and many works cross into multiple
genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. The scope
of the word genre is sometimes confned to art and culture, particularly
literature and music, but it has a long history in rhetoric as well. (Wikipedia)
In this paper we are going to talk about the popular literature which
specifcally concerned on one of its genres, Fantasy. To achieve a deep
understanding about the genre the writer will use the work of C. S. Lewis
entitled The Chronicles of Narnia as the material object.
Cawelti in his book , Mystery and Romance: Formula Stories as Art
and Popular Culture has introduced three main approaches which have been
widely applied to explain the cultural functions or signifcance of literature.
Those are impact or effect theories, deterministic theories and symbolic or
refective theories (22). In analyzing the novels the writer will use symbolic
or refective theories where the work of art consists of a complex of symbols
or myths that are imaginative orderings of experience and those symbols and
myths are means by which a culture expresses the complex of feelings, values
and ideas it attaches to a thing or idea (26-27). In simple words, The Chronicles
of Narnia is viewed in the perspective of refective theories particularly in
revealing the aspects of fantasy as a genre.
The fantastic derives from the Latin, phantasticus, meaning that which
is made visible, visionary, unreal (Rosemary Jackson 1981:13). That enables
us to assume that generally fantasy is something that is not real, which makes
us look beyond our time, space and understanding. The meaning of the word
fantasy is loosely intertwined with all the literary works dealing with the using
of someones imagination which can makes us think that all fctions can be
considered as fantasy as well.
To make it clear let us look at the defnition of fantasy according to several
scholars. According to Irwin in Rosemary jacksons Fantasy: The Literature
of Subversion, a fantasy is a story based on and controlled by an overt
violation of what is generally accepted as possibility; it is the narrative result of
transforming the condition contrary to fact into fact itself(14). Sartre defnes
the fantastic as a literature in which defnitive meanings are unknown: objects
no longer serve transcendent purposes, so that means have replaced ends (18).
Coleridge stated in his Biographia Literaria , Fancy (employ interchangeably
with fantasy) has no other counters to play with but fxities and defnitiesit is
a mode of memory emancipated from the order of time and place, blended with
and modifed by that empirical phenomenon of the will, which we express with
the word choice. (20). Irene Bessiere seen fantastic as intimately linked to the
real and rational: it is not to be equated with irrationality.
The Chronicles of Narnia which consist of seven books entitled The
Magicians Nephew, The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe, The Horse and
His Boy, Prince Caspian, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, The Silver Chair,
and the last one The last Battle, are written by C.S. Lewis who is famous
as a fantasy writer among many other writers such as Tolkien, J.K. Rowling,
Kafka, Marry Shelley and many more. His works have also been adopted into
movies by Walden Media and Walt Disney Pictures. The Lion, the Witch and
the Wardrobe which was released in December 2005 reaches the selling of
$745 million worldwide as for Prince Caspian which released in May 2008
reaches $420 million worldwide. Next the 20
th
Century Fox and Walden Media
are planned to release The Voyage of The Dawn Treader on December 10, 2010.
It means there will be three out of seven books have been flmed following the
success of its fellow genre The Lord of The Rings written by Tolkien which all
three books have been flmed, Harry Potter series written by J.K. Rowlings
which had fve books flmed and Twilight written by Stephanie Meyer which
will be proceed soon with the next book New Moon.
By looking to the enormous success achieved by the writers of fantasy
genre above whether in novels or in flms, it can be assumed that the demands
of society for fantasy genre are signifcantly excessive. The fantasy novels or
flms are highly accepted by the public continuing the success that had been
achieved by the old movies such as Frankenstein, Dracula, and Dr.Jekyll and
Mr.Hyde.
Looking at the facts above it raises a question why the fantasy genre
is widely accepted by the public considering that it is sometimes scary and
doesnt make any sense? The question will be answered as we look at the
explanation and deeper understanding of the genre formulas itself which will
be discussed in the next chapter.
CHAPTER 2
ANALYSIS
The root of Fantasy genre can be traced back as far as the traditional
literary genre called Menippea which was present in ancient Christian and
Byzantine literature, in medieval, renaissance and Reformation writings. It
was a genre that broke the demands of historical realism or probability. The
Menippea moved easily in space between this world, an underworld and an
upper world. It confated past, present and future, and allowed dialogues with
the dead. States of hallucination, dream, insanity, eccentric behavior and
speech, personal transformation, extraordinary situations, were the norm.
(Rosemary Jackson, 1981:14)
The diagram hereunder shows the development of the genre.

It is quoted from Rosemary Jackson that literary fantasies have appeared
to be free from many of the conventions and restraints of more realistic texts:
they have refused to observe the unities of time, space and character, doing
away with chronology, three dimensionality and with rigid distinction between
animate and inanimate objects, self and other, life and death (2). Thus it can
be assumed that in fantasy the limitation of time, space, character, animate and
inanimate object, self and other, life and death are loose. It means that people
sometimes do not have to be bothered with the time, place and such because
they are free to develop their imagination into something unreal and far from
reality.
Although it is stated by Rosemary Jackson that Literature of the fantastic
has been claimed as transcending reality, escaping the human condition
and constructing superior alternate secondary worlds, it is also stated that
Fantasy is not to do with inverting another non-human world. It has to do
with inverting elements of this world, re-combining its constitutive features
in new relations to produce something strange, unfamiliar, apparently new,
absolutely other and different. It creates the existence of the Paraxial area
represent the spectral region of fantasy, whose imaginary world is neither
entirely real (object), nor entirely unreal (image), but is located somewhere
indeterminately between the two.
The existence of paraxial were introduced in many fantasy novels such as
Peter Pans Never Land, Cinderellas Far Away Land, The World of Oz in The
Wizzard of Oz, The Middle earth in The Lord of The Rings, Harry Potters
Wizzard World, and many more.
C.S. Lewis wrote The Chronicles of Narnia in seven series. All of those
series eventually lead to a place called Narnia where the wonders happen.
Narnia is an imaginary place which was created in the novel The Magician
Nephew by a lion with magical power called Aslan. The lion described as
having the ability of human being that can talk, understand people even sing
while he was in the process of creating the world, Narnia. There are also
several other imaginary characters in the series that have magical ability and
other superhuman capabilities.
The Chronicles of Narnia is one of the novels that employ the fantasy
genre in where we can see the specifc formula that shown by the novel as the
characteristic of fantasy itself.
The specifc formulas are :
The story introduced the secondary world called Narnia where everything
is not completely new but inverting the aspects in our world but to make it
strange and looked unfamiliar and the most importantly make it unreal.
There is no space limit.
The world of Narnia can be reach only by magical things or power.
There is no approximately distance which can be reached with our usual
transportation means.
There is no time limit.
One year in the ordinary world could mean 13000 years in Narnia. When
people go to Narnia, although many years have passed there, when they
get back to the ordinary world only one minute has passed.
The characterizations are unreal.
For example:
Aslan, the High ruler of Narnia, who created Narnia from a dark empty
world described as a lion who can speak, extremely strong, able to resurrect
from the death, has magical abilities even to resurrect the dead.
Queen Jadis The White Witch, an evil who cast spell on Narnia so that it is
always winter never Christmas. She gained control on the high magic.
Lucy, Edmund, Pieter and Susan, spend years and years in Narnia become
kings and queens until they grow up but get back to their world in England
as children again.
Tumnus, a faun, half man half goat, who befriended with Lucy when she
frst discovered Narnia through a wardrobe.
Breehy-hinny-brinny-hoohy-hah, a talking horse who bring a boy, Shasta,
to Narnia after experiencing many adventures.
Glimfeather, a talking owl who helped Jill and Eustace fnding their way
to save Prince Rilian, the son of King Caspian.
Eustace, a boy that changed into a dragon but can turn back to be a boy
again

