Moving Towards The Sun: A Report On Photovoltaic Cells by Pooja Chowdhury

A
R C 6 8 4 0 : R E N E W A B L E E N E R G Y
MOVING TOWARDS THE SUN

A REPORT ON PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
By Poojarini Chowdhury
ROLL NO. 100127270
This report has been prepared to spread awareness of the need of photovoltaic cells, the present
technologies used and the probable expansions in this field. This will contribute to a rapid
development of world-class, cost–competitive photovoltaics (PV) for sustainable electricity
production. It identifies the major technical and non-technical barriers to the uptake of the
technology and outlines a strategic research agenda designed to ensure a breakthrough of PV
and an increase in deployment in the world. It has the potential to play an important role in the
transition towards a sustainable energy supply system of the 21st century and to cover a significant
share of the electricity needs of world.
This paper intends to provide a succinct definition of photovoltaic technology, its working, current
scenario around the world, new innovative building integrated PV design, and accurately unify
efficiency, shipment, cost and pricing data.
M.Arch Sustainable Architecture Studies, University of Sheffield

MOVING TOWARDS THE SUN: A REPORT ON PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Background Study 1
1.1 Need for Renewable Energy 1
1.2 Current Status of Renewable Energy 1
1.3 Report 3
2 Solar Energy 5
3 PV Technology 7
3.1 Introduction and Working 7
3.2 Brief History 7
3.3 PV Array Systems 8
3.3.1 Grid – Connected System 8
3.3.2 Off – Grid System 9
3.3.3 Hybrid Systems 10
3.4 PV Modules 10
3.4.1 Crystalline solar cells (c-Si) 10
3.4.2 Amorphous Solar Cells (thin-film solar cell) 11
3.4.3 Other Types 11
4 Current Applications of PV Modules 13
4.1 Residential 13
4.2 Commercial 13
4.3 Rural and Remote Applications 14
4.4 Industrial 14
4.5 Other 15
4.6 Common Application Overview 15
5 Critical Evaluation of Solar Energy and PV Technology 15
5.1 Advantages 15
5.2 Disadvantages 16
6 Current Scenario: PV Market Development 17

6.1 Situation in the European Union 20
6.2 Situation in Japan 21
6.2.1 Situation in China 22
6.3 Situation in India 23
6.3.1 Situation in the USA 24
6.3.2 Situation in Other Countries 25
7 PV Market 26
8 Emerging and New Technologies 27

9 Designing with PVs 28
10 Building Integrated PV and other Design Innovations 30
10.1 PV Skylights 30
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10.1.1 A Case Study of Mont – Cenis Academy, Germany 30

10.2 PV Integrated Insulated Glass/Curtain Walls 31
10.2.1 A Case Study of the Cellophane House 31
10.3 PV Tiles/Paving 32
10.4 PV Decks 32
10.5 PV Lit Urban Spaces 33
10.6 Solar Textiles 33
10.7 Portable Solar Tree 34
10.8 Miscillaneous: Vehicles 34
10.9 Miscillaneous: façade Tiles 35
11 Future Ventures: Under Progress 36
11.1 Nocera’s Leaf 36
11.2 Liquid Solar Array 36
11.3 Nano Materials 37
11.4 Solar ‘Nantennas’ 37
11.5 Tensile Solar Shade 38
11.6 PV Water Heating Panels 38
11.7 AquaSun Floating Solar Panels 39
11.8 Other Ideas 40
12 Conclusion 41
13 References 42
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Total greenhouse gas emissions 1
Figure 2: Energy distribution 1
Figure 3: Fuel shares of the world's energy supply, 2000 2
Figure 4: Money invested in renewable sources of energy 2
Figure 5: Power generated from energy sources in 2010 3
Figure 6: World solar energy map 4
Figure 7: Categories of solar energy generation 5
Figure 8: PV module 6
Figure 9: BOS module 6
Figure 10: Working of a grid-connected PV system 7
Figure 11: Solar powered lamppost 8
Figure 12: Working of an off-grid PV system 8
Figure 13: Working of an off-grid PV system (RES, 2010). 9
Figure 14: Exploded view of a crystalline PV module 9
Figure 15: Section of thin-film solar cells 10
Figure 16: CIGS Module 10
Figure 17: Thin film vs. crystalline production 11
Figure 18: PV integrated in railings 12
Figure 19: PV exterior wall façade 12
Figure 20: PV integrated with elements of architecture 12
Figure 21: PV used for water pumps in rural areas 12
Figure 22: PV used in artificial satellites 14
Figure 23: Energy payback time of PV modules 15
Figure 24: PV production around the world 16
Figure 25: Graph tabulating Table 2 values 17
Figure 26: World annual solar PV production 1985-2009 18
Figure 27: Regional manufacturer shipment 1997-2007 18
Figure 28: Solar cell manufacturing business in China 21
Figure 29: Chinese PV industry forecast of production capacity 22
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Figure 30: Energy usage in India 23
Figure 31: Evolution of PV technology in USA 24
Figure 32: Market shares of top 15 solar PV manufacturers, 2009 26
Figure 33: PV Skylights 29
Figure 34: PV integrated skylights and facade of the building 29
Figure 35: Roof fixing detail 29
Figure 36: Exploded view of PV block 29
Figure 37: View of PV block 29
Figure 38: PV Curtain walls 30
Figure 39: The 'cellophane' house 30
Figure 40: Exploded section of the double-skin wall 31
Figure 41: PV deck at Zadar, Croatia 31
Figure 42: Public space with PV integrated solar sheds, Rome 32
Figure 43: Solar tree exhibited in Vienna, Austria 32
Figure 44: Solar tree designed by Ross Lovegood 32
Figure 45: Design prototype, Danish Royal Institute of Art 32
Figure 46: PV integrated solar curtains, Sheila Kennedy 32
Figure 47: Solar textile, by Konarka 32
Figure 48: Portable solar tree 33
Figure 49: (above) Project solar impulse 33
Figure 50: (right) Blue Car, designed by Pininfarina 33
Figure 51: Innovative PV tiles for building facades 34
Figure 52: Microscopic view of Nocera's Leaf 35
Figure 53: LSA modules 35
Figure 54: Section of the proposed PV module 36
Figure 55: Microscopic view of the solar ‘nantennas’ 37
Figure 56: Pole mount PV tensile canopy 37
Figure 57: PV tensile canopy for parking lots 37
Figure 58: PV and Solar water heating panels 38
Figure 59: AquaSun floating solar panels 38
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Comparative study of PV systems 11
Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of materials used for PV modules 11
Table 3: Annual solar PV power production by country 2002-2009 17
Table 4: Regulatory framework countries in the EU & Switzerland, 2004 19
Table 5: Characteristics of emerging generation solar cells 27
ABBREVIATIONS
AC Alternating Current
a-Si Amorphous Silicon
BIPV Building Integrated Photovoltaic Systems
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage
CdTe Cadmium Telluride
CIGS Copper – Indium – Gallium – Diselenide
CIS Copper – Indium – Diselenide
CPV Concentrated Photovoltaics
c-Si Crystalline Silicon
CSP Concentrating Solar Power
DC Direct Current
EPIA European Photovoltaic Industry Association
ESCOs Energy Service Companies
EU European Union
MDBs Multilateral Development Banks
PV Photovoltaics
R&D Research and Development
RED IEA Renewable Energy Department
SHC Solar Heating and Cooling
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1 BACKGROUND STUDY
1.1 NEED FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
The demand for fossil fuels (coal, oil & gas) has been rising for decades, and the 20th
century saw a rapid twentyfold increase in its use. With the climate hazard it causes,
the depletion of sources due to demand and need to ensure long-term security of
energy supply; there is an obligation to consider ways of reducing the carbon
footprint and sourcing energy from renewable resources (Peel Energy, 20101).
It is due to these reasons the UN proposed the Kyoto Protocol, that the member
countries are obligated to reduce the green house gas emissions by an average of
5.2 percent by 2012 (UNFCC, 19972) and 30 percent by 2020.
Figure 8: Total greenhouse gas emissions (UNFCC, 20063).
1.2 CURRENT STATUS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
Changes in renewable energy markets,

investments, industries, and policies have been
so rapid in recent years that perceptions of the
status of renewable energy can lag years
behind the reality. Renewables comprised fully
one-quarter of global power (Figure 2) capacity
from all sources and delivered 18 percent of
global electricity supply in 2009(REN21, 20104).
Investment in sustainable energy is rapidly

increasing, with $70.9 billion (Figure 4), which is
43% more than previous years (UNEP, 20075). Figure 9: Energy distribution, 2009
(REN21, 2010).
1 Available on http://www.peelenergy.co.uk/frodsham-/benefits [Viewed on 26 May 2011].

2 Available on http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf [Viewed on 26 May 2011].
3 UNFCC, 2006. Available on http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/6098922.stm [Viewed on 26 May
2011].
4 REN21. 2010. Renewables 2010 Global Status Report (Paris: REN21 Secretariat).
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Figure 10: Fuel shares of the world's energy supply, 2000 (IEA, 20026).
3%
9% COAL
GAS
OIL
25%
52% HYDRO
NUCLEAR
RENEWABLE
10%
1%
Figure 11: Money invested in renewable sources of energy (SEFI, 20077).
From Figure 4 it can be clearly seen that majority of the money is being used for the
development of wind energy, while only 16 percent is used to develop solar energy.
By seeing the potential of solar energy, there is need for solutions and for it to be
developed further.
Ongoing Market and industry trends include:
• Wind power – New growth in off shore development; the growing popularity
of distributed, small scale grid-connected turbines; and new wind projects in
a much wider variety of geographical locations around the world and within
countries. Firms continue to increase average turbine sizes and improve
technologies, such as with gearless designs.
• Biomass power – Biomass power plants exist in over 50 countries around the
world. Several European countries are expanding their total share of power
from biomass: Austria (7%), Finland (20%), and Germany (5%). Biogas for
power generation is also a growing trend in several countries.
• Grid-connected solar PV – Industry has been responding to price declines
and rapidly changing market conditions by consolidating, scaling up, and
moving into project development. Thin-film PV has experienced a rapidly
growing market share in recent years, reaching 25%. Increase in “utility scale”
5 Aitken, D.W. (ISES), 2010. Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future. Available at
http://www.ises.org/shortcut.nsf/to/wp [Viewed on 26 May 2011].

