COURSE ON MINERAL EXPLORATION

AT ZAWAR

Retorts used by ancient miners for Zinc smelting. Invention of Zinc smelting has taken place at Zawar at least about 1000 years before present.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

TRAINING INSTITUTE ZAWAR CENTRE

JAIPUR

2010

COURSE ON MINERAL EXPLORATION AT ZAWAR

C O N T E N T S
Page No.

1. 1.1 1.2 2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.2.1 3.3.2.2 3.3.3.3 3.3.4 4 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4

ZAWAR CENTRE AND EXPLORATION MODULE Zawar Centre The Zawar Module of Mineral Exploration
PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY RANGE, WESTERN INDIA Stratigraphic Framework Archaean Basement Basement Cover Relationship Aravalli Supergroup Delhi Supergroup Malani Igneuos Suite OF ARAVALLI MOUNTAIN

1 1 2 3 3 4 6 7 10 11 12 12 13 14 14 17 18 19 19 20 22 22 23 23 25 28 28

METALLOGENY: DISTRIBUTION AND TECTONIC SETTING OF ORE DEPOSITS Spatial Distribution of Ore Deposits Temporal Distribution of Ore deposits Plate Tectonic Concept in relation to Ore Deposits Rift-Related Ore Deposits Arc-Related Ore Deposits Principal Arc-Related Deposits Arc-Related Rift Deposits Kuroko-Type Massive Sulphide Deposits Mineral Deposits Related to Divergent Plate Boundaries

ORE GENESIS AND DEPOSIT TYPES Ore Genesis Deposit-Types Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) Deposits Sedimentary Exhalative (SEDEX) Type Deposits Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) Deposits Porphyry-Type Deposits

4.2.5 4.2.6 4.2.7 4.2.8 4.2.9 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6. 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.1.1 6.3.1.2 6.3.1.3 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.3.1 6.3.2.2 6.3.4 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 7. 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Greenstone-Hosted Quartz-Carbonate Vein Deposits Reduced Intrusion-Related Gold Deposits Epithermal Deposits Magmatic Ore Deposits Weathering-Related Deposits GEOLOGY OF ZAWAR LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS Regional Geological Set Up Stratigraphy of Zawar Area Structure and Mineralisation Genesis of Zawar Pb-Zn Ores STAGES OF EXPLORATION Introduction Reconnaissance Exploration Regional Geological Set Up Aero-geophysical Surveys Application of Remote Sensing Techniques Regional Geological Mapping Regional Geochemical Surveys Integration of Regional Data and Delineation of Prospect Prospecting Surveying Topographic Surveys Contouring Surveying Methods and Instruments Detailed Geological Mapping Detailed Geochemical Surveys Scale of Geochemical Exploration Geochemical Anomaly Geophysical Prospecting Exploration Borehole Planning Core Logging Borehole Geophysics Core Sampling
RESERVE ESTIMATION OF MINERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS Principles and Assumptions Cut off grade Morphology of the Ore Body and Variability Ore Reserve Calculation Methods

30 31 31 34 35 37 37 37 39 40 45 45 45 45 46 48 49 49 50 51 51 51 56 58 65 66 67 70 75 86 86 91 96 97

DEPOSITS: 103

103 109 120 122

7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 8

Cross Section Method Level Plan Statistics and Error Estimation

130 134 135

BLOCK-PANEL DIAGRAMS AS A MEANS OF 3-D 142 DEMONSTRATION : THE NEEDS AND THE DISCRIMINATION REFERENCES 147

9.

1. ZAWAR CENTRE AND EXPLORATION MODULE The village of Zawar in Rajasthan, western India is studded with several impressive old working that were important source of zinc-lead-silver ores in ancient India. It has a glorious history in mining and metallurgy of base metal ores and silver. More importantly, Zawar holds the distinction of perfecting the art of smelting Zn-Pb-Ag ore and in producing zinc metal several centuries earlier than the western countries. Carbon dating of wooden artifacts collected from old workings of Zawar area yielded ages of about 2500 years before present. Invention of zinc smelting has taken place at Zawar about 1000 years before present. 1.1 Zawar Centre Learning various aspects of mineral exploration requires detailed studies in structure and economic geology. The famous Pb-Zn belt in Zawar is unique in being associated with one of the most spectacularly preserved structures in Palaeoproterozoic Aravalli rocks in southern Rajasthan. The Zawar Centre is nestled amidst the well known Zn-Pb deposits of Balaria, Mochia, Zawar Mala and Baroi around Zawar. Besides, there are several prospects that are under various stages of exploration. High percentage of exposures, profuse surface indications of mineralisation and a group of old workings and underground mines provides perfect geological setting for developing Zawar as a centre for training in mineral exploration. In addition, the location of Zawar Centre is advantageous as it is in proximity to several important deposits such as the stromatolitic rock phosphate deposit in Jhamarkotra (40km), Rajpura-Dariba and Sindesar Pb-Zn deposit (135Km), volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposit at Deri-Ambaji (200 Km), Bhukia gold deposit (150Km) and the world class Pb-Zn deposit at Agucha (250 km). Location and Approach

The Zawar Centre is located in the vicinity of Ramanath temple between Zawar Mines township and the Tiri village in the Survey of India Toposheet no. 45H/11. The camp is about 45 Km south of Udaipur and 5 Km from Tiri which is on the National Highway (NH) no. 8 connecting Udaipur to Ahmedabad. Zawar Mines is the nearest Railway Station which is about 7Km from camp. Udaipur the district headquarters is connected by train and air. The Dabok (Udaipur) Airport is 50 Km from the Zawar Centre and is approachable with the NH-8 that bypasses Udaipur city. Air flights for Delhi, Mumbai and Jaipur operate from this airport. Climate The climate at Zawar Centre is dry and pleasant between November and March. For remaining part of the year, climate remains dry and warm. The months from April to June are fairly hot. Winter season prevails between middle of November to February. The monsoon season commences between July to middle of September. The temperature variation is between 40- 45C in summer and 510C in winter. Woolen clothings are required during winter months. 1.2 The Zawar Module of Mineral Exploration The Zawar Module mainly focuses on various aspects of mineral exploration. The course content is flexible depending on the requirements of the Geological Survey of India and various other organizations. The course material presented here is only an outline of different themes and in way it should be treated as a text on mineral exploration. The write up is structured into two parts. The first part presents brief outline of Precambrian geology of the Aravalli Mountain Range followed by a summarized accounts of time and space relationship between ore deposits, their relationship with major tectonic structures and deposit-types. A separate chapter on Zawar Pb-Zn deposits presents salient features of the structure and pattern of mineralization in the Zawar group of mines that surround the centre of the Training Institute. The second part covers all the

broad aspects of mineral exploration such as reconnaissance and the classical methods that include introduction to survey techniques related to detailed mapping (DM) and practices that are being followed for geochemical exploration and geophysical surveys. The last two chapters are devoted to subsurface exploration that includes ore reserve estimation by various methods. Emphasis is laid on reserve estimation by cross section, level plan and other manual methods before switching over to the use of computer softwares for such exercises. 2. PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF ARAVALLI MOUNTAIN RANGE, WESTERN INDIA The name Aravalli owes its origin from the words Ara meaning across and Aval which denotes hills in local dialect. The Aravalli Mountain Range (AMR) cuts across the state of Rajasthan (the erstwhile Rajputana) and divides it into two physiographic regions represented by the Thar Desert in the west and Vindhyan Plateau in the east. The 800 Km long AMR extends from near Delhi in north to Jhabua in central India (Fig. 2.1). This impressive Proterozoic orogen trends NE-SW for greater part of its length covering northern and central parts of Rajasthan and swerves to NW-SE in the southeastern Rajasthan and northern parts of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, conforming broadly to the outline of the Bundelkhand Craton of Archaean age. 2.1 Stratigraphic Framework Notwithstanding the earliest studies carried out by Hacket (1881), the basic stratigraphic framework of the Aravalli region was given by Heron (1953) who is credited with recognition of unconformable relationship between a dominantly gneissic terrain and overlying metsedimentary rocks. The gneissic rocks that formed basement for cover sequences were referred to as the Banded Gneissic Complex by Heron (op. cit.). The overlying metasementary sequences include carbonate and phyllite mica schist-dominated Aravalli System, calcareous

facies-rich Raialo Series and quartzite, calc-silicate, biotite schistepidiorite bearing Delhi System. Subsequent studies by the Geological Survey of India and various academic institutions grouped Raialo Series and quartzite and conglomeratic outliers of the Delhi System with rocks of Aravallis and elevated its status to the Aravalli Supergroup. Likewise, the Delhi System was given the status of Delhi Supergroup. Based on the compilation and synthesis of regional geological mapping Gupta et al (1980 and 1997) effected major changes in the Precambrian stratigraphy of western India by grouping several metasedimentary sequences with the gneissic rocks (BGC of Heron, 1953) and referring to them as the Bhilwara Supergroup. This Supergroup included the metasedimentary belts around Hindoli (earlier mapped as Aravalli rocks by Gupta, 1934), Bhinder, Rajpura-Dariba, Jahajpur, Pur-Banera and Sawar. It may, however be mentioned that interrelationship among various metasedimentary belts and older gneisses is not yet clearly established and some workers do not support the rationale of grouping these metasedimentary tracts as part of the Archaean Bhilwara Supergroup (see Roy et al, 1988 and Deb, 2004). The stratigraphic scheme

proposed by the Geological Survey of India for Rajasthan and adjoining areas is followed in the geological map of Rajasthan and Gujarat (Fig. 2.1). 2.2 Archaean Basement Heron (1936 and 1953) considered the vast tracts of banded gneisses as forming basement for the overlying Aravalli rocks. Lithological similarity, presence of conglomerates and identification of angular and overlapping relationships were the key factors in Herons formulation of stratigraphic framework for Precambrian geology of Rajasthan and adjoining areas. He coined the term Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) that remained accepted in geological parlance for about three decade with a note of dissent by Crookshank (1948) and Naha and Choudhuri (1967) who considered the banded gneissic rocks in the north of Nathdwara as parts of migmatised Aravalli sediments. Regional geological

mapping carried out by the officers of the Geological Survey of India after publication of Herons (1953) memoir on Geology of Rajputana (Rajasthan) brought out new additions in the regional geological set up which eventually led to proposition of a new stratigraphic scheme (Gupta et al, 1980 and 1997). The Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) was redesignated as the Mangalwar Complex and Sandmata Complex. The term Bhilwara Supergroup, originally proposed by Raja Rao (1967) as Bhilwara Group, was adapted by Gupta and his coworkers to include older gneissic and metasedimentary tracts of supposedly Archaean age. The Bhilwara Supergroup includes most of the peneplained Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) that lies to the east of the Delhi-Aravalli orogens. The gneissic rocks exposed in Mangalwar, Bandanwara and Sandmata areas constitute part of the Bhilwara Supergroup. The Berach near Chittorgarh and Untala granites are the major intrusion in the Archaean terrain. The metasedimentary tracts included in the Supergroup by Gupta and his coworkers (op. cit.) are Hindolis, RajpuraDariba, Pur-Banera, Bhinder and Jahajpur belts and the Sawar group of rocks (Fig. 2.1). Inclusion of these metasediments with the Bhilwara Supergroup was based on the supposedly intrusive of late Archaean Berach granite into the metasediments. Later studies by Roy (1988 and Deb, 2004) indicated that the metasedimentary belts included in the Bhilwara Supergroup are equivalents of the Palaeoproterozoic Aravalli Supergroup. Pb-Pb dating of sulphides in these richly mineralized metasedimentary belts further supports their coevality with the Aravalli rocks (Deb, 2004). It may be mentioned that the geochronological framework in early eighties was far from adequate. The mapping carried out Roy and his coworkers (1980 and 1985) brought out angular relationship between BGC (to which they renamed as Mewar Gneiss Complex) and overlying basal quartzites of Aravalli Supergroup in Jhamarkotra area. The geological mapping and field relationship by Roy et. al. (1985) further indicated that the granitoids exposed around Udaisagar and in Ahar

river valley formed basement for the Aravalli rocks, contrary to their earlier stratigraphic status as intrusives into the Aravalli rocks (see also Goswami et al, 1994). Vinogradov et al (1964) dated detrital zircon separated from Aravalli schists exposed near Udaipur by U-Pb method. It indicated 3.5 Ga age of the provenance. Tonalitic to trondhemitic gneisses and amphibolite dyke forming basement in the east of Udaipur have given a near contemporary ages ~3.3 Ga by Sm-Nd method (Gopalan et al, 1990). Comparable age of 32813 Ma has been obtained by Wiedenback and Goswami (1994) from zircon collected from basement rocks that occur at about 9 km west of Jhamarkotra. Zircon overgrowth from basement gneissic rocks yielded an age of about 253640 Ma (Wiedenback and Goswami op.cit.). There are two different types of granitic intrusions that have been recorded from the basement gneisses. The older granitoids exposed at Untala and Gingla (Fig. 2.1) have given an age of about 2900 Ma by Rb-Sr method (Choudhury, 1984 and Shastry, 1992). The potash feldspar bearing Berach granite near Chittorgarh has yielded 2533 Ma age (Shastry, 1992). Emplacement of Berach granite probably indicates cratonisation of the Archaean basement. Due to disturbed nature of Rb-Sr systematics, the ages of Ahar river granite remained controversial (Crawford1970 and Shastry, 1992) till Goswami et al, (1996) determined 2615 Ma age by dating zircons. 2.3 Basement Cover Relationship The Archaean gneissic rocks constitute basement for several

metasedimentary basins of Proterozoic age in central and southeastern Rajasthan. The basement cover relationship has been well documented in the Udaipur region where metasedimentary rocks belonging to the Palaeoproterozoic Aravalli Supergroup lie unconformably over the basement gneisses. The nature of