In the novels we are taken to the mystical land where plants can grow fast,
move and dance like human being, animals can talk, many imaginary fgures
exist and many stories happen. Our imagination is taken far away from reality
and escapes from the ordinary world where everything isnt the same anymore.
The question is whether The Chronicles of Narnia is some kind of escapism
from reality.
If we are talking about escapism as some kind of way to escape life
by hiding inside a bubble that nobody can break through, living a dream of
everyday life in other world, or something like that then it is not so. What
means by escapism here doesnt mean we have to forget our normal day life
and live in a dream. Escapism here is just that people can forget their routines
for a while and taken to the world where they have never been that is the world
of Narnia and explore it with their imagination.
Literature of the fantastic has been claimed as transcending reality,
escaping the human condition and constructing superior alternate secondary
worlds (Rosemary Jackson, p.2). When the readers open the book and as they
read line by line they are taken to Narnia where they introduced to several
imaginary characters like dwarfs, fairy, unicorn, centaur, dragons, faun, talking
animals, and such; they experienced magic that cast upon the world starting
from the creating process of Narnia itself and continued along the stories in all
seven novels; they can see the beautiful other world through the description of
Narnia and many other wonders and unreal things. By that they are transcending
reality to be withdrawn from their human condition and experienced something
that defnitely cannot exist in the normal world. It is at this point that the novels
play its role as the escapism from reality.