6 IEA, 2002. Renewables in Global Energy Supply. Available in Transitioning to a Renewable
Energy Future, 2010.

7 UNER, 2010. Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment.

plants (200-kW and larger), which now account for one-quarter of total grid-
connected solar PV capacity.
• Geothermal power – Exists in 19 countries, and new plants continue to be
commissioned annually (e.g. Indonesia, Italy, Turkey, and USA in 2009).
• Concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) – New power source from 2006 to
2010, after initial stalled development two decades earlier. By early 2010, 0.7
GW of CSP was in operation, all in the USA and Spain, with construction or
planning under way for much more capacity in many more countries.
• Solar hot water/heating – China dominates the world market for solar water
collectors, with 70% of the present global capacity. Europe is a distant
second with 12%. All installations in China are for hot water only. But there is a
trend in Europe toward larger ‘combi-systems’ that provide both water and
space heating; such systems now account for half the annual market.
• Biomass & geothermal heating – Trends include growing use of solid biomass
pellets, use of biomass in building-scale or community-scale combined-heat-
and-power plants (CHP), and use of biomass for centralized district heating
systems. Use of geothermal direct-use heat plants and ground-source heat
pumps is also growing. Globally, there exists some 500GWth of heating
capacity from biomass (270GWth), solar (170GWth), and geothermal
(60GWth).
• Biofuels – Corn ethanol, sugar ethanol, and biodiesel are the primary biofuels
markets, although others like biogas for transport and other forms of ethanol
are also significant. Corn accounts for more than half of global ethanol, and
sugar cane for more than one-third. USA and Brazil accounted for almost 90%
of global ethanol production. The second-generation biofuels industry has
seen many research and pilot-production plants commissioned, most with
some form of partial public funding.
(Source: REN21, 20108).
11 WIND
18 PV (CdTe)
24 NUCLEAR
37 PV (Si)
45 BIOMASS
GAS CC 400
OIL 850
COAL 900
Figure 12: Power generated from energy sources in 2010 (Anon.).
8 REN21. 2010. Renewables 2010 Global Status Report (Paris: REN21 Secretariat).
1.3 REPORT
This report goes in depth into solar photovoltaic (PV) technology: its current status,
advancements and will predict its future development in the world. The
developments in a few countries have been studied further in detail.
It primarily helps understand the technology and why it is important to develope it

further, over other renewable energy sources in this era.

2 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar power refers to the use of the sun’s energy for electricity production and has
abundant reserves. Using only 1% of the total available amount of solar radiation
would be enough to meet the entire global demand for energy.
Figure 13: World solar energy map (Nijs, 2010).
The total amount of solar energy reaching the earth’s surface represents several
thousand times the world total energy consumption; the technical potential of
converting solar energy directly into electricity is greater than 4,40,000TWh/year i.e.
about four times the earth’s total energy consumption. Moreover, solar energy
power generation produces no carbon dioxide and therefore is a purely green
energy form. It provides a viable alternative to fossil fuels for power generation
(FNCHN, 2011). The advantages of using solar energy include:
• Minimal negative environmental impact by reducing air & water pollution

and greenhouse gas emission. Silicon (material used for creating solar
modules) is entirely benign and available in abundance.
• Never exhausting source of energy.
• Relatively low operating & maintenance cost. Minimal labour requirements.
• Protection against volatile electricity prices.
• Stable and independent power source (Floyd Associates, n.d.).
Due to the dilemma between meeting the growing demand for energy and
protecting the environment, solar energy power generation has become a
mainstream endeavor (FNCHN, 20109).
9 Available on http://news.fnchn.com/Bright_prospects_for_thin_93943.aspx [Accessed on 20
May 2011].
Presently solar energy is harnessed with the help of photovoltaics (PV) systems to
produce electricity, solar collectors to heat water and room spaces, concentrated
solar power/thermal (CSP/CST) for electrical and thermal purpose. Off the above,
CSP/CSTs are relatively new technologies, while PVs are the most widely used
(FNCHN, 2011).
Figure 14: Categories of solar energy generation (edited by Author).

3 PV TECHNOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION AND WORKING
Electricity is produced from sunlight through a process

called solar photovoltaics. Photovoltaic cells are made
of semi-conducting materials, so when the sunlight
strikes, it is converted into electricity. The amount of
useful electricity generated is proportional to the
intensity of light energy, which falls into the conversion
area.
PV cells use direct sunlight and diffused solar radiation

to produce electricity. Thus, even if the sky is overcast
electricity is produced. To determine the PV electricity
generation potential for a particular site, it is important Figure 8: PV module.
to assess the average total solar energy received over
the year. Despite its advanced technical capabilities, a
PV system will not generate electricity at night, but the
system is able to store collected energy in a battery for
use during non-daylight hours.
PV systems consist of two major subsystems of

hardware: PV modules (Figure 8) and the Balance-of-
System (BOS) (Figure 9). PV modules house an array of Figure 9: BOS module.
solar cells that deliver direct current (dc) power,
whereas BOS equipment include components needed for mounting, cabling,
battery, charge controller, dc/ac inverter and other components, power
conditioning and site-specific installation. It is noted that the BOS-costs also include
labour to build a turnkey system.
The PV industry is growing worldwide at an amazing pace. Over 560MWp of PV

modules were manufactured and sold worldwide in 2002. The average rate of
growth of the industry in the beginning of this Millennium has been 36.6%,
representing more than a doubling every two years, and it increased by 44% in 2002.
The value of worldwide PV sales is projected to grow to more than US$ 27.5 billion in
2012.
3.2 BRIEF HISTORY
The foundation for modern PV technology was laid in the early 1950s, when
researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories discovered and developed crystalline
silicon solar cells. Although at the same time attempts were made to commercialize
silicon solar cells on a larger scale, it took until the 1980s before markets were
developed to warrant production at any significant scale. From then on, laboratory
and commercial PV technology development has shown steady progress. This has
led to a portfolio of available PV technology options at different levels of maturity,
and experience that can be expressed by a robust learning curve (price reduction
vs. cumulative production of commercial PV).
3.3 PV ARRAY SYSTEMS
PV generates electricity in over 100 countries and continues to be the fastest

growing power-generating technology in the world. Even though it is the most
expensive of the solar technologies in terms of energy production, it is the most
versatile, simplest to install and cheapest to maintain.
The power that one PV module can produce is seldom enough to meet
requirements of a home or a business, so the modules are linked together to form
an array.
Based on the location, requirement and application the PV array system can be
divided into grid–connected and off–grid types. The working and current scenario of
these systems is mentioned below, in brief. The systems are built at or close to the
point of use to avoid the cost and risk of failure of infrastructure.
3.3.1 GRID – CONNECTED SYSTEM
A grid-connected system is connected to a large independent grid (typically the

public electricity grid) and feeds power into the grid. Grid connected systems vary in
size from residential (2-10kWp) to solar power stations (up to 10s of GWp). In the case
of residential or building mounted grid connected PV systems, the electricity
demand of the building is met by the PV system. Only the excess unused electricity is
fed into the grid. The electricity to be fed into the grid requires to be converted to
AC by an inverter (Figure 10).
Figure 10: Schematic diagram of the working of an grid-connected PV system (Solar Shop,
200610).
Between 2004 and 2009, grid-connected PV capacity increased at an annual rate

of 60 percent. An estimated 7GWp of grid-tied capacity was added in 2009,
increasing the existing total by 53 percent to 21GWp (ISES, 201011).
10 Available at http://www.mysolarshop.co.uk/Solar-panel-diagrams-i-95.html [Accessed on
27 May 2011].
3.3.2 OFF – GRID SYSTEM
This system refers to a self–sufficient type, which

does not rely on drawing supplemental power
from the electrical utility. These systems consist of
a PV array, control and safety equipment, a
battery bank (weight and type of battery is
based on whether the appliance is portable or
not), and usually an inverter (Figure 12). It varies
in sizes and is usually attached directly to the
appliance, with its other hardware embedded
within the unit (e.g. traffic lights, street lamps,
watches, calculators, etc.).
Off-grid system proves to be advantageous in

remote and rural places where the electrical grid
Figure 11: Solar powered lamppost.
may not be able to reach. Though, this system
would only be able to provide basic electricity needs to small households.
BATTERIES
Figure 12: Schematic diagram of the working of an off-grid PV system (Solar Shop, 2006).
In 2009 the off-grid PV system accounts for an additional 3-4GW above the capacity
of the grid-connected system.
11 Aitken, D.W. (ISES), 2010. Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future. Available at
http://www.ises.org/shortcut.nsf/to/wp [Viewed on 26 May 2011].

3.3.3 HYBRID SYSTEMS
These are created when the PV system is combined

with another source of power (biomass
generator/wind turbines/diesel generator) (Figure 13),
to ensure a consistent supply of electricity. This system
may or may not be linked to the grid (RES
Group, 201012).
Figure 13: Schematic diagram of the working of an off-grid PV system (RES, 2010).
3.4 PV MODULES
Photovoltaic (PV) technologies, also commonly known as ‘solar cells’, are solid-state
semiconductors. These ‘solar cells’ are arranged in arrays to produce more than
100W of power. The properties and efficiency13 of the module depend on the type
of solar cell used. The following list represents the three main technologies currently
used to create solar cells:
3.4.1 CRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS (C-SI)
It is the most common type of solar panels as it is widely

available, hence represents about 90 percent of the
market today (RES, 201014). Crystalline Silicon modules
are made by slicing silicon ingot into wafers, processing
these wafers into solar cells, electrically
interconnecting the cells, and enclosing it within a
glass (Figure 14) and metal frame (PV-TRAC, 2005). 36 Figure 14: Exploded view of a
individual cells would be required to produce a crystalline PV module.
12 Available at http://www.res-group.com/resources/about-solar-energy.aspx [Accessed on

27 May 2011].
13 Efficiency of a solar cell is the ration of the electrical power output to the light power input.
It is a percentage value (Nijs, J., n.d.).