Archaean basement and Proterozoic cover relationship observed in Rajasthan is summarized below: The basement cover contact in the east of Udaipur is represented over a greater part by a gently convex zone of ductile shearing that shows development of mylonites in both the gneisses and cover rocks (Naha and Roy, 1983 and Roy et al, 1985). At places it also marks the western extremity of the migmatitic front. Notwithstanding intense deformation at the contact at most of the places, unconformable relationship between basement and cover rocks is documented at a number of places around Udaipur. Heron (1953) reported polymictic conglomerates at the base of Aravalli sequence in the east of Udaipur. Looking at the areal extent of the basement-cover contact occurrences of conglomerate have been remarkably low. Nevertheless it does represent a period of erosion before onset of the Aravalli sedimentation. In addition, conglomerates have been mapped around Kanpur Maton, Ahar river granite and Sarara inlier (Fig. 2.2). The angular relationship between basement gneisses and cover Aravalli rocks is well documented at Jhamarkotra in the southeast and around Nathdwara in the north of Udaipur. The E-W trending bedding planes in quartzites that occur at the base of the Aravalli succession in Jhamarkotra make high angle with gneissic banding in the south of rock phosphate mine. At Nathuwas near Nathdwara, basal Aravalli quartzites make an angle with preAravalli quartzites in banded gneisses, implying unconformable relationship. A remarkable feature of the basement cover boundary is the occurrence of small discontinuous pockets of white mica schists that also contain kyanite

and fibrolite. These zones of high alumina rocks indeed trace out the basement - cover contact. Field relations and petrochemical characters indicate that these deposits (commercially sold as pyrophyllite) represent paleosols (Roy et al. 1985; Banerjee, 1992 and Srinivasa et al, 2001). There is distinct drop in the grade of metamorphism across the basementcover contact. The basement gneisses and amphibolitic lenticles show amphibolite grade against green schist facies of metamorphism in the overlying Aravalli rocks. A swarm of basic dykes occurs in the basement gneisses that are exposed in the Dhariawad region in southeastern Rajasthan. Absence of such dykes in cover rocks and their confinement in gneissic basement close to the contact region indicate unconformity represented by magmatic discordance. 2.4 Aravalli Supergroup The Aravalli rocks and their equivalent metasediments form distinct belts that rest unconformably over an Archaean basement of sialic composition (Fig. 2.1) The Aravalli succession is best developed between Nathdwara in north and Sarara in south, and this tract with Udaipur in centre can be considered type area for the Aravalli Supergroup (Fig. 2.2). The gneissic rocks forming basement lie to the east while western part of the Aravallis is bordered by quartzites that belong to the Gogunda Group of the Delhi Supergroup (Fig. 2.2). Heron (1953) gave stratigraphic succession that starts with basal quartzites (comglomeratic at places) followed by amygdaloidal basic volcanics and epidiorites, hornblende and chlorite schists, dark quartzite (local), phyllite with limestone lenticles around Udaipur and Zawar with local carbonaceous bands, limestone and calcareous sandstone in north of Udaipur and lastly a thick sequence of well banded phyllite that contains thin layers of quartzites. Based mainly on lithological similarity and overlapping relationships, Heron (op. cit.) mapped outliers of Delhi System and Raialo

Series in this type area of the Aravalli rocks. Later studies, unequivocally grouped these supposedly outlier as integral parts of the Aravalli succession (Naha and Halyburton, 1974; Roy et al, 1988; Gupta et al, 1980 and Sinha-Roy et al, 1998). Geological and structural mapping of a large tract by Roy and his coworkers led to recognition of three different types of carbonate rocks, one associated with basic metavolcanics around Sarara, the second show development of phosphate bearing stromatolites and the younger carbonates that host Pb-Zn mineralization in Zawar and Katar area. There is no unanimity in stratigraphic succession of the Aravalli Supergroup. Gupta et al. (1980, 1997) believed in consistently westward younging of metasedimentary rocks from east of Udaipur to the west close to Gogunda; while Roy et al. (1985) identified Ahar river granite as basement that lies to the northwest of Udaipur. Based on cross stratification, graded bedding and facing of stromatolitic columns and palaeogeographic studies Roy and Paliwal (1981) brought out palaeoshoreline during the Palaeoproterozoic period around Udaipur area. The distribution pattern of various lithological units is shown in the geological map (Fig. 2.2). Deb and Thorpe (2004) determined Pb-Pb model age of 2075 and 2150 Ma for galena that was associated with barite veins in basic metavolcanics near Delwara in the north of Udaipur. Since these metavolcanics occur at the base of Aravalli succession, the lower age limit of the Aravalli Supergroup can be placed at about 2.1 Ga, The upper age limit is constrained by dating of a prominent granite intrusion at Dharwal that yielded a Rb-Sr age of 2.0 Ga (Shastry, 1992). It may be mentioned here that the Pb-Pb model ages of the Zawar group of Pb-Zn deposits fall in the range between 1694 and 1712 Ma (Deb and Thorpe, op. cit.). The stratigraphic succession of Precambrian rocks from Rajasthan and northeastern Gujarat given by officers Geological Survey of India (Gupta et. al. 1980) is given in the following table

MARWAR SUPERGROUP Malani volcanic suite Malani plutonic suite VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP Erinpura granite and gneiss Godhra granite and gneiss DELHI SUPERGROUP Punagarh Group Sindreth Group Sirohi Group Sendra Ambaji synorogenic granite and granite gneiss and associated migmatite. Epidiorite, Kishangarh syenite, hornblende schists/amphibolite, pyroxene granulite and gabbro, ultramafics (Phulad ophiolite suite) Kumbhalgarh Group Ajabgarh Group Gogunda Group Alwar Group Unconformity in the northern portion with Bhilwara Supergroup whereas in south, structural discordance with Jharol Group. ARAVALLI SUPERGROUP Champaner Group Lunavada Group Udaipur, Salumbar, Udaisagar and Darwal granites, serpentinite, talc carbonate rocks, talc-chlorite schists. Jharol Group Dovda Group Nathdwara Group Synsedimentational Basic volcanism Bari Lake Group Kankroli Group Udaipur Group Synsedimentational basic vocanism Debari Group UNCONFORMITY BHILWARA SUPERGROUP Undifferentiated granites and dolerites Ranthambhor Group Berach granite and gneiss; Jahazpur granite Synsedimentational Basic Volcaniscs Rajpura-Dariba Pur-Banera Jahazpur Sawar Group Group Group Group Mafic & Ultramafic bodies & synorogenic granites Dolerite sills & Dykes Synsedimentational Basic volcanics (Untala & Gingla granites) Synsedimentational basic volcanics

Acidic, mafic and ultramafic bodies

Hindoli Group Mangalwar Complex Sandmata Complex Base of the Bhilwara Supergroup is not exposed and is believed to have been concealed under Vindhyan Supergroup (?)

2.5 Delhi Supergroup The typical NE-SW trend of the Aravalli Mountain Range is indeed the trend of Delhi rocks that form core of the range. The Delhi Supergroup rests uncomformably and /or with structural discordance over high grade banded gneisses and granulites in the northeastern part; and the Aravalli metasediments in the southeastern part of Rajasthan. In the northeast the Delhi rocks are exposed in a number of isolated basins while in the central and southwestern part the expanse of the Delhi Supergroup is more or less continuous upto northeastern Gujarat. Sinha-Roy et al (1998) divided the Delhi Fold Belt into two the North Delhi Fold Belt which includes Khetri, Jaipur-Bayana-Alwar basins and the South Delhi Fold Belt which occurs to the south of Ajmer. According to Sinha-Roy et al (op. cit.) the two belts have different geotectonic evolution. The Delhi Supergroup is divided into the Raialo, Alwar and Ajabgarh Groups in northeastern Rajasthan (Das Gupta, 1968 and Datta and Ravindra, 1980). In the south of Ajmer it is divided into Gogunda and Kumbhalgarh groups. Two more volcanosedimentary sequences occur to the west of the main AMR. They have been referred to as the Punagarh Group around Pali and Sindreth Group around Sirohi in southwestern Rajasthan. According to Gupta et al (1980) they represent the youngest members of the Delhi Supergroup. The Delhi Supergroup, the SDFB in particular contains a substantial amount of extrusive and intrusive magmatic activity. The western part of the SDFB contains metabasic and felsic volcanics that host several polymetallic base metal prospects. Zircon separated from felsic volcanics yielded ~ 1.0 Ga age by U-Pb method (Deb et al, 2001).

FIG. 2.1 : GEOLOGICAL MAP OF RAJASTHAN AND NORTHEASTERN GUJARAT

730 740 750 760 770

80 KM
Jhunjhunu

DELHI

280

280

Sikar

270
JAIPUR

270

Jodhpur

Aj

er

260

Beawar Bandanwara S AG SW J BN BH H

250

Sirohi DB Chittorgarh Pindwara U M

u Ab R d oa

AG - Agucha BN - Banera BH - Bhilwara BU - Bhukia B - Bhinder C - Champaner DB - Dariba DH - Dhariwad G - Gigla H - Hindoli J - Jahajpur M - Mangalwar S - Sandmata SR - Sarara SW - Sawar U - Untala

260

250

Udaipur Zawar

B G

Deccan trap Marwar Supergroup (<0.83 b.y)

DH

Ambaji

24

SR

240

BU Dungarpur

Malani volcanic and plutonic suite (0.75 b.y) Erinpura granite (0.83 b.y) Delhi Supergroup with granite and syenite (1.7 b.y to 0.85 b.y) Aravalli Supergroup with granite (2.5 b.y to 2.0 b.y) Bhilwara Supergroup/ Metasedimentary Belts/granite (3.0 b.y to 2.5 b.y)

23

Lunavada AHMEDABAD Jhabua

230

C Baroda

730

740

750

760

770

Compiled by Gupta et al., 1980 and Northeastern Rajasthan compiled by Banerjee and Ravindra, 1977)

FIG. 2.2 : GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE NATHDWARA - SARARA BELT (TYPE ARAVALLI SUPERGROUP) SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR LITHOLOGIC UNITS
18
N

17
DELHI UDAIPUR

N
KT

16 15
0 6 KMS

14
G

13
D

12 11 10

GOGUNDA

9
KB

B D DB G I J K KB KT M N U

BARI DELWARA DEBARI GORACH ISWAL JHAMARKOTRA KANPUR KABITA KATAR MADAR NATHDWARA UMRA

8 7 6 5 4 3
J U B DB

UDAIPUR K

2 1
JHAROL

ZAWAR

SARARA

1. Banded gneisses 2. Granitoids 3. Carbonate rocks 4. Quartzite - conglomerate 5. Metabasic volcanics 6. Quartzite 7. Dolomite 8. Carbonaceous phyllite 9. Argillaceous phyllite 10. Greywacke - phyllite 11. Conglomerate - arkose 12. Zawar dolomite 13. Machhlamagra quartzite 14. Slaty phyllite 15. Quartzite 16. Mica schist 17. Ultramafic rocks 18. Rocks of Delhi Supergroup

Volpe and MacDougall (1992) determined 1.3 to 1.4 Ga model Sm/Nd age of metabasalts that occur in the central part of the SDFB. There are two phases of granitic intrusions. One is represented by synorogenic granites that are dated 850 to 900 Ma (Tobisch et al, 1992). The important granitic bodies of this phase include Sendra, SadriRanakpur, Sai and Ambaji granites. The post-orogenic granites are represented by Erinpura phase which profusely intrudes the southwestern part of the SDFB. The stratigraphic succession of the Delhi Supergroup by Gupta et. al.(1980) is given in the following table:

Delhi Supergroup South-western Rajasthan and north-eastern Gujarat INTRUSIVES (Post Delhi) MALANI IGNEOUS SUITE (Volcanics and plutonic) ERINPURA GRANITE GODHRA GRANITE (exposed in Gujarat) PUNAGARH GROUP Sojat, Bambolai, Khambal and Sowania Foramtion SINDRETH GROUP (Angor and Goyali Formation)

DELHI SUPERGROUP

SIROHI GROUP

Jiyapura, Reodar, Ambeshwar and Khiwadi Fms.