CHAPTER 3
CONCLUSION
Looking at the formula which was set for Fantasy genre we can see that
it is a truly escapism from reality where people can be taken far from the real
world and explore the wilderness of high imagination.
The attraction of fantasy lies in the ability of the reader to escape from the
reality of human world with all its business. The reader can be taken to some
place new where they read about fantasy fgures such as fairy, elf, dwarf, giant
creatures, and read about animals that can act like human being, talk, think.
The possibility of exploring a new world beyond reality which we cant see
in our everyday life is really intrigue people although the new world is not
completely new because it still has the characteristic of real life.
The Chronicles of Narnia has the ability mentioned above that the reader
requires to fulfll their need in reading the fantasy. It is defnitely considered as
the high fantasy novel that served to satisfy the readers longing for escaping
from reality into a place outside the boundaries of space, time and characters
that they will explore for a while, experiencing magic as something that they
cannot see in their daily life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cawelti, John. G. 1976. Adventure, Mystery and Romance: Formula Stories as
Art and Popular Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jackson, Rosemary. 1981. Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion. New York:
Methuen & Co.
Lewis, C.S. 1955. The Magicians Nephew. Great Britain: C.S.Lewis Pte.Ltd.
---. 1950. The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Great Britain: C.S.Lewis Pte.
Ltd.
----, 1954. The Horse and His Boy. Great Britain: C.S.Lewis Pte.Ltd.
---, 1951. Prince Caspian. Great Britain: C.S.Lewis Pte.Ltd.
----, 1952. The Voyage of the Dawn Treader. Great Britain: C.S.Lewis Pte.
Ltd.
----. 1953. The Silver Chair. Great Britain: C.S.Lewis Pte.Ltd.
---, 1956. The Last Battle. Great Britain: C.S.Lewis Pte.Ltd.
Neuberg, Victor. E. Popular Literature A history and Guide. London
WWW. Narnia.com accessed on April, 27 2009, 10.30 p.m
The Complexity of American Woman Identity in the
Nineteenth Century as seen in
Theodore Dreisers Sister Carrie
(Feminist Perspective)
Delli Sabudu
1
Intisari
Abad ke-19 adalah era transformasi bagi peran dan posisi perempuan di
Amerika baik dalam peran domestic maupun peran sosial. Peran tradisional
wanita Amerika yaitu mengurus rumah tangga seperti merawat anak dan
melayani suami sehingga wanita dianggap sebagai ciptaan yang lemah
dan penuh ketergantungan terhadap pria. Identitas feminine yang melekat
kepadanya bahkan sering dianggap sebagai aalasan untuk menempatkannya
sebagai objek sex bagi kaum pria. Dalam beberapa kasus wanita bahkan sering
diperlakukan hanya sebagai boneka atau bahkan sebagai mainan.
Wanita seringkali dikenal melalui keberadaan orang-orang disekitarnya,
misalnya suami untuk wanita yang sudah menikah atau ayah untuk wanita yang
belum menikah, sepertinya dia tidak memiliki identitas sendiri. Pada abad ke-19
Amerika mengalami perubahan besar akibat dari perang sipil yang dimenangkan
oleh utara. Hal ini menyebabkan perubahan dari Negara agriculture menjadi
Negara industrialis yang otomatis memicu banyak perubahan dalam berbagai
aspek kehidupan masyarakat saat itu. Wanita juga mengalami dampak dari
perubahan tersebut. Kebutuhan akan tenaga kerja dalam jumlah yang banyak
mendorong wanita untuk keluar dari peran domestiknya dan menjadi pekerja.
1 Delli Sabudu, S.Pd, MA, is an alumnae of American Studies Master Program in Gadjah Mada
University. She is currently teaching at English Department, Manado State University.
The Complexity of American Woman Delli Sabudu 818
Arus gerakan kaum wanita untuk menuntut persamaan hakpun ikut mengalami
peningkatan. Era progresif yang ditandai dengan bergesernya nilai-nilai hidup
masyarakat, mulai dari cara bergaul dan gaya hidup berubah menjadi sebuah
budaya baru yaitu konsumtif.
Theodore Dreiser dengan novelnya Sister Carrie mengangkat fenomena
tersebut, dimana masyarakat yang menjadi sangat konsumtif mengakibatkan
wanita mengalami perubahan peran dan pandangan hidup, hal ini juga menjadikan
identitas wanita menjadi lebih kompleks. Carrie sebagai tokoh wanita yang mampu
menggunakan potensi yang dia miliki untuk bisa bertahan dengan keadaan hidup
di kota besar. Walaupun cara-cara yang dia tempuh bukanlah cara yang biasa
tetapi Carrie membuktikan bahwa jika wanita menyadari potensi dirinya dia akan
mampu menjaadi wanita mandiri dan bahkan lebih dari itu dia akan memdapatkan
pengakuan dan rasa hormat dari masyarakat. Hal itu juga membuktikan bahwa
wanita yang selama ini dianggap sangat bergantung pada laki-laki ternyata bisa
juga menggali potensi dirinya dan berkarya sebagaimana laki-laki. Wanita adalah
benih dari kesadaran akan hidup dan nilai-nilai kehidupan, dia bukanlah obyek
bagi laki-laki. Dengan berbagai peran yang diemban wanita dia mengalami ke
kompleksan identitas yang akhirnya menghantar dia menjadi lebih mawas diri dan
sadar akan kualitas kemanusiaannya. Maka dari itu American Studies menawarkan
bahwa perlu adanya konsep baru tentang pandangan masyarakat terhadap kaum
wanita yang tentunya tidak meminggirkan kualitas kemanusiaannya.
Kata Kunci : Identitas Perempuan, Kompleksitas, Peran, Potensi
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Every human being holds more than one of identities that described
their entity. For woman, her identity can not be separated from her roles
whether in the private or social interaction. She might be a wife, girl friend,
or mother. It drives her into complex of self verifcation that puts her into
account of responsibilities. It can be seen in Friedan statements: The feminine
mystique permits, even encourages, women to ignore the question of their
identity. The mystique says they can answer the question Who am I? by
saying Toms wife.Marys mother (Friedan 1963:66). Woman as a house
wife has responsibility maintained the household such as serving her husband
and taking care of her children. In the way of carrying up her responsibilities
sometimes she faced the dilemma, between fulflling her family needs and her
desire to become herself as it is stated by one of Friedan participants in her
book Feminine Mystique:
I seem to sleep so much. I dont know why I should be so tired. This
house isnt nearly so hard to clean as the cold-water flat we had when I w a s
working. The children are at school all day. Its not the work. I just dont
feel a live (1963:19).
It describes that sometimes woman confused to decide what should she
do with her life. Patriarchal society managed the society through the eyes of
man. It means the society puts woman in unequal position and opportunities
compared to man. However, she can not be separated from the society, she is
not in isolation but on the contrary she is part of society. Erikson supports this
idea by stating that:
Women defne themselves through their relationship with others. For
female adolescent, intimacy goes along with identity, as the female
comes to know herself through relationships with other people (Pillary.
1988:217).
It can be said that woman can be verifed through her relationship with
other people. Her existence is defned by her active roles in social interaction.
Relationship creates by woman in her life depends on the opportunities that
she gets from society to prevent her from confict that might happen because of
the importance that different one another. The way woman behaves and makes
decision refer to her ability to understand her capacity, besides, the condition
in the society interfere womans behavior also some factors in the society such
as economics, social and politics put the signifcance into it. Woman who lived
wealthy will behave different than woman who lived poor. The wealthy one
usually gets suffcient opportunity in education and socialization while the
other one who lives in the terrible economic condition lack of opportunity and
usually low of education or knowledge.
Womens natural roles are looked after the home and children, and mens
job to be breadwinners (Barker & Benfeld 2000:189). Woman is supposed to
devote herself entirely to the care of a man, his children and his or her parents
when they get old. Those roles have to play by woman as her natural premise
that became an absolute standard in life. Most women do what is expected
from them and lavish a great deal of love and care on their families, often
in very diffcult circumstances. Evidently most women are also economically
dependent on men because they cant carry the burden of household tasks and
hold on to a decently paid full time job as well but the world says that women
are dependent on men because they are weak and helpless without them. They
marry with high expectations of family life but it doesnt work out like the
ideal family of the advertisers dreams, especially when money is short and a
husbands job insecure.
Most women are trapped in the family and economically unsecured.
However much they love their husbands and children, they know they h a v e
little choice about it. It is harder for a woman than for a man to get out of a
marriage that has gone wrong, and most women whose marriages break down
are left to bring up children on their own with little or no support (Andersen
1983).
On top of that, many women are also trapped in their homes by violence
or they threat of it. There is also the same opinion that stated by Brackney as
follow:
There is existed a confict between the goal of femininity and the uccessful
achievements. Face with the confict, a woman often chooses the feminine
option due to her anticipation to and fear of certain negative consequences
following successful behavior, such as social rejection, loneliness, and not
being a normal woman (Brackney 142).
However those decisions sometimes make her suffered because she did
not conduct according to her passion but devote the standard in the society. She
usually sacrifced her personal desire to keep the happiness of other people.
American woman experienced this condition, confused to identify herself,
where her proper position in social interaction whether she is as a subject of
social interaction or only as an object of man sexual desire. Evidently, that
states by Friedan:
Victorian culture did not permit women to accept or gratify their basic
sexual needs, our culture does not permit women to accept or gratify their basic
need to grow and fulfll their potentialities as human beings, a need which is
not solely defned by their sexual role (Friedan 1993:71).
Friedan statement reveals the phenomenon that exists in the society where
woman limits by the social and cultural values to gratify their basic need as a
full human being. She can not release herself from the old paradigm of woman
traditional roles. In colonial America women had few rights though their
rights and opportunities might have been greater than those possessed by
European women. And it was explained that on the frontier the womens role
became even more arduous (Davis & Woodman 1984:243). This statement
is described of woman situation in the early America which is had only few
rights. In looking back to the history of women in the United States of America,
it serves ironies and contradictions in society. Although women comprise a
majority of the population, they are often treated like a minority group assigned
a defnitive place in social order, denied access to careers and power in the
public arena, and viewed as dependent, weak and submissive by nature.
They are placed by the society only in the domestic sphere this refects how is
society marginalized women. Married women could not own property, could
not sign the contracts, have no legal right even to their own inheritance (Davis
& Woodman 1984:243). Further more, woman is brought up from the earliest
years in her life that her ideal of character is the very opposite to man. She did
not have self will and government by self control, but submission, and yielding
to the control of others. All the moralities that existed in the society tells them
that it is the duty of woman, and all the current sentimentalities that it is her
nature, to live for others, to make complete abnegation of themselves, and to
have no life but in their affections and by their affections are meant the only
ones they are allowed to have those to the men with whom they are connected,
or to the children who constitute an additional and indefeasible tie between
them and a man. There are three points of women traditional destiny, frst the
natural attraction between opposite sexes, second, the wifes entire dependence
on the husband, every privilege or pleasure she has being either his gift, or
depending entirely on his will, and the last, that the principal object of human
pursuit, consideration, and all objects of social ambition, can in general be
sought or obtained by her only through him, it would be a miracle if the object
of being attractive to men had not become the polar star of feminine education
and formation of character. Culturally and socially woman are subordinated by
man, but it is not biologically so it can be said that the situation in the society
embedded the boundaries of woman potency.
From time to time women awareness of their potency and quality as
human being grows rapidly. American woman history proves the long journey
of American woman struggles for equal rights, where during the colonial
period the Treatise of Government (1690) by John Lock is considered the
gospel of natural rights doctrine and is the main ideological source of the
Declaration of Independence still became of American social rules. In it he
states in-equivocally:
The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone;
and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind which will but consult it,
that, being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life,
health, liberty, or possessions (II.6). Again he states: The natural liberty of
man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will
or legislative authority of man, but to have only the law of nature for his rule
(IV.22:411). In this statement Lock did not mean man in the generic sense, but
in the specifc sense of the male of the species. Later in his Treatise, he states
quite specifcally that husbands are to be allowed authority over their wives
and children. This Treatise explains woman subordination, she is thought to be
passive when compared to man, who assume the initiative in the sexual act, in
business, and in politics, passivity has a lower value since assertiveness is needed
for success. Aggressive woman who succeed in male spheres is considered
unfeminine and unnatural. Moreover she is considered intelligent sometimes
it is equated with fightiness and fuzzy thinking because male logicality is the
norm for her achievement. She should not be better than man in intelligence
or everything that formed as the man affairs. Those are classifed as women
natural premise, without man they can not fulfll their needs to become perfect
woman so they should rejoice in the creative capability within her body and the
power potential of her mind and spirit. When the woman movement arose it
proves that woman have fed up toward patriarchal conception. Their sacrifce
sometimes did not get respect by the society. Feminist movement is used by
women as their vehicle to fght their equal rights. Feminist are concerned with
inequality at the personal, institutional, and cultural levels in other words in
most known societies this structure has granted woman lower status and value,
more limited access to valuable resources, and less autonomy and opportunity
to make choices over her life that it has granted man (Andersen 1983). Woman
is also a human being just like man, she is not the other in mans world but she
is an equal creature that was created by God to share her life with man to create
a mutual relation between them. Feminist believes there is something important
that should be eliminated, it is inequities between man and woman position in
society. Feminism begins with the premise that womens and mens positions
in society are the result of social not natural factors(Andersen 1983:9). The
phenomenon of man and woman which exist in the society was not because
of natural factors but as the result of social factors. The reality in the society
is formed for the beneft of men while women are got the bad impact from it.
Women can not gratify their basic sexual needs, their social feelings and more
over their potency. These facts drive women lack of capability in managing their
selves. They are become dependent on men. Discussing about social factors
it stimulates the writer into account of literary works thus literary works as the
mirror of society. What happened in the society can be recorded by the author
in the novel or any kinds of literary works. The researcher used Sister Carrie,
the novel who written by Theodore Dreiser. It is written by Dreiser in around
nineteenth century particularly in the era of progressivism when women in
America experienced the changes of economic and politic that also stimulates
the changes of all of social structures. The American women are also got this
impact. Sister Carrie is interesting to be analyzed because it conveyed woman
issue and most of the heroines in this novel represent various experiences in
their private and social life. Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser would become
the core material in analyzing the complexity of American women identity in
the nineteenth century. These facts and possibilities also stimulate the writer
to explore woman social identity with its complexity in the nineteenth century
in America. Carrie gaits to survive, how she fghts between her basic needs
as a human being and her faith to keep her identity as a virtuous woman.
There are various traps that faced by her where she makes many decisions that
contradicted with her expectation.