14 Available at http://www.res-group.com/resources/about-solar-energy.aspx [Accessed on
27 May 2011].
continuous voltage of 20 Volts (http://www.mysolarshop.co.uk/-i-74.html [Accessed

on 20 May 2011]). They are very efficient in good light conditions and have an
overall efficiency of about 12 to 17 percent (RES, 2010). With the low silicon utilisation,
the module’s energy payback time (which is usually several years) is much shorter
than the module lifetime.
3.4.2 AMORPHOUS SOLAR CELLS (THIN-FILM SOLAR CELL)
Thin-film modules are made by

coating and patterning entire sheets
of low-cost glass, plastic or stainless
steel sheets with micro-thin layers of
photosensitive conducting materials,
followed by encapsulation (Figure
1515). The panel is formed in one
sheet where cells are not visible. They
are the cheapest solar panels in
market (PV-TRAC, 2005). It can be
highly efficient in material utilisation, Figure 15: Section of thin-film solar cells.
has low labour requirements, and uses comparatively little energy in the
manufacturing process which results in lower production costs, but are not as
efficient (in performance) as the other types, although this has improved in recent
years and they can be a practical alternative to panels made with silicon cells (PV-
TRAC, 2005). The price advantage is counterbalanced by substantially lower
efficiency rates of 5 to 13 percent (RES, 2010). They are most often seen in small solar
panels like those in calculators or garden lamps, and give the most efficient
performance in low light intensity (http://www.mysolarshop.co.uk/-i-74.html
[Accessed on 20 May 2011]).
3.4.3 OTHER TYPES
The other types include cadmium telluride (CdTe) and

copper indium gallium deselenide (CIGS), which are
usually found in a thin-filmed form (Figure 16). The problem
of these other technology (cadmium telluride) is that it
contains Cadmium, which is toxic and affects people the
same way mercury does. Another drawback is that the
efficiency of the CdTe cell is 15% while that of the CIGS
cell is 20% (http://www.moodia.com/article/thin-film-solar-
panels-photovoltaic-energy [Accessed on 20 May 2011]).
Figure 16: CIGS Module
The PV solar industry has seen rapid development in
recent years all around the world. The global output of PV batteries reached
10,700MWp in 2009. Thin film solar cells contributed 1,700MWp, accounting for 15.9%
of the total. This proportion will be further increased in the future. Its application can
be seen in solar energy batteries (FNCHN, 2011).
15 Source http://www.greenoptimistic.com/2010/07/06/amorphous-silicon-solar-cells-
hydrogen-efficiency/ [Viewed on 28 May 2011].
TECHNOLOGY CRYSTALLINE SILICON THIN FILM
IMAGE
Source: http://renewablepowersolarenergy.com/solar-panels/solar-panel-blog
[Accessed on 23 May 2011]
Amorphous
CELL TYPES Monocrystalline Polycrystalline CIGS CdTe
crystalline
MANUFACTURING Feedstock, contacts, module Depositing processes, substrate,
PROCESS design encapsulate
LAB EFFICIENCY 24.7 % 13 % 18.8 % 17 %
INDUSTRIAL
12 – 17 % 6 – 10 % 9 – 13 % 9 – 12 %
EFFICIENCY
MARKET SHARE 90 – 95 % 5% 3%
Table 3: Comparative study of PV systems (Nijs, 201016. Editted by Author).
SUBSTRATE BENEFITS DIFFICULTIES
GLASS Excellent barrier, smooth, thermal Rigid, heavy weight.

expansion, vacuum compatible.
FLEXIBLE Low weight, durability, removable, Curling, stress, poor
potential low cost with high throughput. adhesion.
POLYAMIDE Monolithic integration. Worst efficiency, low
temperature deposition.
FLEXIBLE METAL High deposition temperature. Pin hole (roughness),
impurity diffusion.
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of materials used for PV modules (Stephens, 200817).
Figure 17: Thin film vs. crystalline production (Stephens, 2008).
16 Nijs, J., 2010, Photovoltaic Solar Energy: Present and Future [Online]. Available at
http://www.clubofrome.at/events/lectures/58/pdf1.pdf [Accessed on 23 May 2011].
17 Stephens, S., 2008. Solar Energy: Future Trends and Technologies [Online]. Available at
www.solaramericacommunities.energy.gov/pdfs/2008_annual_meeting/Solar-Energy-Future-
Trends-and-Technologies.pdf [Viewed on 23 May 2011].
4 CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF PV MODULES
The capability of PV to be utilised in certain

applications under current economic and
technical conditions depends on the
geographical location and the climatic
zones, as well as cost. PV generators are
generally a good solution for basic needs in
rural applications to improve living standards.
To solve the problems associated with
intermittency and dispersion, hybrid solutions
can be implemented combining the use of Figure 18: PV integrated in railings.
the full range of renewables, solar,
hydropower, wind in coastal areas, and
biomass. Lower cost and increased
performance PV will ensure that uptake in all
markets is increased in the future (PV-TRAC,
2005).
4.1 RESIDENTIAL
Figure 19: PV exterior wall facade.
The number of PV installations on buildings

connected to the electricity grid has grown in
recent years. In solar systems connected to
the electricity grid, the PV system supplies
electricity to the building, and any daytime
excess may be exported to the grid. Batteries
are not required because the grid supplies
any extra demand. However, to be
independent of the grid supply, battery Figure 20: PV integrated with elements of
architecture.
storage is needed to provide power at night.
Holiday homes without access to the

electricity grid can are more cost-effectively
than if the grid was extended to reach the
location. Remote homes in sunny locations
can obtain reliable electricity to meet basic
needs with a simple system comprising of a PV
panel, a rechargeable battery to store the
energy captured during daylight hours, a
regulator (or charge controller), and the
necessary wiring and switches. Such systems Figure 21: PV used for water pumps in
rural areas.
are often called solar home systems (SHS).

4.2 COMMERCIAL
The vertical walls of office buildings provide several opportunities for PV

incorporation, as well as sunshades or balcony railings incorporating a PV system.
Sunshades (Figure 20) may have the PV system mounted externally to the building,
or have PV cells specially mounted between glass sheets comprising the window
(Figure 19).
4.3 RURAL AND REMOTE APPLICATIONS
Thousands of dwellings around the world are too far from the grid to be connected,
but they can benefit from PV generated electricity for lighting, television,
refrigeration, etc. Remote buildings, such as schools, community halls, and clinics,
can benefit from solar energy. In developing regions, central power plants can
provide electricity to homes via a local wired network, or act as a battery charging
station where members of the community can bring batteries to be recharged.
PV systems can be used to pump water (Figure 21) in remote areas as part of a
portable water supply system. Specialized solar water pumps are designed for
submersible use or to float on open water. Large-scale desalination plants can also
be PV powered using an array of PV modules with battery storage.
Decentralised rural electrification (DRE) in developing countries – concerning about

1.7 billion people in the world according to official IEA figures, aims to meet:
• Basic needs: potable water, water for livestock, refrigeration and lighting for
a dispensary.
• Improved quality of life: residential lighting, telephone service, radio and
television and community lighting (street lighting, schools, meeting halls,
etc.).
• Small-scale motorisation for development: pumping for farming irrigation,
vegetable gardening, storage, motorisation for mills, presses, small craft
industries, etc.
4.4 INDUSTRIAL
For many years, solar energy has been the power supply choice for industrial
applications, in form of telecommunication relays, cathodic protection, tele-
measurements, and all applications for which the electrical consumption is small
compared to grid connection like parking meters even in towns, or emergency
phones along highways
Solar energy is also frequently used for transportation signaling, such as offshore
navigation buoys, lighthouses, aircraft warning light structures, and increasingly in
road traffic warning signals. Solar is used to power environmental monitoring
equipment and corrosion protection systems for pipelines, wellheads, bridges, and
other structures. For larger electrical loads, it can be cost-effective to configure a
hybrid power system that links the PV with a small diesel generator.

4.5 OTHER
As its initial purpose, PVs are still being used to

power artificial satellites (Figure 22).
Thin filmed PV sheets are usually used for

consumer applications like watches,
calculators, garden lights, alarm devices, etc.
Figure 22: PV used in artificial satellites.
4.6 COMMON APPLICATION OVERVIEW
PV systems are sometimes best configured with a small diesel generator in order to
meet heavy power requirements in off-grid locations. With a small diesel generator,
the PV system does not have to be sized to cope with the worst sunlight conditions
during the year. The diesel generator can provide back-up power that is minimized
during the sunniest part of the year by the PV system. This keeps fuel and
maintenance costs low (SMRA, 201018).
The major cost element for thin films is the capital for equipment and materials, and
the cost of the materials will be the key to achieving low overall module costs in the
long term. The price of standard PV modules is currently approximately 3 €/W. This
could be reduced to 2 €/W by 2010, 1 €/watt-peak in 2020 and 0.5 €/W in 2030.
5 CRITICAL EVALUATION OF SOLAR ENERGY AND PV TECHNOLOGY
5.1 ADVANTAGES
• Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does not need to

be imported from across the world. This reduces environmental impacts
associated with transportation and also reduces our dependence on
imported oil. And, unlike fuels that are mined and harvested, when we use
solar energy to produce electricity we do not deplete or alter the resource.
• PV modules require minimal energy to be manufactured or installed hence
qualifies as a ‘green’ technology.
• A PV system is flexible in type. It can be constructed to any size based on
energy requirements. Furthermore, it can be enlarged or moved if the energy
need changes.
• PVs are flexible in use, hence can be part of a consumer product, mounted
on building roofs, integrated in a building skin or assembled into large power
stations. Due to this, it can serve energy needs in dispersed and isolated
communities.
• It can be designed to be very robust and reliable while at the same time it is
quiet and safe.
• Visually unobtrusive.
• PV fits well in the existing infrastructure and it offers possibilities to make
intelligent matches between electricity supply and demand.
18 Available at http://www.solarbuzz.com/going-solar/using/uses [Accessed on 27 May 2011].

• PV cells were originally developed for use in space, where repair is extremely
expensive, if not impossible. PV still powers nearly every satellite circling the
earth because it operates reliably for long periods of time with virtually no
maintenance.
• PV can supply a substantial part or even the majority of our future electricity
needs. For example, in Europe, fitting the total surface of south-oriented roofs
with PV equipment would enable full coverage of our electricity needs. This
illustrates that.
• The economic benefits of a growing commercial PV sector are already
proving a reality and have led to strong global competition (PV-TRAC, 2005).
5.2 DISADVANTAGES
• Although reliable PV technology is already available today, it needs further

development, especially to reduce the cost of electricity produced.
• Toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV (amorphous)
production process. These environmental impacts are minor and can be
easily controlled through recycling and proper disposal.
• Solar energy is more expensive to produce than conventional sources of
energy due to the cost of manufacturing PV devices, and also the
equipment efficiency. As the conversion efficiencies continue to increase
and the manufacturing costs continue to come down, PV will become
increasingly cost competitive with conventional fuels.
• Solar power is a variable energy source, thus may not be able to produce
power all the time, this could lead to an energy shortage if a lot of a region's
power comes from solar power (CetOnline19).
Figure 23: Energy payback time of PV modules (EPVEC, 200620).
3.5
3
2.5
EGBT (yr)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
THIN FILM S-‐Eur THIN FILM C-‐Eur CRYST. FILM S-‐Eur CRYST. FILM C-‐Eur
PV TYPES
19 Available at http://www.cetonline.org/Renewables/PV_pro_con.php [Viewed on 28 May
2011].
20 Alsema, de Wild, Fthenakis, 2006. 21st European PV Energy Conference, Dresden.