SENDRA-AMBAJI GRANITE and GNEISS KISHANGARH SYENITE PHULAD OPHIOLITE SUITE KUMBHALGARH GROUP GOGUNDA GROUP Todgarh, Beawar, Kotra, Sendra, Ras, Barr, Basantgarh and Kalakot Formation Richeri, Antalia Formation and Kelwara

2.6 Malani Igneous Suite

Late Proterozoic (ca 750 Ma) Malani Igneous Suite represents felsic volcanic- dominated magmatic rocks that cover an area of over 50,000 sq km in western Rajasthan. It mainly comprises of subaerially emplaced felsic volcanics that are associated with post-Erinpura magmatic activity and pre Marwar (equivalents of upper trans-Vindhyan) sedimentation. Rhyolites and rhyodacites alone occupy about 30,000 sq km and probably constitute one of the most voluminous acid flow deposits not only in India but in the entire world. The other components in the Malani Igneous Suite include trachytes, dacites, pitchstone, welded tuffs and ignimberites. According to Bhushan and Chandrashekhar (2002) the cumulative thickness of volcanics exceeds 3.5 km at Siwana which is located at about 35 km to the NW of Sirohi. 3. METALLOGENY : DISTRIBUTION AND TECTONIC SETTING OF ORE DEPOSITS Early studies on economic geology described various attributes of mineral deposits and classified them mainly by taking cognizance of host rock and depth and temperature of their formation (see Bateman, 1992 for a succinct summary). Studies on mineral deposits occurring in Japanese archipelago, Andes and more importantly the discoveries detailing sulphide deposits in formation at sea floor and ocean floor bottoms led to beginning of understanding in spatial relationship between plate tectonics and occurrence of mineral deposits. With swelling of the geochronological database it was possible to punctuate timing of formation of mineral deposits in relation to plate tectonics. With increased geological knowledge, the applicability of plate tectonic theory is gaining acceptability in Proterozoic period. Palaeomagnetic studies in particular have led to understanding of assembly and break up of continental masses and movement of such plates even in Palaeoproterozoic time. Plate tectonic considerations have thus become an integral part of metallogenic studies and consideration of tectonic setting has assumed important role in making investment decisions by exploration agencies.

The ambit of plate tectonic theory is not just confined to hotspots, centres of spreading, subduction, transform faults and tectonics close to plate margins but it does include major structural features that are distinctly intracratonic. It only emphasizes that tectonic framework of regional geology is interpreted in terms of plate tectonic models. 3.1 Spatial Distribution of Ore Deposits Prior to the advent of Plate Tectonic Theory, the ore deposits were considered to be inhomogenously distributed in space. It was however, known that some areas in the Earths crust were richly endowed with specific ore deposits than the adjacent barren terrains. For example cupriferous tracts of Andes in South America and coal bearing belts that define transcontinental distribution of the Gondwana rocks, represented very large linear tracts that are richly studded with several workable deposits of copper and coal respectively. The term metallogenic province is used by economic geologists for such mineralized tracts of regional aerial extent. Wright (1992) defined a metallogenic province as a region of the crust generally more enriched with a variety of mineral deposits of different ages than are the adjacent terranes. A more extended version requires metallogenic provinces to constitute a specific geotectonic entity, show dominance of specific type of mineralization to such a geotectonic setting and also display intense nature of mineralization. Provinces may be monometallic or polymetallic and deposits may be isochronous or polychronous in time, isogenetic or polygenetic in origin and zoned or unzoned in space (Mookherjee, 1999). The concept of spatial distribution of ore deposits took a definitive shape when major tectonic domains related to generation and consumption of Earths tectonic plates were identified and specific mineral deposits were known to occupy such mega-tracts like the subduction-related porphyry copper deposits in

Andes or volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits bearing volcanic arc of Japanese archipelago. 3.2 Temporal Distribution of Ore Deposits Studies on temporal distribution of ore deposits takes cognizance of the known deposits since Precambrian and attempts to relate their tonnage proportions through geologic ages. Certain metal deposits like gold and iron (BIF) are overwhelmingly more abundant in Precambrian period than in the Phanerozoic. The term metallogenic epoch is invoked to describe intense mineralisation of specific metal deposits during particular geologic periods on global scale. Meyer (1985) has given age versus tonnage proportion of metal deposits of all major genetic types in various histograms for Cr, Ni, Fe, Ag, Au, Cu, Zn, Pb, U, Sn and Mo deposits of the world. Such studies bring out global trends of metallogenic epochs. For example gold metallogeny was more prolific during late Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic than in any other period. Likewise, BIF type iron ore deposits are generally restricted to the Early Palaeoproterozoic and unconformity-related U deposits are particularly abundant in Mesoproterozoic. Distribution pattern of metallic ores through geologic ages further reveal that some metals (Au, Cr, Ni, Fe) form deposits from Early Achaean itself while deposits of others (Pb, Sn, W, Mo, Hg, Sb) occur much later in geological history. Changing patterns in geothermal gradients and Earths atmosphere (oxygen and geochemical differentiation) are cited as some of the reasons in metal-specific metallogenic epochs. With increasing differentiation, the Earths crust developed a thick sialic component which is a prerequisite for operation of Plate Tectonic Theory and development of various rift-related repository basins of some of the giant metal deposits. 3.3 Plate Tectonic Concept in Relation to Mineral Deposits

There are two main repositories of metal deposits-the magmatic systems and sedimentary basins and generation of hydrothermal systems being product of the interaction between the two. The regional magmatic structures and development of different orders of basins can be interpreted in terms of plate tectonic models. Much of the understanding about mineral deposits and plate tectonics comes from the Phanerozoic terrains where such a relationship can be built with confidence. Important and well-studied terrains that have greatly contributed to the understanding of plate tectonic and mineral deposits are the great volcanic arc of Japan, ophiolitic belts of Greece and Oman, East African rift system and subduction-related terrain in Andes Mountain Chain. They represent well defined plate tectonic settings. Hutchinson (1990) has given relationship between plate tectonic regimes and some important type of deposits in Fig. 3.1. Important tectonic regimes and mineral deposits associated with them are described in the following sections. 3.3.1 Rift-Related Ore Deposits Continental rifts are common manifestation of regional zones of extensions in stabilized cratonic terrains. Rifts occurring in oceanic and arc setting also host important mineral deposits. The present section is, however, devoted mainly to continental rift settings. Dewey and Burke 1974) have emphasized that the continental rifting is a necessary initial step in operation of Wilson Cycle. Sawkins (1990) has dealt with metal deposits that are associated with early and advance stages of continental rifting. Geologic features in rift environments include:

Rapid sedimentation of clastic sediments that are often thick Development of anoxic episodes in many advanced rifts Tendency of evaporite to form at some stage of basin development. High heat flow regimes are typical of advance stage of rifting. Active extensional faulting during basin filling. Sawkins (op. cit.) has recognized early and advanced rift settings. The

early stages of rift systems are characterized by one or more of the characters like updoming, common presence of alkaline rocks including carbonatites, presence of breccia zones, presence of K-feldspar and albite-rich veins and development of cauldron type structures. Metal deposits associated with early stages of rifting include Breccia-filling Cu mineralisation such as at Messina copper deposit in South Africa (Sawkins and Rye, 1979). Disseminated and stratiform copper deposits in central part of Africa (The Zambian Copper Belt) and Kupferschiefer Cu deposits in Germany. PbZn ores in general are insignificant in early-formed rift settings. Disseminations and veinlet filling type Mo mineralisation such as in Oslo rift (Geyti and Schoenwandt, 1979) and in East Greenland (Nielson, 1978) In contrast to early stages of rifts, the advanced rifts constitute much larger structures that are characterized by thick sequences of dominantly clastic rocks (5 to 15 km). The other general characters of advanced rifts are Basin filling is generally accompanied by contemporaneous faulting that act as conduits for upwelling of ore bearing solutions in the basin.

There may be development of second or third order basins, which are more preferred repositories of metalliferous deposits.

Later deformational episodes tend to obscure basinal faults. In some cases such faults may act latter as locales of shearing.

Volcanism in intracontinental advance rifts generally does not attain significant proportions. On the other hand carbonaceous shales with biogenic carbon may form part of the sequence. Metallogenic characters of advance rifts include:

The ore bodies have high aspect ratios (the ratio between lateral extent and maximum stratigraphic width of ore body) and generally form tabular bodies.

The sulphide deposits in advance rift settings are Pb-Zn-Ag ores. Size of the deposits is one order more than other deposit types that makes them attractive targets for exploration.

Cu and Au lacking in such setting. Some of the examples of advanced stages of rifts are parts of the Red Sea,

and basins that contain some of the giant Pb-Zn deposits like Sullivan, and Broken Hill and Mississippi Valley Type deposits. 3.3.2 Arc-Related Ore Deposits Sawkins (1990) defines principal arcs as linear, typically continuous belts of batholiths, stocks and coeval volcanics generated above actively subducting lithospheric slabs. Geometry of arc systems varies with change in tectonic regimes. The tectonic regimes in turn are controlled by subducting plates. Based on the inclination of subducting plates and accompanying rollback, Dewey (1980) recognized three types of arcs (Fig. 3.2). Steeply dipping subducting plate leads to

development of extensional arcs, moderately dipping plates may result in neutral or compressional regimes in arc, while the shallow dipping subducting plates create active overthrusting of arc system on continental margins. The arc types exert control on magma genesis and eventually the metallogeny associated with arc sequences. For example extensional arcs are dominated by basaltic-andesite and basalt-dacite bimodal volcanic rocks while compressional arcs may generate andesite-dacite-rhyolite volcanic and associated tonalitic-granodioritic plutonic igneous rocks (Sawkins, 1990).

3.3.2.1 Principal Arc Related Deposits

Prominent mineral deposits associated with compressional arcs are porphyry type deposit particularly the one that straddle western margin of North and South America (Udeya and Nishiwaki, 1980 and Sillitoe, 1980). Porphyry copper deposits associated with calc-alkaline magmatism develop in this regime. Such deposits are generally low grade-high tonnage deposits that are major contributors of copper. In contrast to compressional arc systems involving continental margin, the island arc porphyry deposits cluster around diorite to quartz-diorite stocks. Copper deposits of Phillipine archipelago represent porphyry type metallogeny in island arc setting (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). Less common deposits associated with arc systems include cupriferous breccia pipe deposits, magnetite and tungsten skarn deposits and precious metal bearing epithermal deposits. In addition, some tin and tungsten deposits are associated with inner sides of principal arc deposits. 3.3.2.2 Arc-Related Rift Deposits Development of extensional tectonic regimes within the convergent plate regimes may lead to rifting. The Lau Basin and Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) in New Zealand present the modern analogues of arc-related rift setting. The TVZ contains huge amount of felsic volcanics (about 104 km3) that were erupted within the last one million years. The TVZ sustains precious metal bearing sinters that fall in the category of epithermal deposits. Indeed much of the understanding about epithermal systems has come from detailed studies on this spectacular volcanic zone (see Henley, 1985). In addition to the TVZ, the porphyry mineral deposits of the Colorado Mineral Belt are believed to be related to rifts that are spatially associated with back arcs in the western continental margin of United States. Bookstrom (1981) associated development of back arc rift as a fall out of ceased convergence at about 26 Ma in the Colorado Rocky Mountain region. Most of the large, volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits in the Palaeozoic Iberian Pyrite Belt in southern Europe were considered to be deposited in ensialic rifts

(Sawkins and Burke, 1980 and Sillitoe, 1982). Based on study of magmatism Munha (1983) favoured an early back arc rifting environment for VMS deposit bearing Iberian Pyrite Belt. 3.3.3.3 Kuroko-Type Massive Sulphide Deposits The Kuroko type polymetallic massive sulphide deposits constitute an important class of the volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits that are associated with submarine emplaced volcanism. Sediment form an important part of the deposit sequences. The Kuroko deposits form cluster in the northern part of the Japanese archipelago, which is one of the most well studied arc system (Franklin et al, 1981 and Ohmoto, 1996). The emplacement of dacite andesite type volcanism and also in some parts rhyolite basalt bimodal volcanics, are linked to rifting that effected subsidence and eventually formation of massive sulphide deposits at volcanic intervals (see Martin and Piwinskii, 1972 and Silltoe, 1982). The general characters of Kuroko type deposit are shown in Fig. 3.3.