2. DISCUSSION
2.1. THE CHANGES OF WOMANS ROLES AND IDENTITY AS
REFLECTED IN DREISERS SISTER CARRIE
2.1. The Background of Economic Condition
The United States experienced a huge growth in manufacturing in the late
1800s that resulted in prosperity for many but virtual poverty for others. As a
result of improved technology and an increase in the number of people in the
workforce, including experienced businessmen, factories could produce more
goods at a faster rate than ever before. In addition, changes in government policy
and the availability of resources contributed to the expansion of manufacturing.
Factory jobs were plentiful, but the wages were not always suffcient. Many
workers enjoyed a better standard of living, while others struggled to make
ends meet. Factory conditions varied from workplace to workplace, yet the
challenge of the type of work remained the same. First, the work was boring. A
factory worker generally stood at an assembly line performing. In the nineteenth
century period Colombia city got the impact of the civil war, the condition in
that city is poor and unstable of security. Carrie went to Chicago in order to
reach the better life condition than in the Colombia city. Her small city is still
hold strongly the traditional view toward woman roles. The daughter of a mill
worker from Colombia City who lives in dissatisfed economic condition, she
is Carrie Meeber. Sister Carrie is a simple tale of a young pretty eighteen year
old girl Caroline Meeber also knew as Carrie. She just once goes to Chicago,
but even she has only a few purchases she went there bravely. As seen in this
quotation; When Caroline Meeber boarded the afternoon train for Chicago,
her total outft consisted of a small trunk, a cheap imitation alligator-skin
satchel, a small lunch in a paper with her sisters address in Van Buren Street,
and four dollars in money (Dreiser1900:5). It describes also Carrie economic
background, she lives poor in Colombia. Dreiser describes Carrie journey to
Chicago as something dangerous, as he states: When a girl leaves her home
at eighteen, she does one or two things. Either she falls into saving hands and
becomes better, or she rapidly assumes the cosmopolitan standard of virtue
and becomes worse (Dreiser 1900:5). Eighteen according to Dreisers opinion
is an unstable ages, she can be infuenced strongly by the society with whom
she makes a relationship, whether with a good or bad person. It will affect her
deeply. Carrie is too rushed.
In the nineteenth century, America still faced of economic changes from
agriculture to industry country as an impact of the civil war. Railroad drives
a big impact to transportation that automatically increased urbanization from
small city to the big city. Many factories established as one of urban target for
work in the big city. Chicago is the one of American city that got an impact
of industrialization. It drives to the changes of society to become consumer
society.
Initially, the main object of Carries life is to acquire riches. In her mind
that Chicago can realize her great expectation of success, her decisions to go to
the city alone seems too emotional and irrational. As pointed out by Andersen
Women on the other hand, were identifed with the irrational and emotional
side of life.(1983:241). It puts herself into danger as states by Emerson that
woman more vulnerable, more infrm, more mortal than man (1984:251).
Carrie ventures to Chicago as the frst phase of her quest of new identity.
New society, new people and new circumstances drive Carrie into it. The new
circumstance offers a new life style which different from her previous life,
and it persuades her strongly. In Hansons fat she learns about the life of labor
with a low salary, the fragile family where money is the most valuable things
to be used. It has to use effcient and just for proper goal, there is no money
just for pleasure or something invaluable. Work hard is Hansons life, even
he got just a few dollars for it. Carrie bored with the situation in Hansons
fat. The discussion creates by Sven Hanson always about money and how
it will be spent. He usually dictates her about it without considered her mind
and feeling. Carrie takes it as her lesson that no body gets something free
even from her close family, everything has a price. This is constructed her
mind to understand the importance of money and its power. In her searching
of work she also meets with new different person, man and woman can work
out side freely, they used a nice and expensive clothes and beautiful jewelries.
She watches them particularly the young woman that work in the theatre and
store, they spend a lot of their own salary for fashion and she feels jealous.
She compares with the condition in Hansons fat which fashion and pleasure
was not important, while her carving for pleasure was so strong, it was the
one stay of her nature that recognized by Minnie and it is very contradiction
with Hansons thought. Carries condition at that time also did not give her an
opportunity to get pleasure.
The conservative life of Hansons family also drives Carrie into
dissatisfaction of her state as a young woman in the city. In her mind, theres
no something wrong if she spends her money to look around or does pleasure
thing, but for Hanson it was not a proper way to spend the money while she her
self has to pay the rent of her room. In this conservative family, again Dreiser
draws the domination of man as a head of family. Hansons rules are the rules
from God. His proposition is the certain requirements in his home. The new
circumstances that Carrie found in Chicago puts her into complex condition,
she lives in her sister fat with the terrible economic condition while in the
outside it is very contradiction. From her observation she knew the power of
money. Dreiser supports here from his statement The rich and powerful are
able to buy what every man needs (Dreiser 1962:3). It is embedded in Carries
mind as a strong spirit that motivates her to live in Chicago any longer even
Hanson expects her to back home in Colombia city. She knew theres nothing
to do in her old city, she has her imagine society in Chicago so she will not
give up. She thought this life is her way to reach her dream. Her destiny is in
this town.
Carrie resisted Hanson way of life, she knew what have been happened
to her sister Minnie under Hanson control as seen in this quotation She was
now a thin, though rugged, woman of twenty seven, with ideas of life colored
by her husbands and fast hardening into narrower conceptions of pleasure
and duty than had ever been hers in a thoroughly circumscribe youth(Dreiser
1900:16).
She left behind her conservative live in Colombia city because she has fed
up of it, she needs to do something different and this new society is a promising
place. The life background of her is in the poor family of mills farmer that
indicates of her limited knowledge and opportunity to revelation.
2.2. The Forces of Circumstances
2.2.1. Sexual Demeaning
Carrie sexual entity gives her a power to win the terrible economic
conditions. She is young and pretty and sexy with the fat legs, pretty eyes.
She knew that her beauty impresses Drouet. This is proven by this quotation:
Carrie was really pretty. Even then, in her common place garb, her fgure
was evidently not bad, and her eyes were large and gentle.(Dreiser.1900:55).
Carrie also knew of Drouet admiration of her. Her beauty speaks for itself,
for all the materials that she should hold. As seen in this quotation: As for
Carrie, her understanding of the moral signifcance of money was the popular
understanding nothing more (Dreiser 1900:57). Again in the next quotation:
One of her order of mind would have been content to be cast away upon
a desert island with a bundle of money, and only the long strain of starvation
would have taught her that in some cases it could have no value (Dreiser
1900:57).
Carrie learns by nature, and her mind is full of material desire especially
money. She believes that money can fulfll everything she wants, she did not
care even she has to put herself in danger. According to her by possessing
money she will have a power.
People knew her as Mrs. Drouet and she liked it. Through Drouet Carrie
met her next man Hurstwood, a manager at Fitzgerald and Moy. Hurstwood
was twice her age in fact he was old enough to be her father but it did not
bother her. In her eyes he was defnitely much higher on a social scale than
Drouet.. Hurstwood left his wife, children and respectable job to carry on
his affair with Carrie. He even stole from his longtime employers to be with
Carrie. Hurstwood decisions to leave his family become one of evidences that
sometimes men more irrational than women. In return she dumped him when he
proved to be of no use to her in the quest for the better life. As Dreiser observed
Carrie wanted pleasure, she wanted position, and yet she was confused as to
what these things might be (Dreiser, 139).
People admired her, she was paid very well, and yet there was always
something missing. She never got married not to Drouet, not to Hurstwood
she just used them both to get ahead without even realizing that what she was
doing was wrong and immoral. Instead she believed they treated her wrong.
When Carrie left Hansons house she is lived with Drouet, the man that she
frstly adore by his fashion and charming. Drouet saved Carrie in her bad
condition, she was unemployment and starving. Drouet gave her everything
that she needs and return she gave her obeyed to him. When the time goes by
Carrie awareness of her position in the eyes of Drouet is just like a doll. Drouet
fulfll Carries material needs but forgets to fulfll her feeling and thought.
Drouet thought that everything that he has done for Carrie is more than enough
but in the contrary Carrie feels empty, she feels alone, just like a bird in the
gold cage. It can be seen in this quotation: Of course not. You thought only
of what would be to your satisfaction. You thought youd make a toy of me a
plaything (1900:189). It was Carrie feeling toward Drouet material gift, she
dissatisfed with it. Drouet has promised will marry her but he deceived Carrie
and when Carrie come into serious relation with Hurstwood he came and said
that Hurstwood is a married man. As stated this If I were you,..I wouldnt
have anything to do with him. Hes a married man, you know (1900:187).
Therefore Carrie expressed no feelings of shame, regret, guilt or remorse for
hurting Drouet, she has paid for everything that gave by Drouet and leading
Hurstwood towards his lonely death in a strange city among strangers, Carrie
believed that what has happened to Hurstwood was not because her but because
of his silly decision.
The development of Carries character is fragmented, as her relationships
with Drouet and Hurstwood not only involve acting and imitation but also
transport her into a sphere of bodily and physical pleasures, whereas her
relationship with Ames is centered around the development of the mind.
Ultimately, the mind/body split Carrie experiences in her relationships is
illustrative of the unstable nature of feminine identity in a society based on
exchange, desire, and wealth.
Carries relationship with Drouet is prompted by not only physical
attraction but also by economic necessity. Carrie is fattered by Drouets
attention and fattery, and in order to please him, she imitates the high-class
women she sees around her. After Drouet notes that a passing woman is a fne
stepper, the narrator notes that Carrie feels a defect in herself awakening in
her mind instinctively, she felt a desire to imitate. Surely she could do that too
(Dreiser 1900: 72-73) and also says of the main character, Carrie was naturally
imitative. She began to get the hang of those little things which the pretty
woman who has vanity invariably adopts. In short, her knowledge of grace
doubled, and with it her appearance changed. She became a girl of considerable
taste (Dreiser 1900: 75).
Carries relationship with Drouet is based solely on exchange she offers
her body and beauty and in return, Drouet gives her material objects and
economic security. Through her relationship with Drouet, Carrie does not
fnd a true sense of self, but rather, she acquires the art of imitation-Carrie
patches together an identity through imitating the gestures and mannerisms
of upper-class, wealthy women. The way in which Carrie focuses solely on
wealth, physical pleasure, and objects is illustrative of the split in her identity-
through Carrie is not really building an identity of her own, as she is merely
putting on the mask of the archetypal wealthy woman, which fragments the
development of her character in the sense that she is getting further away from
any truthful or real identity. Dreiser focuses on Carries outside appearance in
order to highlight the emptiness she has inside-Carrie is now enveloped in her
own vanity and grace, but there is no mention of her interior state. Dreiser is
explicit about Carries outside appearance in order to emphasize the emptiness
she has inside-despite all her glitz and glamour, Carrie is, as aforementioned, a
blank slate and is not any closer to developing a true character.
Carries relationship with Drouet not only propels Carrie into the sphere of
the mind and physical pleasure, but it enhances her lust for wealth and enables
her to develop a sense of character and identity through playacting and imitation.
A primary reason for Carries mind/body split and for her fragmented identity
is the capitalistic society she lives in. Carrie lives in a society that is based on
exchange and prizes wealth, and Carries blank slate status simplifes her
view of the world to a place of exchange, therefore she feels like she needs
to make herself a desirable commodity to ensure her economic security and
success. The exchange element present in Carries construction of her sense of
self hints at the instability of identity in a capitalistic society-Carrie molds her
identity and character based on what is desirable in her society, and she almost
seems to make herself a good that can be bought and sold. Therefore, Carries
character formation is fuid, as she changes herself to ft the desires of men-all
for economic purposes.
Carries relationship with Hurstwood is also rooted in play acting, but
Carrie becomes more independent once she realizes she can sell herself to a
broader audience. Initially, Hurstwood falls in love with Carrie when she is
acting and she is being objectifed. The narrator states, Already Carrie was
moving forward with a steady grace, born of inspiration. She dawned upon the
audience, handsome and proud, shifting, with the necessity of the situation,
to a cold, white, helpless object, as the social pack moved away from her
scornfully. Hurstwood blinked his eyes and caught the infection the magic of
passion, which will yet dissolve the world, was here at work (Dreiser 1900:
129).
Carries stage debut is wrought with imagery that hints at the fuidity of
her constructed identity, as she is shifting on the stage in front of the social
pack. Carrie moves forward socially and economically using the grace that
she learns from the higher-class, wealthy women. Signifcantly, Dreiser states
that Carrie objectives herself according to the necessity of the situation,
symbolizing Carries molding of herself and her character to ft the desires of
men, all in order to achieve wealth and physical pleasures, which pushes her
deeper into the sphere of the body. Carries woman identity is complicated in
the sense that it is what attracts Hurstwood her acted helplessness incites
Hurstwoods passion for her, commenting on gender dynamics and also how
Hurstwood is attracted to the fade of Carries identity, the masks she puts on.
The phase that Carrie is on is not just one in a theater, but it is the stage by