6 CURRENT SCENARIO: PV MARKET DEVELOPMENT
PV cell manufacturers produced a record 10,700 megawatts of PV cells globally in

2009, a 51 percent increase from the year before. While growth in 2009 slowed from
the remarkable 89 percent expansion in 2008, it continued the rapid rise of an
industry that first reached 1,000 megawatts of production in 2004. By the end of 2009,
nearly 23,000 megawatts of PV had been installed worldwide, enough to power 4.6
million U.S. homes. Solar PV, the world’s fastest-growing power technology, now
generates electricity in more than 100 countries (Roney, 201021).
Figure 24: PV production around the world (IEA, 201022).
This success has been generated by a combination of market stimulation and

intensive research and development in Japan, the USA and Europe, over the last 10
years. Prices have been reduced by three times since 1990. Cumulative worldwide
installations were estimated to 2.2 GW by the end of 2003, with Europe standing at
560 MW.
Z HISTORICAL FIGURES EPIA MODERATE SCENARIO
21 Eco Economy Indicators: Solar Power [Online]. Available on http://www.earth-
policy.org/indicators/C47/ [Accessed on 28 May 2011].

22 International Energy Agency, 2010. Technology Roadmap: Solar photovoltaic energy.

COUNTRY 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Belgium 2 18 48 100 70 80 90 100
Czech 0 3 51 80 90 110 140 170
Republic
EUROPEAN UNION
France 8 11 46 250 340 600 900 1000

Germany 850 1100 1500 2000 2000 2300 2600 3000
Greece 1 2 11 35 100 100 100 100
Italy 13 42 258 400 600 750 950 1250
Portugal 0 14 50 40 50 100 160 230
Spain 88 560 2511 375 500 500 550 800
Rest of EU 12 17 28 120 140 200 300 450
China 287 210 230 400 500 700 1000 1100
REST OF THE WORLD
India 145 207 342 340 1000 1200 1500 2000

Japan 12 20 45 80 100 300 600 1000
South Korea 12 20 40 50 60 80 120 300
USA 20 43 274 100 150 220 300 400
Rest of the 153 125 126 250 300 300 300 350
world
TOTAL 1603 2392 5559 4620 6000 7540 9610 12250
Table 3: Annual solar PV power production by country 2002-2009 (EPI, 2010).
Figure 25: Graph tabulating Table 2 values (EPI, 2010).
It is today public policy and political leadership, rather than either technology or
economics that are required to move the widespread application of solar energy
technologies and methodologies forward. The technologies and economics will all
improve with time, but they are sufficiently advanced at present to allow for major
penetrations of solar energy into the mainstream energy and societal infrastructures.
And significant goals can be now set with confidence for major percentage
improvements in energy efficiency and increases in solar and renewable energy
applications for the next 50 years, at which time the world should be receiving over
50 % of all energy needs from locally available environmental resources, with most of
these being from direct and indirect uses of solar energy. There are no resource
limitations to this scenario.
Figure 26: World annual solar PV production 1985-2009 (EPI, 201023).
4,000
3,500
3,000
China
2,500
Megawatts
2,000
1,500
Japan
1,000 Taiwan
500 Germany
United States
0
1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
Figure 27: Regional manufacturer shipment 1997-2007 (Navigant, 2008).
This section of the report will give a general overview of the current status of PV
technology in a few countries, and how the government is aiming to expand and
develop it further. This will clearly show the importance and demand of PV systems,
although only very recently its importance has been realized.
23 Earth Policy Institute, 2010. Eco-Economic Indicators: Solar Power [Online]. Available at
http://www.earth-policy.org/indicators/C47/ [Viewed on 28 May 2011].

6.1 SITUATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Solar PV accounted for about 16 percent of all new electric power capacity
additions in Europe in 2009. While the US dominated in venture capital and private
equity, EU-27 attracted the significant public market investment in 2006: $5.7 billion.
This is partly due to the higher awareness of climate change and the role of
renewable energy and energy efficiency in the EU, who ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
A number of EU countries offer generous incentives to promote renewable energy
(such as the German feed-in tariff) and are starting to do so with efficiency. These
factors help to explain why investors in the EU have been particularly ready to pour
money into renewable energy, and why companies there have reached a relatively
mature stage in their development. The European PV production in 2003 reached
200MW, which represents approximately 26% of the worldwide PV production. The
installation of PV in Europe in 2003 represents 34% of the world PV market. The market
has grown in Europe at a consistent rate compared with other large markets (Japan
and USA). In contrast, the intensity of technological development efforts and the
increase in production capacity are much lower in Europe than in Japan (EPI, 2010).
COUNTRY FRAMEWORK
Austria Feed-in tariff paid for 20 years with cap of 15MW, but only for systems
installed in 2003 and 2004 (cap was already reached after four weeks).
When power < 20 kW, cost equals 0.6€/kWh.
When power > 20kW, cost equals 0.47€/kWh.
Denmark No specific PV programme, but settlement price for green electricity.
France Feed-in tariff: 0.15€/kWh for systems <1MW for 20 years in continental
France, 0.30€/kWh in Overseas Department and Corsica; 5.5% VAT on
investments on existing buildings.
Germany Feed-in tariff for 20 years with built-in annual decrease of 5% from 2005
onward. For plants (not buildings and sound barriers), the decrease will
be 6.5% from 2006 onward. The second REE injection law has been
approved by the GFC, the Bundesrat: 0.46€/kWh minimum; on buildings
and sound barriers 0.57€/kWh (< 30kW), 0.55€/kWh (> 30kW) and
0.54€/kWh (>100 kW), for façade integration there is an additional
bonus of 0.05€/kWh.
Greece Feed-in tariff: 0.08€/kWh on islands and 0.07€/kWh on the mainland.

Grants for 40-50% of total cost. Holds only for commercial applications
>5 kW, no grants for domestic applications.
Sweden No specific PV programme. Electricity certificates for wind solar,

biomass, geothermal and small hydro. Energy tax exemption.
Switzerland Net metering with feed-in tariff of min. 0.15CHF/kWh (0.10€/kWh);

investment subsidies in some cantons; promotion of voluntary measures
(solar stock exchanges, green power marketing).
United Kingdom Investment subsidies in the framework of a PV demonstration

programme. Reduced VAT.
Table 4: Regulatory framework for a few countries in the EU and Switzerland from 2004 (PV-
TRAC, 2005).
The present situation of the regulatory framework for photovoltaics in Europe may be
described as being very heterogeneous with substantial differences between the
Member States and their time planning. One of the worst signals to the market is a

continuous change of conditions, which does not give the security needed for
investors (PV-TRAC, 200524).
Germany (the leading country in the EU) installed a record 3,800MW of PV in 2009,
more than half the 7,200MW added worldwide. This brought Germany’s overall PV
generating capacity to 9,800MW, nearly three times as much as the next closest
country, Spain. Already in the first half of 2010, Germany added another 3,800MW.
While Germany has played a major role in advancing PV and driving down costs, its
importance will decline as other countries step up their demand and reduce the
industry’s reliance on a single market. After its record-breaking year in 2008, the
Spanish PV market plummeted to an estimated 70MW added in 2009, due to a cap
on subsidies after the national solar target was exceeded. But, there were other
sunny spots in Europe. Italy came in a distant second after Germany, installing 710
MW and more than doubling its 2008 additions due to high feed-in tariffs and a good
national solar resource; such strong growth is expected to continue.
6.2 SITUATION IN JAPAN
With 49 percent of the world production in excess of their domestic market, Japan is
an exporter of PV. Japanese manufacturers have increased their investments in
production. The country’s contribution, between 1995 and 2002, had risen from 21-
49percent and looks to grow even higher (EPI, 2010). Although after the recent
disasters, the contribution has drastically reduced to 14 percent. The Japanese
government has, over the last ten years, implemented a coherent long-term PV
policy including R&D, demonstration tests, market deployment and promotion. This
continuity makes the implementation of PV, both in manufacturing and marketing,
very effective. Standardisation issues are being addressed, and PV is being actively
promoted through the Residential PV System Dissemination Programme. In addition,
the Government has implemented programmes for the introduction of new energy
directed at local governments and private entrepreneurs.
The Japanese “PV2030” roadmap outlines possible development routes leading to

50-200GW of PV in 2030 (baseline case 100 GW). The technical potential is estimated
to be 8 000 GW. Research and development is aimed at reaching break-even with
household electricity prices in 2010 (0.17€/kWh), business electricity prices in 2020
(0.10 €/kWh), and industry prices in 2030 (0.05 €/kWh). Japan has a net metering
(~0.2 €/kWh) scheme complemented by a relatively low subsidy (only 12%).
Implementation is successful, and at the end of 2003 some 180000 systems were
installed with a total capacity of 700 MW (PV-TRAC, 2005).
24Photovoltaic Technology Research Advisory Council, 2005. A Vision for Photovoltaic

Technology [Online]. Available at:
http://technologies.ew.eea.europa.eu/technologies/resourc_mngt/energy_save_renewbls/p
hotovoltaics/vision-report-final.pdf/ [Viewed on 24 April 2011].
6.2.1 SITUATION IN CHINA
China’s solar PV industry has been growing rapidly and the country now ranks first in
the world in exports of PV cells. While China now manufactures more than a third of
the world’s PV cells, 95% of it is exported and only 5% used within country since most
Chinese consumers cannot afford the technology. Domestic output of PV cells
expanded from less than 100 MW in 2005 to 2GW in 2008, experiencing a 20-fold
increase in four years (Sicheng Wang, 2008), due to a demand from the international
PV market, especially Germany and Japan. In 2008, China’s cumulative PV installed
capacity was 150 MW (National Energy Administration, 2009). Some 40% of this
demand is met by independent PV power systems that supply electricity to remote
districts not covered by the national grid. Market shares of solar PV for
communications, industrial, and commercial uses have also increased. BIPV systems,
as well as large-scale PV installations in desert areas, are being encouraged by the
Chinese government, which began providing a subsidy of RMB 20 (USD 2.93) per
watt for BIPV projects in early 2009. It is likely that the 2010 and 2020 national targets
for solar PV (400 MW and 1 800 MW, respectively) announced in 2007 will be
significantly increased. Experts predict that Chinese installed capacity could reach 1
GW in 2010 and 20 GW in 2020 (CREIA, 2009).
The country, being a global powerhouse for PV, is currently dependent on imported
feedstock; this can be seen from Figure 28. This will change by 2015, due to intense
investment in silicon refining capacity by 2012, and the country will become a net
exporter of every element of the PV chain by 2020. Investment in Chinese solar
companies total $1.1 billion in 2006 – $638 million of Venture Capital & Private Equity,
plus $466 million of public market fund raising (PV-TRAC, 2005). China announced
that it has doubled its target goal for solar power generation over the next decade
in an effort to decrease dependency on nuclear power due to the recent Japan
crisis. The National Development and Reform Commission announced that China is
aiming to complete enough solar installations to provide a solar power capacity of
10GW by 2015 and 50GW by the end of the decade. This bold green move is a huge
step that should encourage the use of clean energy sources across the country.
1000 MW/yr
800
600
400
200
0
2001 2003 2005 2006
Figure 28: Solar cell manufacturing business in China (SolarPlaza, 200525).
25Alternative Energy Magazine. Available at:

http://www.altenergymag.com/emagazine.php?issue_number=06.02.01&article=solarplaza
[Viewed on 28 May 2011].
China is expected to publish a five-year blueprint soon that will outline supportive
policies for the solar power industry. The shift to clean power will also bode well for
the country’s overall health, as they have registered some of the globe’s worst air
and water quality following three decades of unrestrained growth and its resulting
pollution. The country is anticipating an investment of several hundred billion dollars,
and it hopes that by 2020 it will generate a full 15% of its energy from renewable
sources (Alternative Energy Magazine, 201126).
3000
2500
Silicon/Wafer
2000
producSon capacity
1500 Solar Cell producSon

capacity
1000
Solar Modules
500 producSon capacity
0
2005 2006 2007 2010
Figure 29: Chinese PV industry forecast of production capacity (SolarPlaza, 2009).
While PV remains relatively expensive as a form of generation, China will continue to

focus on capitalising on other countries’ generous feed-in tariffs (New Energy
Finance, 2010).
Additional details:
• 232 projects -- totaling 290 MW -- to be built at major industrial sites where

carbon heavy manufacturers will consume all of the electricity generated.
• 35 projects -- totaling 306 MW -- to be built as utility-scale solar parks, whose
output will flow into China’s transmission grid.
• 27 projects -- totaling 46 MW -- to be built by independent producers in
remote, powerless regions.
6.3 SITUATION IN INDIA
At present, only 9 percent of the energy utilised in India are from renewable sources,
i.e. sun and wind (Figure 3027).
26 Available at:
http://www.altenergymag.com/emagazine.php?issue_number=06.02.01&article=solarplaza
[Viewed on 28 May 2011].
27 PV Group, 2009. The Solar PV Landscape in India: An Industry Perspective [Online]. Available
at http://www.solarindiaonline.com/pdfs/The_Solar_PV_Landscape_in_India1.pdf [Viewed on
28 May 2011].
The application spread for

PV in India is very different
3%
from the global mix of solar 9%
COAL
applications. Instead, it
almost entirely (97 percent) GAS
comprises of off-grid and
OIL
small capacity applications
25%
(street lighting, traffic HYDRO
52%
signal, domestic power
back-up, etc.). NUCLEAR
RENEWABLE
Its large and diversified PV 10%
1%
industry consisting of ten
fully vertically integrated
manufacturers making
solar cells, solar panels and complete PV systems, and around 50 assemblers of
various kinds. Together, these companies supply around 200 MW per year of 30
different types of PV systems in three categories – rural, remote area and industrial.
However, despite this strong industrial base, PV constitutes a small part of India’s
installed power generation capacity, with 2.7 MW grid- connected systems and 1.9
MW stand-alone systems in 2008 (Banerjee, 2008). There have been a number of
high-level government initiatives that have provided new momentum for PV
deployment in India, including:
• The 2008 Action Plan on Climate Change included a “National Solar Mission”
that establishes a target
Figure 30: Energy usage in India (PVGroup, 2009).
of generating 20 GW of
electricity from solar energy by 2020; the programme aims to boost annual
PV power generation to 1 000 MW by 2017.
• In 2008, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) established a
target of 50 MW of capacity by 2012 to be achieved through its Generation
Based Incentives (GBI) programme. The GBI includes production incentives
for large solar power plants of INR 12 (USD 0.25) per kWh for PV power for up
to 50 MW of capacity, subject to a maximum 10 MW in any one state.
• The Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007-12) proposed solar RD&D funding of INR 4
billion (86.4M USD). The Working Group on R&D for the Energy Sector
proposed an additional INR 53 billion (1.15B USD) in RD&D for the Eleventh
Five-Year Plan, with the two largest topics being: research on silicon
production for PV manufacturing (total investment INR 12 billion [259M USD],
including the establishment of a silicon production facility) and research on
LEDs (INR 10 billion [216M USD], also including the establishment of a
manufacturing facility).
6.3.1 SITUATION IN THE USA
The third largest market in 2008 was USA, with 342MW of PV installations, including
292MW grid-connected PV. California, New Jersey and Colorado accounted for
more than 75% of the US grid-connected PV market. The US Senate voted to extend
the tax credits for solar and other renewable energies in 2008, and the “Energy
Improvement and Extension Act of 2008” was approved.

Department of Energy gave $117.6 million to accelerate the widespread

commercialization of solar energy technologies. $51.5 million was given for
Photovoltaic Development and $40.5 million for Solar Deployment (ISA, 201028). It
aims to support the U.S. PV industry in improving the cost-effectiveness,
performance, and reliability of its products; as well as the forming of partnerships
among national laboratories, industry and universities.
The ongoing deregulation process of power utilities has resulted in several

programmes being proposed and legislated at State level that affect photovoltaics.
These include “Green pricing”, set-asides for photovoltaics, net metering,
interconnection requirements, etc. Initiatives related to the promotion of

photovoltaics are individually adopted by the 50 states.
Figure 31: Evolution of PV technology in USA (Stephens, 200829).
The country added an estimated 470MW of solar PV in 2009, including 40MW of off-
grid PV, bringing cumulative capacity above the 1GW mark. California accounted
for about half of the total, followed by New Jersey with 57MW added; several other
states are expected to pass the 50MW per year mark in the near future.
6.3.2 SITUATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES
Other strong markets included the Czech Republic, which saw a nine fold increase in
total capacity relative to 2008—to 411 MW—thanks to generous feed-in tariffs for
solar PV, although they are not likely to remain that high. The trend toward large-
scale (greater than 200 kilowatt) PV plants continued around the globe, with the
28 India Semiconductor Association, 2010. Solar PV industry 2010: Contemporary Scenaio and
Emerging Trends.
29 Stephens, S., 2008. Solar Energy: Future Trends and Technology.

number of such plants exceeding 3,200 in 2009, up from roughly 2,450 the previous
year. These facilities totaled some 5.8 GW of capacity, more than five times the 2007
capacity, and accounted for more than a quarter of existing global PV capacity by
year-end. The majority of these plants are operating in Spain, Germany, and the
United States, although an increasing number are being installed in Asia and
elsewhere. A 950kW system in Cagayan de Oro City in the Philippines is reportedly
the largest in any developing country, and a 250kW system outside of Kigali in
Rwanda is the largest grid-connected PV system in sub-Saharan Africa. In the Middle
East, installation of Saudi Arabia’s first and largest PV system (2MW) on the roof of
King Abdullah University of Science and Technology was completed in May 2010.
7 PV MARKET
The solar PV industry saw major declines in module prices in 2009, by some estimates
dropping over 50–60 percent from highs averaging $3.50 per watt in the summer of
2008. By December 2009, prices were falling below $2.00 per watt in some instances
(REN21, 2011).
To retain competitiveness, firms focused on increasing efficiency, reducing operating

costs, and increasing capacity utilization at factories. This marked resilient and
profitable industry players. Consolidation and scale-up also emerged as major
responses. For example, in the United States 2009 saw the closing of BP Solar’s PV
manufacturing facility. Simultaneously, the top 10 manufacturers were looking to
grow from 6.9 GW of manufacturing capacity in 2009 to 10.6 GW in 2010. China’s
Jiangsu and Zhenjiang provinces, where more than 300 manufacturers compete for
contracts, are representative of the intense competition.
Many manufacturers responded to softening demand by broadening their market

positions into project development as well as manufacturing. A new project
subsidiary of Q-Cells, for example, had 100 MW of projects under construction in
Germany and Italy by the end of 2009, generating demand equivalent to 18
percent of Q-Cells’ annual module production. Suntech of China acquired an 86
percent stake in Global Solar Equity Funds, an entity created to provide equity to PV
projects. And First Solar signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to build a
2GW project in China, the first 30MW of which is scheduled for completion in 2010. As
many manufacturers grow and buy their way into the project development business,
new business models are being created for project development and financing,
based on regional and local incentives and regulations. These models often look
more like real estate development than manufacturing or power-project
development businesses.
Thin-film PV manufacturing maintained its 25 percent production share in 2009,

despite losing its historical cost advantage over crystalline PV module prices. Of the
roughly 150 thin-film manufacturing firms thaXt existed in 2008, only about half (70)
were estimated to be active by early 2010, and only a handful continued to
produce at full capacity. First Solar led the industry, becoming the first PV
manufacturer to produce more than 1GW in a single year (1.1 GW in 2009). The rest
of the thin-film industry, notably Sharp and Showa Shell, produced a combined
500MW in 2009. The majority of thin-film firms purchase their production lines from
market leaders Applied Materials and Oerlikon Solar (REN21, 2011).

10% FIRST SOLAR (USA)

SUNTECH POWER (CHINA)
SHARP (JAPAN)
7%
Q-‐CELLS (GERMANY)
35% BAODING YINGLI (CHINA)
6% JA SOLAR (CHINA)
KYOCERA (JAPAN)
TRINA (CHINA)
5% SUNPOWER (USA)
GINTECH (TAIWAN)
5% MOTECH (TAIWAN)
CANADIAN SOLAR (CANADA)
2% 5% NINGBO SOLAR (CHINA)
SANYO (JAPAN)
2% 4% E-‐TON SOLAR (TAIWAN)
2% 3% 3% 4% 4% OTHERS
3%
Figure 32: Market shares of top 15 solar PV manufacturers, 2009 (REN21, 2011).
The top 15 solar cell manufacturers produced 65 percent of the 10.7GW of cells
manufactured in 2009 (See Figure 32). Firms in China and Taiwan produced nearly
half (49 percent) of the global total, followed by Europe (18 percent), Japan (14
percent), and the United States (6 percent).
Even as the average size of PV projects increases, there is growing interest in very
small-scale, off-grid systems, particularly in developing countries. These systems
account for only some 5 percent of the global market, but sales and total capacity
have increased steadily since the early 1980s. In Africa, Asia, and Latin America, the
hunger for modern energy is driving the use of PV for mini-grid or gridless systems,
which in many instances are already at price parity with fossil fuels. Several hundred
megawatts of off-grid PV continue to be added globally every year, in both
developed and developing countries (REN21, 2010).
8 EMERGING AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES
A variety of other PV technologies and conversion concepts are the subject of

research. They are all aimed at low cost, high efficiency or a combination of the
two. New technologies are at various stages of development: from proof-of-principle
to pilot production.
A key factor in reducing of the cost of modules is connected with the manufacturing
processes used. In this context there is considerable interest in replacing single
crystalline and polycrystalline semiconductor layers by nanostructured layers, which
may be deposited very cheaply, using experience from other sectors.
New technologies can be categorised as:
• Options primarily aimed at very low cost (while optimising efficiency)

o Sensitised oxide cells
o Organic solar cells
o Other nanostructured materials.
• Options primarily aimed at very high efficiency (while optimising cost)
o Multi-junction cells for use in concentrators
o Novel conversion concepts.