3.3.4 Mineral Deposits Related to Divergent Plate Boundaries Sea floor spreading is a major geodynamic process that drives tectonic cycles including subduction and as such all major crustal level structures including metalliferous basins are in some way or the other are related to it. This section outlines salient features of mineral deposits that are associated with spreading centers or divergent plate boundaries. The present day oceans represent spreading center that generate new crust (oceanic crust) along mid oceanic ridges. Much of the knowledge about petrologic and geochemical features of oceanic crust comes from study of mafic-ultramafic complexes (ophiolites) that appear as obducted masses in young orogenic sutures (Coleman, 1977 and Constantinou, 1980); and also from direct study of mid

oceanic ridges (East Pacific Rise Study group, 1981). Discovery of black smokers in proximity to mid oceanic ridges has emphasized the time and space relationship between formation of massive sulphides and divergent plate boundaries. Studies on ocean floor have brought out several locales of sulphide accumulations. Well-studied sites include the East Pacific Rise (EPR), Juan Fuca Ridge (Normark et al, 1983) and also the Ninety East Ridge in Indian Ocean. The Red Sea is also considered to be zone of incipient spreading and is known to possess metalliferous accumulations (Degens and Ross, 1969). However, economic deposits that are mined for metals are from inland ophiolite complexes that has basic volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits. Important ophiolite-hosted massive sulphides include the Cyprus type deposits in the Cretaceous Troodos Massif (Constantinou, op. cit.), Semail ophiolite in Oman and late Proterozoic ophiolites in Bou Azzer in Morocco (Leblanc, 1981). The massive sulphide associated with such oceanic crust are pyrite-dominated Cu-Zn bearing sulphides that are conspicuously devoid of lead component. Lithosequence in ophiolitic deposits is dominated by mafic-ultramafic rocks like harzburgite, dunite, ultramfic cumulates, gabbro, sheared dykes and the overlying pillow lavas. Thin veneers of siliceous sediments representing ocean bottom sediments form part of the lithologic ensemble. In addition to Cu-Zn (Au) deposits, the ophiolitic complexes may contain chromite deposits such as the one that occurs in late Precambrian ophiolite in Arabian Nubian Shield. The rich cobalt deposits at Bou Azzer in Morocco are associated with late Proterozoic ophiolite in Trans-Atlas Mountains.

4. ORE GENESIS AND DEPOSIT TYPES 4.1 Ore Genesis Ore genesis deals with various attributes that provide direct or indirect evidence related to formation of ore deposits. It is outcome of simultaneous consideration of detailed studies involving geological, geochemical, petrological, isotopic and time-space relationship between ores and their repository set up. The following attributes are important in understanding genesis of ore deposits: Size and shape of repository basin. Tectonic setting of the basin. Structural relations between ore body and the host rock. Stratiform Stratabound Cross-cutting relationships It is often combination of more than one type of relationship. Recognition of primary relict structures. Remobilation of ores. Isotopic studies. Sulphur isotopes are used in estimating role of magmatic and seawater sulphates in the genesis of sulphides. Lead isotopic ratios
207

Pb/204Pb are used for assessing source of metals.

Fluid inclusion studies for determining salinity and temperature of formation of ore fluids.

Recognition of distinctive lithological units. Geochemical indicators Timing of ore formation

Syngenetic vs Epigenetic Age of ore deposit formation vs age of host or causative rock. Dating of ores-Rb-Sr, Pb-Pb and Re-Os. Magmatic deposits are thought to be consanguineous with the host rocks and their formation is linked with petrogenesis. 4.2 Deposit-Types Based on various geological characteristics including genetic aspects most of the ore deposit may belong to one of the following types: 4.2.1 Volcanogenic Massive Sulphides (VMS) Deposits They are also referred to as the Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulphide (VHMS) deposits. The VHMS deposits are mainly hosted by volcanic rocks or are developed in the direct proximity to the submarine-emplaced volcanic rocks. The term, VMS deposits on the other hand is used for massive sulphide deposits that form part of a volcanosedimentary sequence and may not be directly hosted in the volcanic rocks or their hydrothermally altered products. At present the term VMS type is being used in more liberal sense and a deposit may be called a VMS type provided a magmatic source can be recognized in association with massive sulphides and the cause and effect relationship can be demonstrated between the two. An idealized cross section of a VHMS deposit is shown in Fig. 4.1. The general attributes of the VMS deposits are summarized below: >50 % sulphides can be termed massive sulphides. Cause and conditions One or more massive sulphide lenses rooted in stockwork, when not strongly deformed. effect relationship with volcanics, emplaced in submarine

Intense hydrothermal alteration in footwall. Generally occur at breaks in volcanicity. Variable size of deposits from a few thousand tones to >100 Mt.

Generally deca-km size volcanic structure is required for generation of a sizeable deposit.

Convection currents effected by seawater serve in leaching metals from the volcanics bearing lithopile.

Genarally polymetallic base metal (Pb-Zn-Cu) and may contain Au Sn. Sulphur mainly from seawater. Mineralogy: Dominant mineral: pyrite Abundant mineral: Chalcopyrite + sphalerite + galena Frequent minerals: Pyrrhotite + magnetite + hematite + cassiterite + sulphosalts. Gangue: Quartz, sericite, chlorite, barite, gypsum, carbonates, talc, tremolite, cordierite etc. Important VMS belts of the world are the late Archaean Abitibi Belt in

Canada, Palaeozoic Iberian Pyrite Belt in southern Europe, Tasmanian Belt in Australia and mid Proterozoic Fennoscandinavian belt in northern Europe. The Mid-Proterozoic South Delhi Fold Belt in western India and Betul Belt in central India are the two promising belts that host several occurrences and small VMS deposits. 4.2.2 Sedimentary Exhalative (SEDEX) Type Deposits The term SEDEX is derived from SEDIMENTARY EXHALATIVE deposits. They are defined as sediment-hosted sulphide deposits that formed from the discharge of hydrothermal fluids onto the sea floor. They differ from VMS

type deposits in lacking a substantial volcanic component, absence of conspicuous hydrothermal alteration in the footwall and in being bimetallic (Zn-Pb) in contrast

to the commonly observed polymetallic (Zn-Pb-Cu) nature of volcanogenic deposit. An idealized section showing the principal attributes of most SEDEX deposits is shown in Fig. 4.2. The general characters of SEDEX deposits are:

The bulk of the ore contained in a stratiformed sulphide body has a high aspect ratio i.e. the ratio of lateral extent of the body to its maximum stratigraphic thickness. Most of the Sedex deposits have an aspect

(length -width) ratio of 20 or more. Most common morphology is represented by sheets or tabular lenses of stratiform sulphides up to a few tens of metres in thickness and a more than a km in length. Most SEDEX deposits are hosted by organic-rich sedimentary rocks. Role of extensional faults is important in discharging hydrothermal fluids. The stratiform body composed of sulphides, other hydrothermal products such as carbonate, chert, barite and apatite and non-hydrothermal clastic rocks are sedimentary rocks. The dominant sulphide minerals in most of the deposits is pyrite although in some deposits pyrrhotite is most dominant. The main economic minerals are sphalerite and galena, although chalcopyrite is also present in substantial amounts in some of the deposits ( Mt. Isa Cu and Rammelsberg). SEDEX deposits are important resources for Zn and Pb and accounts for more than 50% and 60% of the worlds reserves of these elements respectively. The proportion of the worlds primary production of Zn and Pb from SEDEX deposits, however, is significantly lower due to finegrained nature of ores that leads to poor recovery of metals. The main economic minerals of SEDEX deposits are sphalerite (ZnS) and galena (PbS) and the most typical manifestation of the ores is as regularly layered sulphides that are interbedded with other hydrothermal products, such as chert or barite and host lithologies.

The average size of Sedex deposits which is about an order of magnitude greater than VHMS or MVT deposits also contributes to the disparity between the ratio of in ground reserves to production rates for Sedex deposits.

Sedex deposits are generally larger in size and higher in base metal grades compared to VHMS deposits. Sedex deposits also commonly contain relatively low iron sulphide sulphide, which makes them more attractive from an environmental viewpont.

The SEDEX deposits are generally categorized as Broken Hill type and Irish type. The Broken Hill deposit is the largest and richest Pb-Zn deposit with reserves standing at 180 Mt and metal contents placed at 11.3% Pb, 9.8% Zn and 0.2% Cu. They are characterised by presence of chemogenic sediments rich in manganese and iron. Rajpura-Dariba and Agucha in central Rajasthan are examples of SEDEX type of deposits.

The Irish type SEDEX deposits are formed slightly below tha sea floor and are hosted predominantly by carbonates. They may often show epigenetic features (Goodfellow and Lydon, 2007).

4.2.3 Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) Deposits The MVT deposits are considered to be a subtype of SEDEX deposits. The salient features of MVT deposits are : MVT deposits are epigenetic, stratabound, carbonate-hosted ore bodies composed predominantly of sphalerite, galena, iron sulphide and carbonates. Deposits occur mainly in dolostones as open space fillings, collapse breccia and /or replacement of carbonate host rock.

The deposits are epigenetic, having been emplaced after lithification of rocks.

MVT deposits originate from saline basinal metalliferous fluids at temperatures in the range of 75 to 200 C.

Located in carbonate plateform rift-related settings, typically in undeformed orogenic foreland rocks.

Individual deposits generally less than two million tonnes, are zincdominated and possess grades that rarely exceed 10% (Pb-Zn).

The deposits characteristically occur in clusters, referred to as districts.

4.2.4 Porphyry-Type Deposits Porphyry deposits are important source of copper and molybdenum in the world. A generalized model of porphyry copper deposit is given in Fig. 4.3. The main attributes of porphyry deposits are :

Porphyry deposits are large, low- to medium grade deposits in which primary ore minerals are dominantly structurally controlled and which are spatially and genetically related to felsic to intermediate porphyritic intrusions.

They are worlds most important source of Cu and Mo, and are major source of Au, Ag and Sn.

Large size, structural control (veins, vein sets, stockworks, fractures and breccias) distinguish porphyry deposits from skarn and epithermal type deposits.

Associated igneous rocks vary in composition from diorite-granodiorite to high silica granites that are mesothermal.

Porphyry deposits occur in a series of extensive, relatively narrow, linear metallogenic provinces.

Generally associated with Mesozoic to Cenozoic orogenic belts in western parts of North and South Americas.

Most favoured tectonic settings are principal arcs at active continental margins.

4.2.5 Greenstone-Hosted Quartz-Carbonate Vein Deposits

The greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are also referred to as a class within the broad category of lode gold deposits that are essentially hydrothermal deposits (Lydon, 2007). These deposits represent deeper part of the lode gold system, the upper part is represented by the epithermal gold deposits. Reduced intrusion-related deposits occupy the intermediate position between the two. Au is the principal commodity in the lode gold deposits. The general attributes of the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are outlined below:

These deposits are formed at depths of 5 to 10 km, and are variably termed as orogenic, mesothermal and shear zone-controlled gold deposits.

They consist of structurally-controlled quartz-carbonate vein deposits that typically occur in green schist facies metamorphic rocks.

The majority of deposits are adjacent to major deep-seated reverse oblique faults, particularly dilational zones of various tectonic settings.

The gold deposits are associated with large-scale carbonate alteration, particularly along major faults.

The mineralisation generally took place during later stages of orogenic crustal shortening post-dating peak metamorphism of the host rocks.

The mineralisation shows affinity with felsic to intermediate intrusions of the lode gold district.

Most orogenic gold deposits were formed during the intervals 2800 to 2550 Ma, 2100 to 1800 Ma and 600 to 50 Ma.

Golden Mile complex in Kalgoorlie, Australia is the largest deposit of this category with more than 1800 tons of Au. The Kolar Gold deposits in India are also included in this category of deposits.

The average grade varies from 5 to 15 g/t and recovery rate is about 90% of contained gold. Au/Ag ratio 5-10.