which society judges her, an assembly line of sorts where products are created
and then put up for display to incite desire. In her relationship with Hurstwood,
Carrie again presents herself as a commodity so she can experience material
comfort. However, once she realizes that she is marketable to a wider audience
and Hurstwood is no longer economically successful, she moves on. Dreiser
states, Carrie was soon lost in the world (the stage) represented, and wished
that she might never return. Such a crush of fnery and folly she had never
seen. She had not lived, could not lay claim to having lived, until something of
this had come into her own life (Dreiser 1900: 220). And she was not going to
be dragged into poverty and something worse to suit him. She could act. She
could get something and then work up (Dreiser 1900: 261).
In her relationship with Hurstwood, Carrie is still immersed in a physical
and material sphere, but unlike with Drouet, she is not experiencing material
comfort frsthand, it is only through her lack of it does she begin to place vast
importance on wealth and a crush of fnery and folly. The importance that
Carrie place on all that is exterior is her attempt to fnd meaning and substance,
as she cannot fnd this with her identity or character, because these two facets
of her self are entirely based on playacting and the stage. Carrie equates truly
living with the material excess that surrounds her, illustrating the importance
she places on physical objects and riches, and her complete devotion to the
sphere of the body and pleasure. While it can be argued that Carrie becomes
a more independent woman through her relationship with Hurstwood, it is
indeed the opposite, as she sells herself to a bigger audience and therefore
increases her scope of desire, as she depends on the audiences of her plays to
delight in her many masks and identities, which in a way is acknowledging that
she possesses an inner value through her exterior self and showing. Carries
relationship with Hurstwood is founded on acting, and its duration propels
Carrie deeper not only into the sphere of the body and of the exterior world,
but also further into the realm of desire and of transforming herself into a
commodity through acting (a process through which she constructs a makeshift
identity through wearing masks).
By the time Carrie develops a friendship with Ames, her identity is so
fragmented and she is so obsessed with wealth that it is too late for her to truly
develop her mind. When Carrie frst meets Ames, he criticizes the playacting
and show of wealth that is at the core of Carries existence. Ames states, They
pay so much more than these things are worth. They put on so much show
and Carrie thinks that being wise like Ames was fne to beast a man (Dreiser
1900: 227). Carrie equates wisdom and the sphere of the mind as a positive
thing for a man, and the world of sexual exchange and the objectifcation of
the body as feminine. Ames comments are integral when evaluating Carries
character development, as he condemns her world of wealth and objects as a
world of mere things, and notes that the worth of things in a world of exchange
is variable, shedding light on the instability of a capitalistic economy. Ames
also brings up the per formative nature of capitalism and, stretched further, of
women identity itself-the idea of show that Ames references refects the way
in which, in a society based on exchange and the co-modifcation of femininity,
identity is unstable in the sense that it is constantly being performed according
to the situation, and is used as a way to secure economic stability. Carrie
only knows how to express herself through acting, and her identity has been
fragmented through her relationships in the sense that she shifts from being in
the world of the body and physical pleasure to being catapulted into the world
of the mind and intellect through her friendship with Ames. Ames tells Carrie
that, as an actress, higher drama suits her better than the lowly comedies she is
famous for, and for Carrie, these statements unlock the door to a new desire
(Dreiser 1900: 341).
Signifcantly, while it is true that Carrie is overjoyed that Ames thinks of
her as a person and not an object, her entry into the world of the mind is still
driven by desire, indicating that Carries descent into the world of material
objects and exchange has so fragmented her identity and corrupted her
character that she cannot truly transcend the world of the body, as it is all she
has ever known. As a female in a society based on supply and demand, Carrie
has continually reduced herself to an object of desire to be used in the game
of exchange, and this comments on the complex issue of woman identity in a
society that markets all that is human, including desire and sexuality. Carries
attempt at fnding meaning through entering into the sphere of the mind fails
not only because Carrie is so deeply entrenched in a more bodily and physical
realm, but also because Carrie has no sense of identity that exists separate from
men. In other words, the basis of Carries character has been to mold herself
according to the desires and needs of men who can offer her something that is
concrete in an economic and social sense, and because Ames can only offer her
something abstract (the cultivation of the mind), Carrie cannot grasp it, as she
views life through the lens of exchanging goods and services, and any sense
of the intangible escapes her, as she cannot use this to sell herself. The abstract
quality of the mind cannot ft into Carries simplistic view of exchange, and
by no fault of her own Carrie enters into society as a blank slate, acquires an
identity through playacting (thus further fragmenting it), and her only means
of survival is through the objectifcation and co modifcation of herself. It is
important to note that Ames suggests Carrie should develop herself through
a higher level of acting, indicating that not even he fully takes her seriously,
and further shedding light on the complexity of female identity in a capitalistic
society in the way that it suggests that in a society based on exchange and
wealth, women can only survive through putting on a series of masks, masks
that will please men. Ultimately, Carrie fnds that she is left alone (Dreiser
1900: 354), despite her bank account, her theatrical success, and her abundance
of material objects, refecting the emptiness inherent in a capitalistic society,
as it is founded on discontent, and also the way in which a woman identity in
this type of society offers no basis for growth, as it is molded to please men
and shifts based on what is desirable. Through her various relationships with
men, Carrie learns the art of playacting and imitation, and when she attempts to
transcend the sphere of the body in favor of the sphere of the mind, her failure
to do so is a result of her fractured identity.
Carrie has been transforming her identity to become the different person,
from the small country girl who was poor and inexperienced girl to the big
city wealthy and famous girl. She recognized frstly as a dependent, silly and
weak became a powerful person. Carrie transforms her self to adapt with the
society that she found in the new city. She is soon adapted with the society,
learns and become the winner. She becomes the one of powerful woman that
used her assets to survive in the jungle of big city that full of cunning wiles,
no less that the infnitely smaller and more human tempter. There are large
forces which allure with all the soulfulness of expression possible in the most
cultured human.
Carrie Meeber a young country girl proved that she can be a winner
in mans world. She released herself from Hanson, Drouet and Hurstwood
dominations further from brutal society that dominate by man that puts her as
an object of interest. She reliance herself by follow her heart, she is used the
opportunity that comes to her. Carrie state is pure of womans intuition than
intellectual.
2.2.4. Self Confdence
Carries mental state of her self become advance than before, it is because
of her popularity. As seen in this quotation:
Gradually the deference and congratulation gave her a mental appreciation
of her state. She was no longer ordered, but requested, and that politely. The
other members of the cast looked at her enviously as she came out arrayed in
her simple habit (Dreiser 1900:373).
She received many appreciation from the audience in the theatre, it is
motivated her to become more respect to herself. She begins aware of her new
entity as the popular actress. Now she knew her potency. Her ability to imitate
any other people character drives her into the best acting. She got more respect
from the audience in the theatre and more over she can reach much money
from her acting. In her eyes the world now become more colorful, it seemed
satisfed for her. Her career advanced as fast as her economic condition, from
a small apartment to the big hotel in Broadway. She is an artist now, more
beautiful, rich and popular. The world is in her hand now and man is on her
feet. Some of men submit their propositions to her, they love her very much
but Carrie still sick of her old story with Drouet and Hurstwood. In her mind
most of the men are the same, they were silly and irrational, as seen in this
quotation See what this man says :If you will only deign to grant me one
half-hour, she repeated, with an imitation of languor. The idea. Arent men
silly?(Dreiser 1900:378). Evidently, if woman consider with her potency, it
can drive her into the suffcient life condition and also her mental state will be
matured. Woman will get respect from people around her.
Womans self confdence will appear if she knew her potency further
more she will get more respect from the society, as seen in Carries experience.
When she frst came to Chicago she is nothing but now she is a popular artist in
Broadway. Her dream has come true because she herself got a hard experience
from her old life and it used by her as a lesson to reach her advanced life and
than get success. She was never disappointed with her way of life, because in
her mind thats the possible way which can drive her into the better life.
2.2.5 New Paradigm of Woman
New phase of Carries life is a result of forces by various circumstances
that she ever experienced. It guides her into deeper self consciousness and
fnally she found her mature of fnancial and state of her self. When she meets
Drouet again, she makes him surprised of her success and his proposition of
her drastically changed. As seen in this quotation: Well, you do look great,
said Drouet to Carrie. I never saw anybody improve so. Youre taller, arent
you?(Dreiser 1900:396). Fragile young woman without any experience and
intellectual had changed to become dependence person. At last Drouet himself
confess of Carrie potency and quality even since the frst time he found her, he
knew of her ability but he did not think that Carrie can be success, in his mind
when Carrie is left him the frighten future that would come to her.
New concept of woman quality refects from Carries success, when
woman got her consciousness of her quality and potency she will be dependence
person. It can be said that woman identity even complex she can play her
roles in the proper way as long as society gave her opportunity for her self
revelation. Woman can think as well as man, more over naturally every human
being has an innate gift that got from God include woman. So society needs to
re-conceptualize their paradigm toward woman. Woman can gratify her quality
as well as man, so her proper place is not only in the domestic area as the
traditional view. She just needs more space and opportunity to improve her
entity as human being.
Society has a big responsibility to improve woman existence and more
over to dig up the potency of woman. Society needs to learn to respect the
woman existence and her roles in humanizing society. Without woman theres
no way to establish the society.
3.1. CONCLUSIONS
Identity is something that refers to a person, group, or social characteristics.
Woman roles in private and social interaction verify her existence where she
lives. In the way in carrying up her roles woman faced the complexity of her
identity between fulfll her personal needs or play her role in the certain society
and its consequences. Whereas identity it self was not static but dynamic
depend on the circumstances where she or he lives. In fact space, status and
social cultural condition infuences person to behave and make decision. New
place, new status and new social relation create new identity of the person.
It happened because the changes of environment which follows by various
consequences. Woman as one of member of society experienced this condition,
she plays her roles based on the condition where she lives, further she can
transform herself in order to fulfll the society expectation but when she knew
that everything dissatisfed her she chose her own way.
Carries experiences refect one side of American womans life in the
nineteenth century. The changes of American circumstances in this period
drives woman into new phase of the opportunities to gratify her potency in
order to build up her image as a weak and helpless to become independent. It is
shown of womans ability to adapt with the condition around her. In that period
also woman closed with the domestic roles, so she has lack of opportunity to
create herself further to understand her potency. The true woman conception
interferes deeply into social structure and it drives woman into diffculty of
self revelation.
In the case of Carrie Meeber, She transforms her identity according to
the society where she lives. Even she puts the mask and behaves just as an
imitation of the real life. Woman usually changed through the experienced she
got from her life. The lesson of her life usually became her guidance to get her
individual victory.
Woman as a weak, helpless, submission and dependence transformed
her self through the social experienced and become the potential person. It
happened because she knew her potency. What she has to do with it? So it
needs to construct again the opinion of American society toward woman.
Woman was not helpless, woman was not an object but she is the subject of
life. She was not a toy she has potency that can she use to become independent
person.
Carrie is an example of woman that in the frst of her journey was not
considered with her potency, but by the time she knew at last that she has to
do something with her life. She had not dependence on the man with whom
she engaged. She was a seat of consciousness. It is meant Carrie played her
role by adapting herself with the situation that she found, so it needs to re-
conceptualize of American paradigm toward woman.
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COMPARISON OF HOUSE FUNCTIONS BETWEEN
DAVID MALOUFS 12 EDMONDSTONE STREET AND
JESSICA ANDERSONS TIRRA LIRRA BY THE RIVER
Baharuddin,
1
Eka Fitriana
2
Intisari
Dalam konteks studi kebudayaan tidaklah sekedar tempat tinggal namun
juga merupakan refeksi kontekstualisasi nilai-nilai budaya penghuninya. Tulisan
ini dimaksudkan untuk membahas peran latar yang berkaitan dengan aspek-aspek
keruangan rumah dalam novel-novel Australia. Fungsi ruang dalam rumah-rumah
yang tersirat dalam novel karya Malouf dan Anderson akan menjadi perhatian
utama dalam analisa ini. Dalam diskusi ini dikemukakan bahwa pemetaan ruang
dan defnisi batas-batas dalam rumah-rumah di Queensland seperti terlihat dalam
novel mengindikasikan hubungang antara penghuni ruma dan dunia luar yang
selanjutnya mengarah pada etos dan identitas masyarakat Australia. Perspectif
ini yang juga turut membentuk karakter penghuni yang tingal dirumah-rumah
tersebut.
Keywords: House Function, ethos, identity, Queensland