Some technologies, such as sensitized oxide and multi-junction cells, are more
mature and are gradually moving out of the laboratory phase while others are still in
the early stages of development. Organic (or “plastic”) PV is often considered a
high-risk, high-potential option. Working devices have been demonstrated, but
efficiencies are still low and sufficient stability has yet to be proven. Finally, novel
conversion concepts will be based on a variety of principles, and can be
considered to be at the fundamental research stage.
PARAMETERS
TYPE OF SOLAR
DESCRIPTION EFFICIENCY IN
CELL LIFETIME BAND
PRODUCTION
(yrs) GAP (eV)
(%)
Multi Junction Higher efficiencies could be 21 - 36 - 0.7 – 3.4
achieved by using stacks of
semiconductors with different band
gaps. This technology makes better
use of the incoming light whereby
the conversion efficiency is
improved. It is the most promising
and the most expensive
technology.
Dye Sensitized The main material for solar cell used 11 (0.25 cc) Low Variable
Photochemical is low‐cost nanocrystalline titanium and 8 on real (depends
Solar Cells dioxide with a large effective area devices. on
and organic dyes immersed in an material
electrolyte. The advantage of dye‐ used)
cells is that they can be produced
from inexpensive materials and by
simple production process. The
major challenge is to develop cells
and modules for power
applications, as that poses for this
type of cells severe temperature
conditions. Though the stability
increased significantly, it still does
not meet the standards of other
solar modules.
Conductive Device is based on the property of >5 Low Variable

Organic some organic materials to be (depends
Polymer Cells conductive: “conjugated on
polymers”. Among the conductive material
polymers investigated, the most used)
promising ones are the structures
containing fullerene (C60) as the
acceptor material. Evident
advantages of this technology are
the expected low‐cost
manufacturing and the possibility to
make solar cells by tailoring the
required properties by modifications
of the organic molecules.
Challenges are to increase small
area cell efficiencies and stability
under outdoor conditions.
Table 5: Characteristics of emerging generation solar cells (ARIPT, 200730).
30 Applied Research Institute for Prospective Technologies, 2007. Emerging and Novel
Photovoltaic Texhnology. Working paper no.3.

9 DESIGNING WITH PVS
Site Suitability – the most important aspect to consider is the location of the site. The
solar installation must receive as much light as possible.
Estimating the outputs from different PV technologies – Based on the country of site
the energy outputs can be calculated. This will be based on the tilt, orientation and
system efficiency. If the optimum angle is not achievable, over 90% of the maximum
annual energy can still be achieved at 10 degree and 50 degree tilts.
South-facing vertical facades generate around 70% of the maximum.
The effects of shade – Shadows cast by tall trees and neighbouring buildings must be
kept in mind during the design process. The best location for solar PV is on the south-
facing roof or building sides. Minor shading can result in significant loss of energy
since the cell with the lowest illumination determines the operating current.
How to maximise the energy benefits of PV cells – the more energy efficient the
building, the greater the benefit of the PV cells. Bear in mind that PV glass can often
provide thermal insulation as well since they can be made of low emissivity glass.
PV glass laminates and flexible thin film PV – PV glass laminates are attractive and
well suited to facades and transparent rooftops. They can be fitted to standard
curtain walling structures and are suitable for any application where glass is used.
Thin-film PV is durable and flexible and is encased in a waterproof, self-cleaning
polymer. It can be used in unusual designs that exploit its flexibility.
How PV cells are affected by soiling – The degree of soiling will depend on the
location but usually dust accumulation and self-cleaning reach a steady state after
a few weeks. In extreme cases dust may cause a power reduction of about 10%. At
low tilts horizontal-glazing bars can trap debris, which could lead to shading of part
of the array. The design of the system should aim to minimise uneven soiling.
Lifetimes and warranties – Most solar products have a lifetime of around thirty years.
Modules of all types usually have a twenty-year warranty, as do most thin-film
integrated products. Crystalline PV slates and PV glass laminates usually have a ten-
year warranty. These times are only a rough guide and should be checked for each
specific product.

10 BUILDING INTEGRATED PV AND OTHER DESIGN INNOVATIONS
This section of the report will cover the innovative PV applications in construction,
that contribute to the building or urban sustainability. A few of the applications are
of consumer goods or vehicles, which are out very recently.
10.1 PV SKYLIGHTS
The Skylight (Figure 33) system ensures an

optimized PV electrical generation
adding multifunctional passive
bioclimatic properties of thermal inner
comfort. Moreover, the air chamber of
the insulating glass guarantees best
thermal performance. In other words,
the skylight provides a multifunctional
solution where not only energy is being
generated in-situ, but also natural
illumination is being provided Figure 33: PV Skylights.
implementing solar control by filtering effect, avoiding infrared and UV irradiation to
the interior (enhancing thermal comfort and avoiding interior aging).
Source: http://www.onyxsolar.com/photovoltaic-skylight.html [Viewed on 29 May

2011].
10.1.1 A CASE STUDY OF MONT – CENIS ACADEMY, GERMANY
Total roof area – 12,600 sq.m.

PV area – 9300 sq.m.
Standard PV roof panel – 116mx278m (2802 no.s).
Standard PV facade panel – 116mx240m (280
no.s).
Electrical power of each panel – 192 to 416 Wp.
Incline angle of roof panel – 5 degrees.
Incline angle of facade panel – 90 degree.
No. of converters – ca.600.
Total electrical power – 1 Mwp.
Energy production – 750,000 kwh
Reduction in carbon emission – 12,000t/a Figure 16: PV integrated skylights
and facade of the building.
Figure 16: Roof fixing Figure 36: Exploded view of PV Figure 37: View of PV block.
detail. block.

Overall cost of PV system – € 8.0 million.
The building is located in Herne, Germany. The PV panels are manufactured locally
at Germany’s largest assembly plant, 15km from Herne. The skylight glass is laid at a
5-degree (Figure 35) inclination to allow the diffused sunlight to enter, and at the
same time save the space from the direct glaring sun
(http://casestudies.pepesec.eu/archives/203 [Viewed 28 May 2011]).
10.2 PV INTEGRATED INSULATED GLASS/CURTAIN WALLS
Curtain walls offer architects a

multitude of possibilities for the
integration of photovoltaic solar energy
into buildings in an efficient and
ecological manner. The large variety in
form, structure and colour of
photovoltaic glass, combined with the
aluminum frames, provides a free reign
of creativity for the Project workers so
they can create designs which unite
elegance, efficiency and energy Figure 38: PV Curtain walls.
saving.
(Source: http://www.onyxsolar.com/photovoltaic-curtain-wall.html
[Viewed on 29 May 2011]).
10.2.1 A CASE STUDY OF THE CELLOPHANE HOUSE
The ‘cellophane house’ is a prefabricated

modular building, one of which is presently
at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. It is
a 5 storey tall building with translucent
polycarbonate steps embedded with LEDs,
and exterior walls made of NextGen
SmartWrap – an experimental plastic
laminate with PV cells. This harvests energy
from the sun and channels it to a battery
array in the mechanical room. The second
layer allows daylight to enter and diffuse
throughout the living spaces, while
providing greater insulation than any glass
unit. Meanwhile, a ventilation system
harnesses heat in the winter, or displaces it
in the summer. These combined elements
form an active double-skin wall that
provides weather protection, as well as
potential energy independence.
Figure 39: The 'cellophane' house.

Figure 40: Exploded section of the double-skin wall.
INTERIOR IR LAYER WITH BUILDING OPERATING OUTER LAYER

LAYER FRAME FRAME LAYER WITH FRAME
Clear PET on IR blocking film Air cavity Clear PET with PET weather
inner side of vented to PowerFilm PV barrier layer
interior frame exterior modules on printed with
inner side of diffusing
exterior frame. pattern
10.3 PV TILES/PAVING
It is made by a solar PV glass integrated over elevated ceramic and is completely

walkable. One of its main attractions is the variety of uses and the fact that it is
possible to place furnishing on it without losing space, as it happens when a
conventional PV panels are installed.
This PV pavement is a really appealing product for architects as it can be integrated

in any project and environment without renouncing design and aestheticism. What
is more, it combines pasive elements (avoided CO2 emmissions) with active
elements (power generation) reducing remarkably the building impact on the
environment.
10.4 PV DECKS
PV decking, used in the promenade decks of Zadar (Croatia), is an integration of

the PV system and LED lights. These lights come on once the solar cells stop soaking
energy. Apart from being highly functional, it proves to be aesthetic as well.
Figure 41: PV deck at Zadar, Croatia.

10.5 PV LIT URBAN SPACES
A relatively new concept is the PV integrated solar sheds (Figure 42) & street lamps. It
created uniqueness and a different identity to the congregational space.
Figure 42: Public space with PV integrated solar Figure 43: Solar tree exhibited in Vienna,
sheds, Rome (Behnisch Architects). Austria.
The ‘tree’ (Figure 44) is 23 feet high with 27 power-generating leaves. It generates
10,000kWh per year and saves over $165,000 over a 20-year period. When the sun is
shining, the power generated can power 7 houses. Unlike regular streetlights, they
do not require costly underground wiring to install, and they are immune to
blackouts. The lights have 10 solar panels at the top of the branches, which charge
built-in batteries, which in turn power LEDs for illumination. Since LEDs generate direct
light, they emit much less light pollution when compared to conventional streetlights.
The built-in light detectors automatically turn the lights on after sun down.
Figure 44: Solar tree designed by Ross Lovegood, supported by Artemide & Sharp Solar.
10.6 SOLAR TEXTILES
Solar fiber manufacturing paradigms may lead to lower manufacturing costs. Textile
geometry, due to texture and larger surface area, provide light trapping for higher
efficiencies. Multijunction geometries can be achieved with the weaving patterns,
and prove to be easier to install than rigid panels. They can be integrated with
technical textile such as carbon fiber composites.
Figure 45: Design prototype, Figure 46: PV integrated solar Figure 47: Solar textile, by
Danish Royal Institute of Art. curtains, Sheila Kennedy. Konarka.