4.2.6 Reduced Intrusion Related Gold Deposits The reduced intrusion related gold deposits fall in the broad category of lode gold deposits. Important attributes of such type of deposits are : This term is restricted to low-grade deposits associated with reduced granitoids that occur on the foreland side of Phanerozoic continental arcs. They are formed at 1 to 5 km depth, generally in the same way as porphyry deposits. The deposits have direct genetic link with a cooling felsic intrusion during their formation The most characteristic feature of the RIRG is intrusion-hosted, sheeted array of thin, low- sulphide quartz veins with a Au-Bi-Te-W signature which typically comprise bulk tonnage, low grade Au resources. The reduced state of intrusion is characterised by pyrrhotite, and quartz veins that host methane-rich intrusions. 4.2.7 Epithermal Deposits These deposits also constitute a type of hydrothermal deposits that are generally associated with younger volcanic and sub-volcanic rocks commonly in the island arc setting. It is one of the type of lode gold deposits that are most

intensely studied due to availability of such systems that are operative in the present time. Salient features of epithermal deposits are: Epithermal Au (Ag) deposits form in the near-surface environment, from hydrothermal systems typically within 1.0 Km of Earths surface. They are commonly found associated with volcanism. Hot spring deposits both liquid and vapour dominated geothermal systems are commonly associated with epithermal deposits. The characteristically shallow environment is marked by rapid changes in temperature and pressure of hydrothermal fluids that may be accompanied by boiling and mixing with other fluids. Average Au grade varies between 1 and 10 ppm. Epithermal deposits may also be characterised by presence of other volatile elements like Hg, Sb etc. Meteoric water is an important constituent of hydrothermal fluids that form epithermal ore deposits. Low 18O/16O isotope ratio (against +5 18O in magmatic waters) provides good signature of role of meteoric water in ore fluids. High sulphidation (containing S, C, Cl) type also called quartz (-kaolinite)alunite, alunite-kaolinite, Au, or high sulphur forms part of the epithermal system. Ex. Taupo Volcanic Zone i New Zealand and Puga Valley in India. Low sulphidation type is characterized by occurrence of adularia (low temperature K-feldspar of rhombohedral shape) sericite in hydrothermal assemblage. centres of magmatism and

Deposits are generally linked with continental volcanism or magmatism that occur mostly in principal arc terrains. From exploration point of view it is important to recognize sinters and

hydrothermal alteration associated with zig-saw puzzle type breccias. Intensive or subvolcanic magmatic structures that are younger in age are favourable targets for exploration. The epithermal system, being close to the surface of the Earth, is likely to be eroded in older volcano-plutonic magmatic terrains. Diagnostic features of the epithermal systems are: Sinter deposits Presence of lamellar calcite.

Quartz pseudomorphs Vug-fillings and botryoidal features. Zig-saw puzzle type breccias. Sb, As and Hg act as pathfinder elements for epithermal type deposits

during geochemical exploration. An idealized model for epithermal type precious metal deposits is shown in Fig. 4.4 4.2.8 Magmatic Ore Deposits Except placer deposits most of the deposit types are indirectly related to various magmatic sources. However, the magmatic deposits differ from various other deposit types in the sense that ores are physically confined to the magmatic rocks and as a corollary are generally ascribed to the processes of crystallization from magma. The important attributes of magmatic deposits are outlined below: Ore deposits generally crystallize directly from the magma and the resultant ore deposits are consanguineous with the magmatic rocks. The deposits are also called orthomagmatic deposits. The deposits can be considered as part of the rock and its genesis can be linked with petrogenesis. Formation of such deposits does not involve any significant hydrothermal activity and therefore, wall rock alteration around ore bodies is generally lacking. Enrichment of metals to ore grades in magmatic deposits necessitates induction of some sulphur from surrounding sources. Likewise, mild hydrothermal fluxes may be generated within the ambience of magmatic deposits like in deposits of REE fluorcarbonates that are associated with carbonotite magmatism.

Deposits of magmatic origin include nickel, copper, platinum group of elements, chromite, Fe-Ti-V , REE and diamonds that occur variously as sulphides, oxides and fluorcarbonates in mafic ultramfic rocks, carbonatites and kimberlites.

Nickle, copper and PGE are associated with sulphide concentrations in mafic and ultramafic rocks that generally generate in upper mantle. Meteorite-impact generated mafic sheets that contain Ni-Cu deposits in Sudbury in Canada are also grouped as magmatic deposits. Grade of nickel in Sudbury deposits varies from 0.7 to 3.0 % and Cu from 0.2 to 2.0 %.

The world class deposits of platinum and associated elements occur in the Merensky Reef that is associated with Bushveld Complex in South Africa. The most remarkable feature of these deposits is the consistency of the cumulate layers that form the deposit. The grade of PGE ranges from 4.9 to 7.3 g/t with Pt/Pd ratio in Merensky Reef being always greater than 1.

Chromite deposits in Sukinda Ultramafic Complex in Naushai area, Orissa are an example of orthomagmatic deposits.

4.2.9 Weathering-Related Deposits Weathering-related ore deposits form due to surficial processes that lead to concentration of ore minerals into a workable deposits. Any ore mineral that can withstand chemical corrosion may form placer-type deposits. Oxidation (and hydration) is the most common process that decomposes various metallic sulphide minerals. Selective removal of undesirable constituents may lead to enrichment of useful components that eventually form ore deposits. Deposits affliated to palaeoweathering surfaces may also be described as unconformity-related deposits. Some of the attributes of weathering and unconformity ore deposits are given below:

Preservation of weathering-related deposits necessitates a favourable topographic set up. They are generally blanket-type deposits that have limited thickness.

Weathering processes lead to removal of undesirable elements and enrichment of resistate minerals that form deposits. Bouldery manganese ores, kyanite-sillimanite, diamond, gold and cassiterite may form this type of deposits.

Secondary deposits formed due to hydration related to weathering include Fe-Al, Mn-oxides, Ni-silicates, Ti and Au-bearing laterites etc. They include neoformed authigenic products (Mookherjee, 1999). Bauxite deposits of India notably the East Coast bauxite is one of the fine example of such type of deposits that have huge reserves of aluminium ore. Lumkrythang deposit over the Sung valley alkaline ultramafic-carbonatite complex in Meghalaya is a high Ti bearing bauxite that is valued as ore for Ti. Most of the Nb metal supplies are met from the weathering related ore deposits of the world.

5. GEOLOGY OF ZAWAR LEAD ZINC BELT The area around Zawar village in southern Rajasthan, western India is studded with several impressive old workings that were important source of zinclead-silver ores in ancient India. It has a glorious history in mining and metallurgy of base metal ores and silver (Fig. 5.1). More importantly, the ancient inhabitants of Zawar hold distinction of perfecting the art of smelting Zn-Pb-Ag ore and in producing zinc metal several centuries earlier than the western countries. Presently it has several underground mines that produced Pb Zn ores. 5.1 Regional Geological Set up The Palaeoproterozoic Aravalli Supergroup forms southern part of the Aravalli Mountain Range in western India. The regional trend of the Aravalli rocks is controlled by disposition of pattern of the banded gneissic rocks that form basement in the east and southeast of Udaipur. The NE-SW trending rocks in Nathdwara-Delwara sector gradually swerve to N-S in Udaipur and to its immediate south, beyond which it shows a syntaxial-type bend around Zawar. In Zawar area the regional trend of rocks is WSW-ESE that veers to NW-SE in the southeastern Rajasthan. This sharp change in the regional trend of Zawar area is attributed to reorientation of regional stress system due to presence of a rigid Archaean basement inlier around Sarara (Fig. 2.1). 5.2 Stratigraphy of the Zawar Area The rock sequence exposed in the Zawar forms southern extension of the type Aravalli Supergroup around Udaipur. Subsequent to Herons mapping Strackzek and Srikantan (1966) mapped the Zawar area in detail for understanding the geology of the lead-zinc mineralization. They presented a detailed lithological and stratigraphic account of the rocks. Strackzek and Srikantan (op.cit.) divided

Zawar sequence of rocks into two series, the lower Sisa Magra Series and the upper Tiri Series. Sisa Magra Series This series occupies Siasa Magra (magra in local dialect means a prominent hill) and Dantali Magra in southeastern part of the Zawar village Fig. 5.2). This series is very proximal to the Sarara inlier that exposes schists and gneisses of preAravalli age. The series comprises of two stages The Sisa Magra Stage and Dantali Stage that are separated by an unconformity. The Sisa Magra Stage comprises thickly bedded polymictic well sorted conglomerate and grits. The conglomerates contain angular to well rounded pebbles in quartz matrix. They occur as thick wedge-shaped deposit bordering northern part of the Sarara inlier. The Dantali Stage mainly comprises well bedded, medium-grained, white quartzite and brown ferruginous dolomite. Tiri Series The Tiri Series is predominantly argillaceous with substantial amount of quartzite, greywacke and dolomite. The series is divided into five stages. The Kanpur Stage mainly comprises of fine-grained well-bedded quartzite with subordinate grayish brown dolomite. The two lithological units grade laterally into each other. Several primary sedimentary structures are observed in phyllite, siltstone and dolomite (Fig. 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5). The Kathalia Stage has sharp contact with the Kanpur Stage. The phyllite constitutes bulk of the stage with dolomite that form thin yet fairly persistent band. The grayish green phyllite grades upwards to carbonaceous phyllites. The Mandli Stage comprises dark grey conglomeratic greywackes which contain minor intercalations of phyllite and impure quartzites. In Mochia and Balaria areas the

gritty grewacke are dolomitic while at other places they are siliceous. Several primary sedimentary structures including the characteristic graded bedding and flame and load cast structures are recorded in greywacke. The Borai Magra Stage is subdivided into two members, the Mochia Member and the Harn Quartzite Member. The dolomite and its variants exposed in Mochia and Balaria hills constitute the most important rock types that host economically significant lead-zinc mineralisation. Dolomite and its variants include fine-grained bluish grey dolomite, arkosic dolomite and conglomeratic dolomite (Fig. 5.6). The later variant occurs on Mochia Magra, north of Rava and at Zawarmala hill. The Harn quartzite derives its name from Harn Magra. The fine to medium grained Harn quartzite is conglomeratic at places. Its contact with the rocks of the Mochia Member appears tectonic and presumably faulted. The Zawar Stage rocks overly Harn quartzite. This stage comprises phyllites and slates with minor interbands of quartzite, dolomite and its facies variants. An important rock of the Zawar Stage is dolomite quartzite breccia that form an unusual lithounit in the sense that it is conformable to the enclosing phyllites and is clast-supported with low matrix content. In all probability it appears to be an autoclastic breccia that formed along longitudinal faults. The Rava quartz-phyllite occurs to the northeast of Zawar village. It is a well-foliated rock that contains quartz, sericite and feldspar. Metadolerite occurs as dykes in Kathalia carbonaceous phyllite and dolomite. Presence of visible sericite and chlorite indicates that it has undergone some metamorphism unlike the relatively fresh dolerite dyke that cuts across the mineralized body at Mochia Magra. The dyke of dolerite shows branching and shows remarkable depthward persistence. 5.3 Structure and Mineralisation

The geometry and orientation of minor and major structures in the Zawar area differ considerably from rest of the Aravalli rocks in southern Rajasthan. High percentage of exposures and favourable lithological attributes like presence of fine-grained laminated to thinly bedded quartzite, dolomite-phyllite intercalations, phyllitic dolomite and excellent state of preservation of structural features make Zawar a unique place for study of interrelationship between structure and mineralisation. Besides, presence of extensive old workings and ongoing underground mining operations allow understanding of zinc-lead mineralisation in the Zawar belt. In most of the lithological units the primary structures like bedding, thin alternation of layers various composition, graded bedding and colour banding etc. are well developed at most of the places. A very thinly spaced cleavage is developed in most of the rocks at Zawar. Presence of several set of cleavages, deformed lineations and refolded folds are some of the evidence that indicate polyphase deformation in Zawar area. A large scale first generation fold (F1) is mapped in the western part of the Zawarmala Hill. It is an inclined fold that plunges moderately towards SW with North-South axial trace (Fig. 5.7). The Zawar area records a major departure in the orientation of axial trace of the large scale second generation folds. Mochia and also its extension in west at Rava show E-W axial trace of large-scale second generation fold (F2). Such a trend virtually marks a syntaxial bend in the otherwise NE-SW to N-S regional trend of the Aravalli F2 folds. The swerving of the regional Aravalli trend is attributed to the presence of a rigid basement at Sarara that lies to the immediate south of Zawar. Modal plunges and axial traces of different generation of folds are shown in Fig 5.7 Some of the structural features developed in the Zawar and adjoining areas are shown in figures 5.8 to 5.17.