1 Drs Baharuddin, M.Hum is a lecturer at Mataram University, Nusa Tenggara Barat. He
completed his master program in Udayana University, Bali.
2 Eka Fitriana, S.S, MA, is a lecturer at English Department, Mataram University, Nusa Tenggara
Barat. She gained her Master of Art in Australian Studies in Queensland University.
Comparison Of House Functions 844 Baharuddin,

Eka Fitriana
I. Background
The house plays a very important role in Australians novels and stories
because it refects some of the essential elements of the Australian identity
(Ferrier 40). Furthermore, every part of the house is important because each
has its own function that should not be neglected. In addition, the house also
represents a variety of social structures that signifes many different cultural
positions within society (Whitlock 76). To further extent, the architecture of
the house itself determines the social status of the owners, whether they belong
to lower, middle, or upper class family.
From an architectural point of view the Queensland houses are considered
to be distinctive compared to houses from other states and regional areas of the
country because they are built of timber with a very unique designs. Because
of their uniqueness many Australians novels and stories have their setting in
a Queensland house. Yet, what distinguished these houses is that they have
neither basements nor accessible attics and the most prominent and memorable
spaces in the house are to be found under the stumps or on the verandahs
(Malouf 49). These spaces can be claimed as both inside and out because they
tend to be open and not restricted to any of the rules like inside the house.
B. Discussion
Since the house is considered to be an important setting in most Australian
fctional novels, then, this essay will focus on how houses function in David
Maloufs 12 Edmondstone Street and Jessica Andersons Tirra Lirra by the
River. Malouf explains that each house has its own topography, its own lore:
negotiable borders, spaces open or closed (10). Each house member knows
these divisions very well, therefore, they try to stay within these borders and
obey the rules of the house that they have agreed on. Thus, the contours of the
house determine what can be said, heard and observed, it is a convention in
these houses that nothing is seen or heard that is not meant to be (Malouf cited
in Whitlock 78).
Frequently, this situation fails to fulfll the dreams of the house members
because they are restricted to borders that are taboo to cross. These borders
often make the members feel alienated in their own house (Whitlock 79). Yet,
for the members who cannot adapt within these borders, they feel alienated as if
they belonged to another world. On the other hand, the adaptable members will
move to the more open parts of the house like the verandah or to unrestricted
space where rules are not applied (Ferrier 46).
In Maloufs 12 Edmondstone Street, each part of the house functions
differently and it is governed by certain rules. However, as Malouf mentions the
verandah is not a part of the house because it stands alone outside the borders
but it is connected to the house in the same way (22). It becomes the main
entrance to the house and functioned as a comfortable place of entertainment
because it provides deep shade, cool breeze and it is not restricted by any
rules (Malouf 15). Besides, it is also used as the frst meeting place as Malouf
describes Visitors are entertained on the verandah (14). Moreover, this
space is associated with female space where his mothers ladies gather and
talk. The verandah can also be used as a safety zone that protects the house
from any outsiders because it runs around the house, as Malouf explains:
Verandahs are no-mans land, border zones that keep contact with the
house and its activities on one face but are open on the other to the street, the
night and all the vast, unknown areas beyond (22).
The other space that is associated with the female space is the piano room,
where the house members and the occasional visitors gather in the afternoon
(Malouf 33). As Malouf describes this space is always cool because it is shaded
by the leaves of an enormous mango tree (33). Yet, in the evening this space
also functions as a gathering space when the house members listen to the piano
being played and to the news. This space has no rules; therefore, each member
is free to cross any boundaries within this space. As for Malouf it was in this