10.7 PORTABLE SOLAR TREE
Solar tree is the better idea for future solar goodness

that benefit for everyone that living in this
technology age. The portable solar tree acts as a
portable solar roof. It can be taken anywhere, thus
making solar energy a lot more profitable and
sustainable for use. Users can sticks the portable
solar tree in the ground and the solar panel is face
upward under the sunlight. Then users can start their
electronic devices’ charging by plug in the plugs to
the built-in sockets (Figure 48).
Typically the portable solar panel collects the solar

energy from the sunlight and converts it to the
voltage between 12 and 230 volts of electricity.
Additionally, there is a built in battery that use to
save the energy for extra use when there is not
sunlight.
(Source: http://limcorp.net/2009/portable-solar-tree-
concept#ixzz1H4evPqZi [Accessed on 28 May Figure 48: Portable solar tree.
2011]).
10.8 MISCILLANEOUS: VEHICLES
Figure 18: (above) Project solar impulse.
Figure 18: (right) Blue Car, designed by Pininfarina.
The ‘Solar Impulse’ (Figure 49) solar plane, in

2010, demonstrated it could harvest
enough energy by day to stay aloft all night. It
took its first international flight on 2nd May from
Brussels.

10.9 MISCILLANEOUS: FAÇADE TILES
Apart from being purely functional, PV tiles can be designed to enhance the
building façade to create an interesting feature.
Figure 19: Innovative PV tiles for building facades.
Through laser cutting technology, the active area of the glass can be modified in
order to get different patterns and 100% customized designs, leading to spectacular
shapes and semi-transparency effects.
Do combine a pattern and a semi-transparency degree according to the pursued

design and to the energy requirements of the project.
Depending on the selected pattern or design, and the degree of semi-transparency,

peak power could decrease.

11 FUTURE VENTURES: UNDER PROGRESS
These technologies are still in a research phase, yet to be implemented and sold in
the market.
11.1 NOCERA’S LEAF
Scientist Dr. David Nocera has

perfected a low-cost, artificial leaf-
like device that mimics
‘photosynthesis’. Nocera hopes to
use his “leaf” to help make
individual homes capable of
becoming their own self-sufficient
power stations.
The leaf is made of silicon and uses

inexpensive nickel and cobalt
catalysts. Rather than producing
energy directly like a photovoltaic
cell, the ‘leaf’ splits the water
Figure 52: Microscopic view of Nocera's Leaf.
molecule, which then produce
electricity for personal and
household use. The prototype can produce energy continuously for 45 hours without
any fluctuations.
Nocera’s “leaf” is ready for commercial production and distribution.
11.2 LIQUID SOLAR ARRAY
Sunengy has developed a new kind

of floating solar array, called a Liquid
Solar Array (LSA), which they believe
could be attached to hydroelectric
dams to increase their energy
output. The LSA (Figure 53) is a
floating platform with a series of
concentrated solar panels that have
the ability to track the sun’s
trajectory across the sky to garner
the most energy from available
daylight. Sunengy also believes their Figure 53: LSA modules.
floating solar array will be cheaper than conventional solar panels because of the
lack of expensive storm proof mounts and land acquisition costs.
(Source http://inhabitat.com/sunengy-develops-new-floating-liquid-solar-arrays-to-
maximize-energy-output-of-hydro-plants/ [Viewed 29 May 2011]).

11.3 NANO MATERIALS
Researchers in the Netherlands have created a synthetic replacement for indium, an

extremely rare metal that has become a necessary ingredient in solar cells and
some organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs). The new material is made of carbon
nanotubes and plastic Nano particles, and researchers believe they’ll be able to
achieve high levels of electrical conductivity with continued research. By replacing
a rare earth mineral with an engineered material, these researchers could also be
on the road to bringing down the high cost of creating solar cells.
(Source http://inhabitat.com/new-nano-material-could-replace-rare-earth-minerals-
in-solar-cells-and-oleds/ [Viewed 29 May 2011]).
Researchers at the MIT are utilizing viruses to enhance the efficiency of PV cells at
the microscopic level. In an article in the journal Nature Nanotechnology, the
scientists revealed that viruses could be used to organize carbon nanotubes in dye-
sensitized solar cells, reaping efficiency gains of a full third (Figure 54).
(Source http://inhabitat.com/mit-researchers-harness-viruses-to-improve-solar-
efficiency-by-a-third/ [Viewed 29 May 2011]).
Figure 20: Section of the proposed PV module.
11.4 SOLAR ‘NANTENNAS’
Solar efficiencies have increased incrementally over the past years, but they are still
hovering around 20%. However, an engineer from the University of Missouri claims to
have developed a flexible solar sheet that could revolutionize solar power by
soaking up over 90% of the sun’s energy. It is a thin, moldable solar sheet composed
of microscopic antennas called ‘nantennas’ (Figure 55) that is able to harvest heat
and convert it into usable electricity. Best of all, he says that the technology could
be available to the general public within five years.
(Source http://inhabitat.com/mu-develop-solar-nantennas-that-can-capture-95-
percent-of-solar-energy/ [Viewed 29 May 2011]).

Figure 55: Microscopic view of the solar ‘nantennas’.
11.5 TENSILE SOLAR SHADE
The breathable fabric uses strips

of CIGS amorphous thin film solar
technology, which eliminates toxic
materials and is relatively efficient in full sun
while tolerating shade well. The versatile
technology is perfect for site-specific
applications where conditions are often
changing. Modular in construction, Tensile
Solar can tolerate abuse and still work.
SMIT has developed four designs—the

saddle, the pole mount (Figure 56), the
tent, and larger architectural designs. The
concept is particularly appealing for
events that usually would use generators.
Pop up a tent, plug it in to a battery system
and you’re good to go. They Figure 56: Pole mount PV tensile canopy.
visualize parking lots strewn with the
canopies (Figure 57), cooling cars down
and feeding the grid – and maybe even
electric cars.
(Source http://inhabitat.com/new-tensile-
solar-shade-by-smit-will-juice-up-your-
summer-with-sun/ [Viewed 29 May 2011]).
Figure 57: PV tensile canopy for parking

lots.
11.6 PV WATER HEATING PANELS
Solar panel manufacturer Solimpekis offering a hybrid solar panel that is capable of
providing both electricity and water heating from the same panel. The panels are
ideal for applications where there is limited roof space available, but both solar
electricity and solar hot water are desired. Even better, the combination of the two
functions actually improves the

efficiency of the electrical generation
of the photovoltaics.
These hybrid panels address a problem
most solar panels have: as photovoltaic
(PV) panels get hotter, they get less
efficient at generating electricity. A PV
panel is about 1% less efficient for every
3.5 degrees F temperature increase.
The Solimpeks panels address this by
using water to absorb excess heat and
keep the panels cooler. Water-cooling
Figure 21: PV and Solar water heating panels.
is far more effective than air cooling,
making this a very effective combination. The heated water is then used to provide
the additional benefit of hot water for the building.
Testing has shown the efficiency of electrical generation to be as high as 28% while
at the same time producing 140-160 degree F water. This works out to an
improvement of 20% over a similar sized electric-only PV array, and without the
added hot water benefit, either.
Keeping the panels cooler has the additional benefit of extending their lifespan,
keeping them in service for a longer period of time. These panels will also be able to
pay back their installation cost more quickly since they are providing both electricity
and hot water.
(Source http://inhabitat.com/photovoltaic-solar-hot-water-panels-reap-multiple-
benefits/ [Viewed 29 May 2011]).
11.7 AQUASUN FLOATING SOLAR PANELS
Solar panels take up a lot of

space, but Israeli
company Solaris Synergy
(working with French EDF
Group) have found a
solution: placing floating
solar panels on inland bodies
of water. The project,
called AquaSun, would not
only see the panels placed
on lakes and reservoirs, but
the panles would use the
water as a cooling system.
Figure 59: Aquasun floating solar panels.
AquaSun’s panels are made from silicon cells, which may be cheap but are also
prone to inefficiency caused by overheating. However by installing them on bodies
of water, this mitigates the problem. The floating panels, which would generate
200kw of clean energy, would also be adaptable to a region’s energy requirements
with panels being added and removed when needed. AquaSun will not be installed

in “ecologically-sensitive areas or in open seas.” Instead they would be installed on

reservoirs that are used for agriculture and industrial purposes.
A prototype has been designed and is set to be presented at the 4th International
Eilat-Eilot Renewable Energy Conference in Israel. Current plans aim to see AquaSun
installed for a nine-month test period in a basin at a hydro-electric facility in
southeastern France by the end of September 2011.
(Source http://inhabitat.com/aquasun-floating-solar-panels-to-be-deployed-in-
france/ [Viewed 29 May 2011]).
11.8 OTHER IDEAS
• Solar window with spray-on solar film – claims to generate 300% more energy
than solar panels (http://inhabitat.com/solarwindow-with-clear-spray-on-film-
could-generate-300-more-energy-than-solar-panels/).
• Self-healing solar cells using carbon nanotubes – ongoing research in Purdue
University (http://inhabitat.com/solar-cells-designed-to-self-repair-like-
plants/).
• Solar sailed micro-satellites by NASA – NASA has launched these solar
powered satellites on an experimental basis. Its purpose is to clean space
debris (http://inhabitat.com/nasa-solar-powered-micro-satellite-will-clean-
space-debris/).
• PV tracking systems – PV arrays that are connected to a device that orient
the PVs towards the sun direction.