5.4 Genesis of Zawar Pb-Zn Ores Zinc-lead mineralization was known to inhabitants of Zawar area about 2000 years ago. Presence of several old workings and heaps and mounds of retorts bear testimony to the once flourishing metal industry at old Zawar village. Most of the Zn-Pb (Ag) mineralization in Zawar area is confined to dolomite and its variants that belong to the Baroi Magra Stage. Small occurrences of sulphide mineralization are also reported from quartzite and carbonaceous phyllite (Strackzek and Srikanatan, 1966 and Bhattacharya, 2004). However, the economically significant mineralization occurs in dolomite and is thus stratabound.

Fig. 5.2 : Geological Map of Zawar Area, Udaipur District, Rajasthan

MOCHIA MAGRA

240 22'

D D
BAL AR IA
G MA

240 22'

RA

HA

M RN

AG

RA

ZAWAR

TH KA

AL

A AM

GR

ZAWARMALA

240 19' 730 40'

DANTALI MAGRA

MD
AGR BOR AI M A

240 19' 730 45'

2 Km

TS TS TS TS TS TS TS TS TS SMS SMS

Borai Magra Stage fine grained quartzite Borai Magra Stage dolomitic conglomerate Borai Magra Stage arkosic dolomite Borai Magra Stage grey dolomite Mandli Stage grewacke and its variants Kathalia Stage dolomite Kathalia Stage phyllite Kanpur Stage quartzite Kanpur Stage dolomite Dantali Stage massive to well bedded quartzite Sisa Magra Stage gritty and conglomeratic quartzite SMS = Sisa Magra Series TS = Tiri Series TS TS TS TS TS TS TS TS

D MD

Dolerite Meta dolerite Zawar Stage Rawa quartz - phyllite Zawar Stage phyllite Zawar Stage dolomite Zawar Stage quartzite Zawar Stage conglomerate Zawar Stage autoclastic breccia with dolomite and quartzite Borai Magra Stage Harn quartzite Borai Magra Stage carbonaceous and dolomitic phyllite

Map after Straczek and Srikantan, GSI,1966

Surface indications of mineralization include presence of oxidation zones and limonitic veins. Well developed gossans are rare. At places the sulphide veins can be

observed a few centimeters below the surface. Iron sulphides are generally less abundant than the sphalerite and galena. Banded pyrite-sphalerite ores are reported from Zawarmala area. Zone of oxidation approximating to weakly developed gossan occur only over Zawarmala deposit. Sphalerite and galena are the major

ore minerals in Zawar ores. At places minor chalcopyrite is associated with sphalerite. Pyrite, arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite occur as associated minerals. Extensive data are available on size, shape and disposition pattern of zinclead ore bodies of Zawar area. Detailed mapping of eastern part of Mochia Hill indicates that longer axis of old workings make an angle with the primary layering. Their depthward extension appears to be parallel to plunge of F2 folds. In plan some of the old workings virtually demarcate zone of extension that are geometrically related to extension accompanying dextral shears. The geological plan at 240 mRL in Mochia mine clearly brings out discordant and anastomosing nature of zinc-lead ore bodies (Fig. 5.18). Their stratabound nature is also obvious in plan. A cross section through the Mochia mine also reveals that despite anastomosing nature of ore bodies the mineralization is confined to dolomites (Fig. 5.19). Barring banded sphalerite-pyrite ores that simulate primary layering at Zawarmala, the zinc-lead mineralization, by and large is remobilized along favourable structural locales. Sarkar and Mukherjee (2004) have reported

cataclastic fabric displayed by tensional fracturing of pyrite aggregates, cataclastic flow in sphalerite and dislocation creep in galena. Banerjee et al (1998) believed that bulk of the Zawarmala mineralization was translocated into en-echelon pattern in Mochia - Balaria sector. They attributed such a distribution pattern to R-shears and extensional fractures that were related to development of F3 folds. It may be important to mention here that no breccia type ore has been reported from Zawar area. Initial studies on zinc-lead mineralization in Zawar invoked hydrothermal origin (Ghosh, 1957 and Mookherjee, 1964). Granite intrusions were considered responsible for generation of ore-bearing hydrothermal fluxes. However, confinement of bulk of the economically significant Zn-Pb mineralisation in dolomite and its variants and non-availability of granites in proximity to sulphide

mineralization on surface or in underground sections, are some of the factors that do not support hydrothermal origin of mineralization. Detailed metallogenic studies indicate that sulphide mineralization in Zawar area occurs in carbonaceous phyllite and dolomite and its variants. In carbonaceous phyllite it is mainly pyrite with minor amounts of sphalerite and galena. In addition to sulphides Basu (1976) reported native sulphur and gypsiferous and ferruginous shales (Phyllites) from eastern part of the Mochia. The native sulphur alternated with carbonaceous matter. Several depositional and diagenetic features have been observed in zinc-lead ores of Zawar (Chauhan, 1976 and Poddar, 1965). The depositional features recorded include rhythmites of pyrite-sphalerite (galena) laminated pyrite carbonaceous phyllite and slump structures. Important diagenetic features in ores are flame structures, framboidal pyrite and pyrite replacing sphalerite forming atoll structure (Bhattacharya, 2004). In contrast, dolomite, the main host rock shows vein type ore which often makes an angle with the primary layering. Cognizance of the following geological features is required before proposing genesis of the Zawar lead-zinc ores: There is no volcanic component in the lithosequence of Zawar mines area. There are no granitic intrusions mapped in Zawar area. Nor are they reported from underground mine sections. Economically significant mineralisation is stratabound hosted by dolomites and its variants. The higher values of Zn and Pb in bedrock dolomite are 380 ppm and 45 ppm respectively (Sarkar and Banerjee, 2004). There is general paucity of iron sulphides in the ore assemblages. As a consequence there is no development of pronounced zones of oxidations. Pyrite-rich base metal poor mineralisation occurs in carbonaceous phyllites that occur as thin layers in dolomite.

There is no report of solution breccias in carbonates and breccia-fill ores are conspicuously lacking.

The depositional environment deduced from the lithologic attributes indicate that Zawar metasediments were deposited in a basin that fluctuated from shallow to deep water conditions. Presence of gypsum and ferruginous shales alongwith native sulphur and proximity of rocks to the Sarara inlier indicate shallow depositional environment. Absence of stromatolites and presence of greywacke in the sequence are, however, suggestive of deep water conditions for deposition of a part of Zawar mine sequence. Probably Zawar rocks were deposited in a basin that fluctuated from shallow to deep water conditions.

Sulphur and C-O isotope values in sulphides and carbonates of Zawar area show considerable variations. These values indicate normal marine signatures to the effect of biogenic activity as indicated by presence of light carbon (see Sarkar and Banerjee, 2004 and references therein).

There are strong evidence of remobilization of ores. Lead isotopes available on Zawar ores indicate that the lead is more radiogenic (207 Pb/
204

Pb ~15.68) and can be interpreted as derived from

sialic basement rocks. The above evidence suggest that the Pb-Zn metals available in the host dolomite and also in carbonaceous phyllite formed proto-ore that was later remobilized in dilational or extensional fractures developed during deformation of Zawar rocks. Dewatering of basinal fluids was probably responsible for remobilization of ore and formation of economic grade of Pb-Zn mineralization.

Fig. 5.1 Retorts used by ancient miners for Zinc smelting, Invention of Zinc smelting has taken place at Zawar. Location : Furnace site preserved by HZL, Zawar

Fig. 5.3 : Bedding in Zawar phyllite having meta siltstone and quartizitic inter bands. Note the

Fig. 5.4 Load cast at the contact and metasiltstone, Zawar Mine

of dolostone Sequence.

presence of load cast structures. Location: Near GSI Training Institute, Zawar.

Location : Rava, north of old Zawar Village, Udaipur district

Fig. 5.5 : Channel fill in quartzite with interbands of phylite. Bedding in channel fill conforms to the shape of the channel. Location Nala Section, East of Training Institute campus, Zawar

Fig. 5.6 : Polymictic conglomerate having clasts of granite, quartzite and phyllite embedded in carbonate matrix. The conglomerate occurs at the contact of greywacke and the dolostone hosting lead - zinc mineralisation. East Mochia, Zawar

Fig. 5. 8 : Very tight isoclinal reclined folds (AF1) in bedding of dolomite. Note thickening at hinges and attenuated limbs. Manpur, SE of Zawar.

Fig. 5.9 : Tight S-shaped (AF1) folds in bedding of dolomite. Note shearing parallel to axial plane. Manpur, SE of Zawar.

Fig. 5.10 : Bedding - Cleavage relationship. Cleavage is represented by dark seams of insoluble material (Pressure solution cleavage) Apparent shift in cleavage is also visible. Location : Rava, Zawar.

Fig. 5.11 : Crenulation cleavages and microlithons in phyllite with thin interbands of quartzite. Location : East Mochia, Zawar Mines.

Fig. 5.12 : Deformed mullions. Tidi river section, near Ramanath Temple, Zawar

Fig. 5.13 : Mullions, both cross sectional and longitudinal view, developed in quartizitic interbands in phyllite. Deraphala School, Zawar.

Fig. 5.14 : Refraction of cleavage. Cleavage is at higher angle to bedding in quartzitic band than in phyllite. Deraphala School, Zawar.

Fig. 5.15 : Quartz veins forming ladder-like structures in dolomite. They represent extensional features in the rock. Rava area, Zawar.

Fig. 5.16 : Tension gashes related to two successive phases of deformations. The bluish grey coloured carbonate tension gashes, indicating sinistral movements, are associated with F1 folding. These carbonated tension gashes behaved as a competent body during F2 folding and quartz tension gashes developed as a result of second deformation. Rava, Zawar.

Fig. 5.17 : Faulting along axial plane cleavage (S2). Quartz-Carbonate veins along the fault plane. Note that quartz veinlets are at an angle to the trend of the fault plane. Rava, Zawar.

Fig. 5.18 : Geological plan at 240 mRL showing disposition of ore bodies, Mochia mine

100 m

Fig. 5.19 : Geological cross section across the eastern part of Mochia mine showing anastomosing pattern of the ore bodies. Note the stratabound nature of the ore body.

6. STAGES OF EXPLORATION 6.1 Introduction With most of the surface indications of minerlisation including old workings already explored, the task of exploration is aimed to locate hidden or concealed deposits. It is a multifarious activity that applies all the known geological, geophysical, geochemical and remote sensing techniques in delineating targets areas for detailed exploration. The exploration involves various stages that are adopted in a sequential mode. This chapter outlines various such stages in the following sections. 6.2 Reconnaissance Exploration The exploration strategy today is more evolved than in the past and it has resorted to a multidisciplinary approach. Mostly, large exploration companies launch exploration programs using all the exploration tools in a sequential mode. Such exploration launches require a lot of background preparation like collation of previous work on geological, geochemical and geophysical, creation of GIS database and launching all scales of work from regional geology to airborne geophysics and regional geochemistry. The uses of various GIS softwares for exploration are a necessity for the interpretation of data in order to guide the exploration efforts scientifically. The purpose of reconnaissance exploration is to delineate prospecting targets. Even after adopting a rigorous scientific approach, the success rates for striking bonanza are remarkably low. 6.2.1 Regional Geological Set Up A very important step required before initiating reconnaissance exploration is procurement of regional geological maps as such maps alone can provide vital input in deciding the type of mineral commodity that can be explored in a given terrain. Apart from distribution pattern of geological formations a map useful for reconnaissance is ought to show mineral occurrences. Some economic input from working deposits may be useful in predicting grade-tonnage type model. A good regional map also gives a fair idea about lithosequences that eventually help in understanding type of ore
1

deposits that can be expected in it. For example small, isolated, intracratonic metasedimentary basins in the Bhilwara Supergroup (which includes the Banded Gneissic Complex) in western India constitute well known tract of SEDEX type of Pb-Zn deposits. Likewise, western tract of the Proterozoic South Delhi Fold Belt exposes a volcanosedimentary lithosequence that hosts polymetallic (Pb-Zn-Cu) volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS) type deposits; and the regional geological milieu of southeastern Rajasthan is akin to Iron Oxide Copper Gold (IOCG) type set up and this belt is indeed studded with several Cu-Au prospects and deposits. Overlays of mineral occurrences, working mines and major lineaments with geology provide clues to regional controls on mineralization. Information on abandoned mines is sought at this stage of reconnaissance to strengthen geological understanding of the nature of mineralization. The area to be applied for reconnaissance exploration (Reconnaissance Permit or more popularly referred to as the RP) is mainly decided on the basis of the regional geology and structure of the prospective tract. 6.2.2 Aero-geophysical Surveys Airborne geophysical surveys are very effective in very fast reconnaissance of large area. Such surveys are particularly useful in inferring geological formations in covered and inaccessible terrains. Aeromagnetic surveys can be undertaken from higher altitudes but for EM signatures the flight of the aircraft is maintained below 120m. Heliborne systems can provide data taken from very close to the grounds. It is particularly very useful in airborne gravity surveys. Flight lines are planned at high angle to the trend of formations and spacing between two flights lines vary from 200m to 500m. The Geological Survey of India own an aircraft which has onboard systems that generate data on EM, Total ( ray) count, U, Th, K and aero-magnetics (Fig. 6.1 and 6.2). Principles of geophysical method are same whether the measurements are on ground, or inside a borehole, from air or over the ocean. It is the design, size accuracy and resolution of instruments that varies on the type of surveys. The instrument sensors in airborne systems being away from mineralization must have more accuracy and better resolution. The power requirements of such instruments are larger. Similar is the situation for marine surveys.