Eka Fitriana
space that he was able to reveal the secret of the womens world.
On the other hand, the tool room under the house is considered to be the
male domain where swear words, have none of the shocking quality they might
have upstairs (Malouf 51). In this space formal and polite language is not so
important like inside the house. The harsh world of man is clearly represented
by the heavy tools such as hammers, snapped blades, nails. This space is again
free from barriers because it is not restricted with formal language. Therefore,
within this space these swear words were the only language that could be
expected to be understood.
In Tirra Lirra by the River, the house is described as a traditional
Queensland house standing high in the air on tall stamps, with a fight of open
steps leading up to the wide verandah and a deep garden front and back. Yet,
every part of the house is not mentioned in detail. This is because the boundaries
are not as important as in Maloufs story. However, Anderson did mention
some parts of the house in detail. Anderson starts by describing the verandah.
Its construction is slightly different from verandah that Malouf described in 12
Edmondstone Street. The verandah in Andersons story does not go around the
house; instead, it is built at the front and at the bank of the house.
Furthermore, the function of the verandah in Andersons story is also
different. Anderson does not use the front verandah as the frst meeting place
but it becomes the main entrance to the house. Yet, the back verandah is directly
facing the garden. Therefore, it becomes a private space that is restricted to the
house members and gives no access to outsiders. From the verandah, Nora was
able to see the beauty of the nature as she described.
I open the door to the back verandah and am dazzled, frst by the food
of sunlight and the cool black shine of the foor, and then by a view through
the glass of a garden so fresh and verdant, so deep and rich and detailed, .
(Anderson 189).
At this stage, the back verandah becomes the perfect space for observing
nature, and it is free from any boundaries. Even though it is built in a different
location, the notion of the verandah itself is still an open space that suits the
subtropical environment, which allows the cool breeze to fll the space (Ferrier
41). Since the verandah is considered important, n Andersons story, it therefore
becomes part of the house that cannot be separated.
The next space is under the house. The whole space is closed with vertical
slats (Malouf 49). This space as Malouf mythologises as a forest, as dark as
anything Grimm (Whitlock 78). Moreover, it is often associated with mystery,
fear and death because of its darkness (Whitlock 78). Despite its darkness, this
space becomes very useful because of its function as a storehouse where old
things such as bed frames and washing tubs are kept (Malouf 49). On the other
hand, the space under the house is similar to the verandah/ It is an informal
space, not restricted to rules, languages and time, therefore, under the house
has a different dimension because the reality cannot be applied within this
space. As Malouf mentions:
There are no clocks down here. There is not even language.To come
down here, up under the foorboards and the life of rooms, is to enter a dream
space, dark, full of terrors that lurk behind tree-trunks in the thickest forest.
(52).
Since this space is free from any rules, the boundaries that apply in the
house can be crossed under the house, so, anything is possible within this
space. Furthermore, under the house becomes the space that is full of magic for
Malouf and his sister because everything that has dropped from the house turns
out to be magical things that they can play with. Therefore, under the house for
Malouf himself is a space that is full of childhood memories because he was
free to do anything that he wanted without being watched. In this case, the space
under the house is able to tell a story if its own in a different dimension,
Yet, in Andersons story, the space under the house is not mentioned;
however, it is replaced by Graces glass room that Nora sleeps in. In this glass
room Nora reveals all her past life and trying to recall her memories. From this