12 CONCLUSION
It can be seen how the PV technology is in demand as it is the easiest form of

renewable energy generation, although it is not all that efficient. Its versatility is what
makes it so widely used. It is one of the technologies that can be used at any
location and is still useful. This is why further development of this technology is
required further developing.
PV could contribute to the security of future energy supply, provide environmentally

benign energy services and enhance economic and social welfare. Alongside other
renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency, photovoltaics could
become a key technology for the future,
The relative share of the four market segments (residential, commercial, utility-scale
and offgrid) is expected to change significantly over time. In particular, the
cumulative installed capacity of residential PV systems is expected to decrease from
almost 60% today to less than 40% by 2050. The relative shares of PV deployment
among the different sectors will vary by country according to each country’s
particular market framework.
The key technology developments needed for PV over the coming years are:
• To increase the efficiency and reduce the material intensity and costs of
crystalline-SI modules;
• To increase the efficiency and lifespan of thin film modules; and
• To guarantee sufficient public and private R&D funding for the development
of third-generation novel devices (ultra-high efficiency and ultra-low cost
cells).
While undertaking research for overcoming technical hurdles, efforts must be

reinforced for transmitting to the widest audience possible the message that solar
electricity will bring economical, social and environmental benefits to the regions
that will promote it.
Even if recent years have seen the amount of electricity produced using PV increase
rapidly year after year, it is still a small amount compared to other renewables such
as wind or biomass. The major barrier-preventing uptake in today’s market is the cost
of PV, making the electricity produced too expensive for many applications. The PV
industry needs to become more competitive and develope more efficient
manufacturing processes and conversion devices. The regulatory framework can
often hinder installation and further work on effective standardization would yield
many advantages. The present market perception of the technology is that it is for
niche applications, and not for general use. Fully coordinated research efforts would
result in overcoming some of these barriers, but additional actions are needed from
all stakeholders if deployment is to take off into small spaces is to build upwards.

13 REFERENCES
ABS Energy Research, 2009. SPV 2009: Solar Photovoltaic Report. Edition 6.
[Provides a simple and good introduction to the topic and the types.]
Abengoa, (n.d.). Solar Power for a Sustainable World.

[Brochure of the ABENGOA company. Explains only the types of PV, and in detail.]
Aitken, D.W., 2010. Under contract to the International Solar Energy Society.
Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future.
Allen, P.S., 2009. Photovoltaic Energy: Solar Power for the 21st Century. Available at
www.siemens.com/energy/living-energy. Accessed on 28 May 2011.
[Promotional article for Siemens Group PV.]
Banerjee, R., 2008. Renewable Power Generation in India: Establishing Feasible

Targets. IIASA presentation, 2008. Available at
www.me.iitb.ac.in/rangan/proffessional_activity/Renpower.pdf. Accessed on 25
May 2011.
[Describes the Indian scenario very well, also mentions the future ventures of the
country in fields of PV development.]
Chinese Renewable Energy Industry Association (CREIA), 2009. Available at

http://en.creia.net/. Accessed on 25 May 2011.
[Describes the Chinese scenario very well, also mentions the future ventures of the
European Commission (EC), 2007. Energy for a Changing World: An Energy Policy for
Europe – the Need for Action.
[Describes the EU scenario very well, also mentions the future ventures of the country
in fields of PV development.]
European Commission, 2009. Photovoltaic Solar Energy: Development and Current

Research.
[In-depth report on the technology, market development, project demonstrations,
employment and research ventures. It is more of an economic report on PV
technological developments.]
European Photovoltaic Technology Platform, 2007. A Strategic Research Agenda for

Photovoltaic Solar Energy Technology.
[Overview of PV technology.]
FabFocus, 2008. Solar Photovoltaic and Thermal Systems: A Sunny Future. Available
at www.siemens,com/solarpv. Accessed on 28 May 2011.
[Promotional article for Siemens Group PV.]
Floyd Associates Inc., 2009. Solar Power: Photovoltaic Technologies. Available at

http://www.floyd-associates.com/solar2.pdf. Accessed on 24 May 2011.
[Briefly gives an overview to the PV development till now. Explains further into the
manufacturing companies and their innovation and achievements in this field.]
Greenwwod, C., et al, 2007. Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment: Analysis
of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in
OECD and Developing Countries. For the United Nations Environment Programme.

[Well-explained presentation on PV systems, their applications, market scenario,

subsidies and technologies.]
Harmon, C., 2000. Experience Curves of Photovoltaic Technology.

[Descriptive notes on PV technology and modules, their applications, market growth,
costs, etc.]
Hug, R., 2010. Photovoltaic Market Trends 2010: Worldwide growth; uncertainity in the
German Market. Available at http://www.solarserver.de/solarmagazine/index-
e.html. Accessed on 23 May 2011.
[Comparison of the current German PV market to that of USA, Japan and China.
Very up-to-date with numbers and energy data.]
International Energy Agency (IEA), 2010. Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic

Energy.
[It is a marketing report on the present PV status, vision for deployment and carbon
abatement potential, strategic goals towards technology development and
policies.]
Nijs, J., 2010. Photovoltaic Solar Energy: Present and Future [Online]. Available at
http://www.clubofrome.at/events/lectures/58/pdf1.pdf. Accessed on 23 May 2011.
[Well-explained presentation on PV systems, their applications, market scenario,
subsidies and technologies. Very easy to understand.]
Pearsall, N.M., Hill, R., 2001. Photovoltaic Modules, Systems and Applications.
[Slightly outdated report, which explains PV modules and types. Applications are
very basic.]
ProTech: Applied Research Institute for Prospective Technologies, 2007. Emerging

and Novel Photovoltaic Technologies. Working paper no.3.
[Detailed information on emerging generation PV cells and nanomaterials.]
PV-TRAC, 2005. A Vision for Photovoltaic Technology. Available at

http://technologies.ew.eea.europa.eu/technologies/resourc_mngt/energy_save_re
newbls/photovoltaics/vision-report-final.pdf/ Accessed on 24 April 2011.
[A completely detailed economic report on the current scene of PV technology. It
goes into the details of the country policies and framework for PV development until
2030. It predicts the growth and provides solutions to the problems being faced
currently.]
Raugei, M., et al., 2007. Life Cycle Assessment of Present and Future Photovoltaic
Systems.
[Explains the life cycle and energy returns with the help of figures. Not very easy for a
layman to read.]
Renewable Energy the Infinite Power of Texas, 2008. Introduction to Photovoltaic

Systems.
[Very basic, and to-the-point information on the working of photovoltaics.]
Stephens, S., 2008. Solar Energy: Future Trends and Technologies. Available at
www.solaramericacommunities.energy.gov/pdfs/2008_annual_meeting/Solar-
Energy-Future-Trends-and-Technologies.pdf Accessed on 23 May 2011.

[Very visually explained with a lot of graphs and charts. Some explanations are not
clear.]
United States Department of Energy (DOE), 2007. Solar America Initiative – A Plan for
the Integrated Research, Development and Market Transformation of Solar Energy
Technologies.
[Describes the American scenario very well, also mentions the future ventures of the
Wang, S., 2008. China PV Development Report 2008.

[Describes the Chinese scenario very well, also mentions the future ventures of the
Websites to refer:
American Council on Renewable Energy www.acore.org
Association PV Cycle www.pvcycle.org
EPIA SET for 2020 www.setfor2020.eu
European Photovoltaic Industry Association www.epia.org
European PV Sunrise www.pvsunrise.eu
IEA CERT www.iea.org/about/stancert.htm

IEA PVPS Implementing Agreement www.iea-pvps.org
IEA PVPS Links to international organisations www.iea-pvps.org/links/org_int.htm
IEA PVPS links to web resources www.iea-pvps.org/links/resource.htm
IEA REWP www.iea.org/about/rewp.htm
International Energy Agency (IEA) www.iea.org
ISET www.iset.uni-kassel.de
Japan Photovoltaic Energy Association www.jpea.gr.jp
PV Accept www.pvaccept.de/eng/index.htm
PV Upscale – Urban Scale PV Systems www.pvupscale.org
SEMI www.semi.org
Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) www.seia.org
Taiwan Photovoltaic Industry Association www.tpvia.org

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A

MOVING TOWARDS THE SUN

M.Arch Sustainable Architecture Studies, University of Sheffield

6 Current Scenario: PV Market Development 17

8 Emerging and New Technologies 27

10.1.1 A Case Study of Mont – Cenis Academy, Germany 30

ARC 6840 | RENEWABLE ENERGY | 100127270 iii

Figure 1: Total greenhouse gas emissions 1

Figure 2: Energy distribution 1

Figure 3: Fuel shares of the world's energy supply, 2000 2

Figure 4: Money invested in renewable sources of energy 2

Figure 5: Power generated from energy sources in 2010 3

Figure 6: World solar energy map 4

Figure 7: Categories of solar energy generation 5

Figure 9: BOS module 6

Figure 10: Working of a grid-connected PV system 7

Figure 11: Solar powered lamppost 8

Figure 12: Working of an off-grid PV system 8

Figure 13: Working of an off-grid PV system (RES, 2010). 9

Figure 14: Exploded view of a crystalline PV module 9

Figure 15: Section of thin-film solar cells 10

Figure 16: CIGS Module 10

Figure 17: Thin film vs. crystalline production 11

Figure 18: PV integrated in railings 12

Figure 19: PV exterior wall façade 12

Figure 20: PV integrated with elements of architecture 12

Figure 21: PV used for water pumps in rural areas 12

Figure 22: PV used in artificial satellites 14

Figure 23: Energy payback time of PV modules 15

Figure 24: PV production around the world 16

Figure 25: Graph tabulating Table 2 values 17

Figure 26: World annual solar PV production 1985-2009 18

Figure 27: Regional manufacturer shipment 1997-2007 18

Figure 28: Solar cell manufacturing business in China 21

Figure 29: Chinese PV industry forecast of production capacity 22

ARC 6840 | RENEWABLE ENERGY | 100127270 iv

Figure 30: Energy usage in India 23

Figure 31: Evolution of PV technology in USA 24

Figure 32: Market shares of top 15 solar PV manufacturers, 2009 26

Figure 33: PV Skylights 29

Figure 34: PV integrated skylights and facade of the building 29

Figure 35: Roof fixing detail 29

Figure 36: Exploded view of PV block 29

Figure 37: View of PV block 29

Figure 38: PV Curtain walls 30

Figure 39: The 'cellophane' house 30

Figure 40: Exploded section of the double-skin wall 31

Figure 41: PV deck at Zadar, Croatia 31

Figure 42: Public space with PV integrated solar sheds, Rome 32

Figure 43: Solar tree exhibited in Vienna, Austria 32

Figure 44: Solar tree designed by Ross Lovegood 32

Figure 45: Design prototype, Danish Royal Institute of Art 32

Figure 46: PV integrated solar curtains, Sheila Kennedy 32

Figure 47: Solar textile, by Konarka 32

Figure 48: Portable solar tree 33

Figure 49: (above) Project solar impulse 33

Figure 50: (right) Blue Car, designed by Pininfarina 33

Figure 51: Innovative PV tiles for building facades 34

Figure 52: Microscopic view of Nocera's Leaf 35

Figure 53: LSA modules 35

Figure 54: Section of the proposed PV module 36

Figure 55: Microscopic view of the solar ‘nantennas’ 37

Figure 56: Pole mount PV tensile canopy 37