Fig. 6.1 : Twin Otter aircraft of the Geological Survey of India

Fig. 6.2 : Airborne Instruments on board

Magnetic, E.M and radioactivity detecting instruments and recently airborne gravitymeters are being used for airborne surveys offering increased speed and efficiency. Compared to the groundwork, airborne measurements imply a decrease in resolution which means that adjacent geophysical indications tend to merge into one another, giving the impression of only one indication. Based on the objective, a decision is taken to carry out airborne surveys by fixed wing aircraft or by helicopterborne instruments. Measurements in some airborne EM systems are in Frequency Domain using 3 frequencies while in other systems the measurements are in Time Domain. In addition to direct application for locating mineralized bodies, the aeromagnetic data is most utilized in mapping the structures favorable for occurrence of mineralization. Airborne EM essentially maps the electrical conductivity. Airborne EM and aeromagnetic data together are main guiding factors in identifying shear zones and fault zones. Discrete EM and Magnetic anomalies at the same locale are generally useful for inferring ore bodies. Four parameters viz. Total ( -ray) count, U, Th and K counts are measured in radiometric surveys. As a routine, six maps are produced for multi-parametric airborne surveys i.e. Total Field Aeromagnetic map, EM anomaly map, Total ( -ray) Count, U, Th and K maps. Gravity maps are in addition to these maps. If required, derivative maps, magnetic susceptibility map, RTP and Analytical Signal maps, radiometric ratio maps and other maps are produced. These maps are handy tools in very fast reconnaissance of vast areas. 6.2.3 Application of Remote Sensing Techniques Remote sensing includes various mapping techniques that are carried out from airborne systems. Such techniques have received a great deal of attention especially in connection with space exploration projects. The sensors can be fitted either in aircraft or on spacecrafts. In fact aero-geophysical methods are also a type of remote sensing methods. However, it is mainly the aerial photography and imaging systems that are useful in reconnaissance exploration. Aerial photographs provide a means of quick reconnaissance and even in areas of poor exposures it is possible to infer formational

contacts with reasonable confidence. Folds and lineaments are also well picked up in aerial photographs. Aerial photo-interpretation with some field checks remained popular techniques for several decades. They are still used advantageously for mapping on larger scales. Satellite photographs and imageries taken from spacecrafts may be useful as an aid to regional mapping in broadly defining the favorable areas of mineralization. The hyperspectral data are currently in great demand by various mineral exploration agencies. These data nowadays occupy prime place in reconnoitary exploration programs. The hyperspectral data are particularly useful in arid terrains as they help in inferring chemical variations in zones of hydrothermal alteration. However, such data are not readily available to all the exploring agencies and their interpretation requires refinement. 6.2.4 Regional Geological Mapping The national surveys and state organizations publish regional geological maps on 1:250,000 or on 1: 100,000 scale. However, specific information required on prospective areas may be lacking or missing in such maps. Regional geological mapping may be carried out on 1:50,000 scale and special thematic mapping for example in the Geological Survey India is carried out on 1:25,000 scale. The later mapping programs are with specific objectives and are supposed to generate additional details on lithosequences, structure and metallogenic aspects. Such mapping programs have some geochemical components and in the end a shorter area of interest is demarcated in the reconnaissance permit area. 6.2.5 Regional Geochemical Surveys These days mineral exploration is mainly aimed to locate hidden deposits, be they sub-outcropping beneath thin soil or truly deeply buried. Using direct techniques, which essentially comprise two disciplines, geophysical surveys and geochemical exploration, such surveys have been reasonably successful. Although it is true that spectacular successes have been obtained in regional reconnaissance using airborne geophysics, this technique is largely aimed at and

limited to certain specific types of deposit - notably iron ore, massive sulphide bodies and mineralization due to radioactive minerals. Geochemistry on the other hand, especially with its multi-element approach, has a wider range of applications and offers new opportunities at the regional exploration stage for exhaustively filtering out and collecting a broad spectrum of mineralized occurrences, regardless of the elements or types of occurrence involved. Nevertheless this method, as it is currently applied, tends to be restricted to the search for relatively shallow targets and sub-outcropping mineral occurrences that are concealed by the soil cover which is so typical of most of our climatic regions. The advances made in the analytical field, especially with the development of spectrometric techniques, have greatly contributed to the resurgence of geochemical prospecting. For example the quantometric direct-reading emission spectrometer, plasma emission spectrometers, permit simultaneous testing of some 20 to 30 trace elements at relatively cheaper cost. The mass of information obtained by this means has revitalized geochemistry, primarily in terms of its improved efficiency, performance and date usage. 6.2.6 Integration of Regional Data and Delineation of Prospect It is truly a desk study. The available database on regional geology, aerogeophysical signatures, remote sensing and geological mapping are integrated for delineating a prospect. It is not merely the prospecting target but possible gradetonnage models are kept in sight before initiating exploration activities on the selected prospect. The various parameters or attributes that have bearing on prospective ore deposit are taken into consideration. Taking cue from a working mine or proven deposit, the database on various aspects are given different weightage. Some exploring agencies like BRGM, France, use point system in grading various prospective targets. Such an exercise ultimately leads to preparation of prognosticated maps. The less favorable areas are surrendered at this stage and reconnaissance exploration comes to an end. The exploration activity henceforth shifts to the selected prospect.
6

6.3 Prospecting Prospecting is a very important stage of exploration that includes surveying, detailed geological mapping, geochemical and geophysical surveys and finally detailed sub surface exploration. 6.3.1 Surveying Surveying deals with the techniques of detecting the relative position of points at, above or below the surface of the Earth; or establishing such points. It is the device, of measuring relative points at above or below the surface by making horizontal and vertical distances and angles. The object of surveying is to prepare a map, a plan or section on a reduced scale as desired. Thus it gives the true projection of the surveyed area of Earths surface at a glance when the map is oriented. The surveying may be divided in two parts; 1) Plane Survey: In plane survey Earths spheroid shape is neglected and up to 250 Km is considered as plane. 2) Geodetic Survey: In this survey curvature and altitude corrections are considered for most precision survey. The Survey of India is the only organization in India that carries out such high precision surveys. 6.3.1.1 Topographic Surveys Measurements and computations constitute core of surveying. It includes measurements of horizontal and vertical angles and determination of coordinates. A horizontal angle is the angle formed by intersection of two lines in a horizontal plane. A vertical angle on the other hand is an angle between two intersecting lines in vertical plane. In surveying it is commonly understood that one of these lines is horizontal and a vertical angle to a point is understood to be the angle in a vertical plane to that point and the horizontal plane.

Introduction to Coordinates:
Coordinates.
You are all familiar with the following way of identifying a point P

y + P(x,y)

x
This is known as a RECTANGULAR Coordinate System.

Another way of identifying the same point P is

+P (r , ) r

x
This is known as a POLAR Coordinate System.

FOR SURVEYING we use a slightly different form of notation ... instead of x,y we use E,N (Easting, Northing)

+P ( E ,N)

N.B. Easting is always quoted first and then Northing. is always measured in CLOCKWISE direction from North. is known as the WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING (WCB). Triangulation The Triangulation Survey is the highest grade of survey. It is being adopted to have a master control for the survey of large area and in hilly and mountainous areas, where measurements are difficult. Geodetic survey, underground and aerial survey requires Triangulation Survey for ground control points. The total area may be framed with the series of triangles in which one linear side is only measured which is called base line and all other sides are being computed. It is desirable to measure the distant of another side in the middle and at the end of a triangle to have a checking of the computed distance which is known as check-base. It is essential that sum of three angle of each triangle becomes 180. In case of triangles forming a polygon, the centre point of the triangles will be equal to 360. The formula for computation of the triangle may be stated as:

Where a, b, c = sides of triangle and A, B, C, = Interior angles

Errors: The errors in the measurement of angles are mainly of two types:(1) Manual and (2) Instrumental, which makes the total of interior angles of a triangles either > 1800000 or <1800000. These errors are distributed in the interior angles proportionately, if the errors are higher than the measurement of angles is repeated. A triangulation system consists of a series of triangles. At least one side of each triangle is also a side of an adjacent triangle; two sides of a triangle may form sides of adjacent triangles. By using the triangulation method of control, one need not measure the length of every line. However, two lines are measured in each system-one line at the beginning and one at the closing of the triangulation system. These lines are called base lines and are used as a check against the computed lengths of the other lines in the system. The recommended length of a base line is usually one sixth to one fourth of that of the sides of the principal triangles. Base Line Measurement: The accuracy of all directions and distances in a system depends directly upon the accuracy with which the length of the base line is measured. Therefore, base line measurement is vitally important. A transit must be used to give precise alignment while measuring a base line. For third-order triangulation measurement (which is at times used in GSI) with a steel tape, one is required to incorporate all the tape corrections. For measurement over rough terrain, end supports for the tape must be provided by posts driven in the ground or by portable tripods. These supports are usually called chaining bucks. The slope between bucks is determined by measuring the difference in elevation between the tops of the bucks with a level and rod. On the top of each buck, a sheet of copper or zinc is tacked down, which provides a surface on which tape lengths can be marked. Bucks are setup along the base line at intervals of one-tape length. The tape is stretched between the supports and brought to standard tension. The position of the forward end is marked on the metal strip with a needle-pointed marker. The length of the base line will, of course, amount to the sum of the horizontal distances. In case the line is being measured forward, after the forward measurement, the line is

10

to be again measured in the backward direction. If the backward measurement varies slightly from the forward measurement, the average is taken as the length of the base line. A large discrepancy would, of course, indicate a mistake in one measurement or the other.

Calculation of Latitude and Departure In the process of triangulation or polygons (with Total Station Instrument) only base line and the bearing of the baseline is measured in the field rest of the bearings and coordinates (Latitude and departure) are calculated trigonometrically. 1. Calculating of bearing from interior angles: Bearing of last line + Interior angle 180 or 540 = Bearing of next forward line. The measurement is carried out in anti-clockwise direction only 1. From the whole circle bearing the Reduced bearing calculation will be as follows: If bearing is between 0 and 90, no reduction is required. If bearing is between 90 and 180, no subtract it from 180. If bearing is between18 0 and 270, subtract 180 from it. If bearing is between 270 and 360 subtract it from 360.

11

3. Computation of finding out of latitude and departure: Latitude = Distant Cos of reduced bearing. Departure = Distant Sin of reduced bearing. 6.3.1.2 Contouring The configuration of earths surface is shown by contour lines. These lines on the surface pass through equal altitude with reference to some datum line. Thus, the elevation and depressions of the ground are shown on map by means of contour lines. Such a map is called a topographical map. The vertical distance between two consecutive contour lines is known as contour interval. A contour is a line drawn on a plan joining all points of the same height above or below a datum. Contours cannot cross, split or join other contours, except in the case of an overhang. e.g. a cliff. The height between successive contours is called the vertical interval or the contour interval. Its value depends on the variation in height of the area being contoured. The contour interval is kept constant for a plan or map. The plan spacing between contour line indicates the steepness of slopes. Closely spaced lines indicate a steep gradient. Widely spaced lines indicate a flatter gradient. Leveling (with Dumpy Level) It is method of determining the relative difference of elevation on earths surface at various points. Level deals with the measurement in vertical plane. Thus the process of leveling prepares a topographical map. Contouring is also done through this process of leveling. The trigometrical leveling by taking vertical angle by theodolite or Telescopic Alidade has the great advantage of this method. Dumpy level is very simple, compact and suitable method that is widely used for rapid and precise work in

12

a fairly level ground. But in a higher hilly area, Trigonometric Leveling is more accurate and has the advantage for work with a theodolite.