Eka Fitriana
glass room she is able to see outside freely without any disturbance. Moreover,
the glass house offers an awesome view as she describes:
I sleep in Graces glass room, and whenever I rise to draw the blinds
against the moonlight, I am enthralled by the brilliance of the scene, the soft
yet sharp delineation of the grass, the nasturtium leaves like falling silvery
discs, and the weight and mystery of the black shadows. (Anderson 196).
The notion of glass room is like a cage where rules and boundaries are
applied therefore, not all outsiders will have free access to this area. In this case,
only people who are close to Nora will be able to enter the room. Moreover, the
image of the glass room has reminded her of Lady Shallot from the Arthurian
Legend. She was surrounded by boundaries of time and space that she was
not allowed to cross. Since she was restricted to these barriers, therefore, she
was only able to see the world indirectly from her own space. To some degree,
Nora feels the same as Lady Shallot because she has to stay in bed during her
early recovery.
Another space that is free from boundaries and borders is the backyard.
Yet, this space is completely separated from any rules that govern the house.
Like the verandah and under the house, the backyard is a space that offers
freedom for the house members. However, the backyard is a place of exile and
punishment. Malouf describes that he had been punished and sent to the garden
for observing his naked body in the bathroom:
I am punished for the offence I persist I am amused at the attempt
to fnd a place for this low natural functioned in the work ethic, This
body talk, which seems to be local, opens into a real social world. So I am
invited to speak of my penis, back there with what appeal to aggression and
lawlessness? as my trigger (59-60).
Furthermore, the backyard is also a space of his grandfathers preference
because this space has offered him great freedom where he can do gardening.
He turns the suburban garden into Mediterranean garden so that he can feel
the atmosphere if his home country Lebanon (Malouf 5(. Since he speaks
a different language, he feels that he does not belong to the space inside the
house therefore; he exiled himself from the house. The backyard becomes the
space where he feels more comfortable because this space is not restricted to
rules, therefore, to cross borders and boundaries are possible.
By contrast, in Tirra Lirra by the River, the backyard has never been
used as a place of punishment. It becomes a place where it is possible to gain
pleasure because it consists of beautiful plants that can be seen by the house
members. Nora sometimes spends her time walking around the garden on her
recovery. The things that she sees amaze her. As she describes, The longish
grass, of which several sections are of an even richer green than the rest, thin
out under the bag mango tree and canopy of the persimmon (Anderson 190).
Furthermore, the garden becomes part of an organic entity of an ecosystem
that cannot be separated from human beings (Whitlock 44). In addition, the
garden is not just a place where she can view the natures beauty but moreover
the garden is a place of transformation, where the cycle of life can be seen and
appreciated. Also for Nora, the garden has a deep meaning because it brings
back her memories of her father, At the end of the garden, where for a decade
after my fathers death stood the gradually sagging stable and buggy shed, is
uneven hillocky area thickly overgrown with green (Anderson 190).
The garden has also changed her attitude towards her mother and her sister
where she began to accept them and the way they are. Moreover, the garden has
inspired her to accept life as it is. Surprisingly, Malouf and Anderson have the
same intention in describing the backyards. Both of them treated the backyard
as an important element that helped to develop their characters in the later
stage and helped shape the community where it belonged.

Eka Fitriana
C. Conclusion
In conclusion, generally, in literature, houses are symbolically linked
with cultural identity and social order. However, the mapping of space and the
defnition of boundaries in the Queensland house, the relationships between its
house members and the exterior, become the basic elements of the Australian
ethos and identity (Whitlock 81). In relation to this, the sense of home related to
a deep human experience that helps shape the characteristics of the people who
live in it. As Malouf stresses the imprint of the house upon its inhabitants:
First houses are the grounds of our frst experience. Crawling about
the foor level, room by room, we discover laws that we apply later to the
world at large; and who is to stay if our notions of space and dimension are
not determined for all time by what we encounter there, in the particular
relationship of living-rooms, to the attic and the cellar (or in my case under-
the-house), of inner rooms to the verandahs that are open boundaries? The
house is a feld of dense affnities, laid down, each one, with an almost physical
power, in the life we share with all that in being familiar has become essential
to us inseparable from what we are (89).
The house is made up of many different sections. Each section has its
own code and conventions. The house consists of a complex relationship of
different borders and boundaries. Yet, the house becomes an important element
in shaping and directing the way a child sees the world. Furthermore, the house
becomes a microcosm of the wider community in which it is situated which
signifes many different cultural positions.
Bibliography
Anderson, Jessica. Tirra Lirra by the River. Sydney: Picador, 2003.
Ferrier, Elizabeth. From Pleasure Domes to Bark Huts: Architectural
Metaphors in Recent Australian Fiction. Australian Literary Studies
13. 1(May 1987):40-53.
Malouf, David. 12 Edmondstone Street. London: Vintage, 1999.
Philip, Nielsen. Imagined Lives. St Lucia: Queensland University Press,
1990.
Spinks, Lee. Allegory, Space, Colonialism: Remembering Babylon and the
Production of Colonial History. Australian Literary Studies 17.2
(1995): 166-73.
Whitlock, Gillian. The Child in the (Queensland) House: David Malouf and
Regional Writing. Ed. Amanda Nettelbeck. Provisional Maps: Critical
Essay on David Malouf. University of Western Australia: Center for
Studies in Australian Literature, 1994: 71-84.

ECLUE Journal Vol 3 No. 2 September

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ECLUE Journal Vol 3 No. 2 September

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VOL 3, NO 2 SEPTEMBER 2009 ISSN: 1978-3493

(Journal of English Culture, Language. Literature, and Education)

ISSN: 1978-3493 735 VOL 3, NO 2 SEPTEMBER 2009

ISSN: 1978-3493 737 VOL 3, NO 2 SEPTEMBER 2009

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