A contoured Hill
50 100 150 200 250

250 200 150 100 50

The methods of determining contours are (i) Direct (ii) Indirect and (iii) graphical.

Indirect contouring

from random spot heights

from a grid of spot heights

13

6.3.1.3 Surveying Methods and Instruments The following type of surveys are based on the methods employed during surveying (a) Triangulation Survey : In
this whole area is divided into well

conditioned triangles. (b) Traverse Survey (c) Correction Survey : Survey is carried in a simple line : It is adopted in transferring the direction and levels
from one level to another level in underground

mine. (d) Trilateral Survey : In this length of triangle is measured. It is more accurate than triangulation.

Survey Instruments The following are the type of surveys that are based on the type of survey instrument used: (1) (2) (3) (4) Compass Survey Plane Table Survey Levelling Survey and Theodolite Survey.

Prismatic Compass It is an angular instrument designed to measure magnetic bearing of a line. The include angle from the different of two bearing of lines can be computed. The important parts are a magnetic needle, a graduated circle ring and a line of sight-vane with a prism and an object vane. This is a very light and simple instrument for rapid

14

surveys. Various methods of survey can be implemented with the prismatic compass such as Traversing, Intersection and Grid system like other angular instruments. Its dial ring is marked inverted from 00 to 360 with the least count of 30 min. Traverse may be closed or open. Open traverse are very less in accuracy. Traverse survey is the frame work which consists of a series of connected lines with lengths and directions. Grid or Graphical methods are being done at right angles with square methods at desired distances. In this angle is always measured from north and distance is measured by measuring tape. Plane Table Survey with Telescopic Alidade Plane table survey is useful in detailed mapping where field work and plotting are done simultaneously. Plane table with Telescopic Alidade is commonly used for the preparation of topographical map with geological aspects in planimetric position. The Telescopic Alidade has the advantage of measuring horizontal and relative vertical height difference instantly even in undulating ground through its BEAMAN area. A vertical circle is also provided to measure the horizontal and vertical differences by Tachometric Formula. The methods of survey are alike the other angular survey methods namely, (a) Grid or Graphical, (b)Traversing, (c) Intersection and (d) triangulation are most common in use. The basic procedure in plane tabling, consists of drawing rays on the plane table drawing sheet along the sight-lines and these rays intersect at the instrument station with the object point with some meridian direction. Theodolite Survey A Theodolite is essentially a high precision survey instrument of measuring horizontal and vertical angles directly. Extensive Surveys are being carried out with the methods of traversing, triangulation and graphical system to the optimum level of accuracy. Plane and Geodetic survey can be achieved applying necessary corrections. The telescope is internal focusing so the additive constant of focal length is zero and it is capable of being rotated along its transverse axis.

15

Surveys based upon the Method Employed Traverse Survey It consists of the framework with a series of connected lines where the lengths and directions are measured. The traverse may be closed or open. In close traverse lengths and directions are more accurate than in open traverse as these have many arithmetical checks. (a) Check on closed Traverse : Sum of the interior angles of a polygon = (2n-4) 90 or in angular measurements (n-2) 180. Where n denotes number of sides of Traverse. Sum of the exterior angles of the (2n+4) 90 or (n+2) 180.
polygon =

b)

Check on linear measurement can be made by measuring twice in opposite

direction. In a closed traverse total northing in latitude will be equal to total southing and sum of the eastings will be equal to sum of the westings in the departure and this indicates no discrepancy in the measurement of angles and distance. In open traverse angular measurement can be checked by observing bearing and cut off lines between some intermediate station and also through intersection of a prominent signal mark, visible from the traverse stations.

16

Essential measurements of a traverse are (1) bearing of one line, (2) interior or exterior angles and (3) the lengths of all sides. In a closed traverse, plotting is done by co-ordinates and not by protractor after proper applications of checks. Closed traverse computation may be made in a tabular from known as Gales Traverse Table. Tacheometry methods in Survey It is a branch of angular surveying in which both horizontal and vertical positions of points are determined with a Theodolite or Tacheometer instrument. The direct distant measurement operations are entirely eliminated. So in the field this system is most rapid for preparing topographical map with other features. The primary object of tacheometry is the preparation of maps and plans. An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm and anallatic telescope is generally used for tacheometric survey (Fig. 6.3 and 6.4). Distances and elevation or depression can be deducted with the following formula: Horizontal distance (When the measuring plane is horizontal) = KS cos where K denotes multiplying constant 100 exactly and S denoted difference of two staff reading. is the vertical angle. Horizontal distance (when the measuring plane is inclined) = KS cos2 + C cos Where C is total of focal length of objective lens and half the size of instrument (Fig. 6.4) Vertical height difference = KS cos Sin ; or KS sin 2.(Fig. 6.4). Closing error in a prismatic compass and plane table traverse can easily be eliminated graphically. The total closing is distributed round the polygon by shifting proportionately and parallel to the direction and distant of each station of traverse. Extension of base line can be made by means of forming Triangulation as shown in the sketch below:

17

LEVEL FIELD BOOK (Rise Fall method) Station Back Inter Fore Rise Fall Reduced level Remarks

PLANE TABLE FIELD BOOK

Ht. Initial Distance Vertical Ht. Vertical Inst. Obser of Curve Curve curve Curve Stn. Stn. reading value Inst reading reading

Distance

Diff R.I. Remarks of Ht.

18

Some useful definitions A level surface is any surface parallel to the mean spheroid surface of the earth, i.e. the surface of a still lake. Hence a level surface is a curved surface, parallel to the earth. A Horizontal Plane is a plane tangent to a level surface. A Horizontal angle is an angle formed by intersection of two lines in a horizontal plane. A vertical line is a line perpendicular to the horizon, e.g. a plumb line. A vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane; in surveying one of the two lines is horizontal. A bench mark (BM) is a fixed reference point of known elevation. Generally it is fixed by Survey of India. A line of collimation or line of sight is the line joining the intersection of cross hairs to the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. The axis of the telescope is a line joining the optical centre of the object glass to the centre of the eye piece. The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below the datum. It is also known as the elevation of the point. Reduced level (RL). Datum line is arbitrarily assumed level line from which vertical distances are measured. Parallax is the apparent movement of the image relatively to the cross-hairs when the image formed by the objective does not fall in the plane of the diaphragm.

19

Modern Survey Instruments Distomat (D13 S) It is Wild-make modern survey instrument that can measure distances up to 2 Km with the use of prism-reflectors. It works on the principle of propagation of light and distance is calculated by the attached computing system. Infra-red ray is used as travel wave. It measures horizontal, vertical and incline distances with the accuracy of 1mm, 1 ppm. Gyro-Theodolite This instrument is used for seeking North azimuth bearing at surface as well as in underground. The main use in underground is correlation in which only one piano wire is used. It is more accurate and takes less time in calculating bearings. Total Survey Station (Electronic theodolite T 1000 with DIOR 3002 distomat and GRE 4a data recorder ) This instrument is having LASER attachment which is useful in stoped out area survey. This instrument is also equipped with range finder in which distance measurement can be done up to 200 m at surface and 100 m in underground without use of the reflecting system. So this facility is very useful for surveying of the inaccessible survey points especially in stopes. The instrument is operated by 12 V rechargeable dry cell battery which is available external as well as internal to attach with the instrument. The charging time for battery is 14 hours. The latest models are more compact where distomat is in-built with telescope (co-axial), light weight, handy and attachments are reduced and the rechargeable time of battery is also few hours. The instrument is accurate, fast time and manpower saver. The final output can be obtained directly in the field if on line PC facility is available. It is more useful in all type of surveys subsidence survey, open cast mine survey, underground survey and stope survey.

20

TC 303 Electronic Theodolite (Total Survey Station) As name indicates it is suited to all types of survey observations, calculations and plottings. The features of the total station are as follows: Observation Work The setting of the instrument at survey station is same as required in ordinary theodolites. This instrument is equipped with laser plummet for centering the instrument at surface survey stations. Electronic bubble for leveling the instruments and other facilities like auto-collimation etc. are part of the equipment. The bisection of object is also similar. The display of readings is digital which eliminates human errors in reading of horizontal and vertical angles. The distance between two survey stations is measured up to (1.2 km with miniprism and 3.0 km with circular prism) the accuracy of about10 mm. and 10 ppm by using reflecting system. For distance measurement a distomat is coaxial (in-built) with the telescope. Infrared wave is used for distance measurement, which works on the principle of velocity of light. Three dimensional coordinates are obtained for any observed survey station. The azimuth, latitude, departure and level of the instrument station is to be feed to obtained the three dimensional coordinates of the observed survey station. It can find the area, line distance and height of inaccessible points. The observed values either can be noted in field book or can be stored in internal memory of the instrument. The internal memory can store a maximum of 4000 survey points (256 KB). Instrument can also be connected with PC on line. All the calculations for coordinates, distance and level are done by the instrument automatically by in-built computing system. 6.3.2 Detailed Geological Mapping The detailed geological mapping is a prerequisite for taking up subsurface exploration. The prospect by now has been well delineated and is ready for detailed geological mapping. The detailed mapping (DM) is carried out on 1:2000 or 1:1000 scale depending upon the intricacies of the prospect sequence. The objective is to map small lithological units that are important from the detailed exploration point of view.
21

For example the gold deposits in southeastern Rajasthan contain tourmalinites, albitites and some other exotic lithological units that have direct bearing on the gold mineralization. Such units are mappable only on 1:1000 or 1:2000 scales and yet they are important in planning of boreholes. Detailed mapping is generally accompanied by detail geochemical sampling on grid pattern, sampling along proposed profile of the boreholes and pitting and trenching for exposing the concealed litho contacts and or oxidized zones. Important cultural features are also plotted on the detailed map. For accuracy it is advisable to carry out DM by tranigulation surveying methods. Borehole plans and profiles are made on the basis of the detail map. Detailed structural features of local scale are also given importance while mapping the prospect. 6.3.3 Detailed Geochemical Surveys Introduction Geochemical exploration as compared to other close nomenclatures such as geochemical mapping and geochemical survey is almost entirely a dedicated method employed for the search and establishing an ore deposit. The Zawar module of mineral exploration is particularly focused to base metal exploration. From exploration point of view this write up is essentially restricted to a group of five elements viz. Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and Co. The base metal exploration also extends to gold and silver also in broader sense. The scale of work in a geochemical exploration is an important parameter which decides on the methodology (particularly sample grid spacing) as well as the medium of sampling. Usually we talk of two scales of work the regional scale and the local scale with a third intermediate scale often introduced in many special situations, Fig.6.5. Depending on the scale, the geochemical anomaly, which is the final output of a geochemical exploration, is graded. The geochemical anomaly of an element, in this case a base metal, is termed regional or local based on whether the survey was conducted on a regional scale or a locale scale. The anomaly value is mostly decided by univariate statistics, but variations to this are practised in many countries where
22

multielement analysis and multivariate statistics is in vogue, for example BRGM, France.
GEOCHEMICAL MAPPING GEOCHEMICAL SURVEY

GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

D.J. Das Gupta GSI, WR, 2003

Fig. 6.5 : Regional to local geochemical exploration programmes

Base metal Deposit Types The SEDEX, VMS and porphyry type deposits are the main contributors of base metal production in world. In addition, the sediment-hosted copper deposits in the Congo-Katanga belt in Central Africa also constitute an important category of deposits on global scale. The geochemical (map) pattern and association of elements is usually governed by the type of deposit or metallotect especially in case of regional geochemical exploration. For example, the geochemical association of copper will be very different in a porphyry copper deposit from copper association in a VMS (volcanogenic massive sulphide) set-up. Or, copper from a sediment-hosted deposit in the Congo-Katanga belt, Central Africa will differ in geochemical signature from copper in a Kuruko set-up. 6.3.3.1 Scale of Geochemical Exploration The scale of Geochemical Exploration is matter of board room decision that the work is of regional scale involving an area of n x 100 sq km (where n = 1 to 10 or

23

more) or of local nature measuring less than 20 sq km or less. Also important is the time frame as well as budgetary provisions for the analysis of samples. Competence levels of the sampling team and the data interpretation party is also of great relevance since this information will be integrated with the Geological and Geophysical data base by using dedicated GIS software. The regional geochemical exploration is generally an important part of reconnaissance exploration programs. Areas exceeding 5,000 sq km usually are considered Regional in scale. Those measuring less, but exceeding an area of more than 20 sq km are task on semiregional scale. In both cases the presumption is that a potential mineralization is enclosed in the area and the objective is to locate it without wasting time in the other details, like details of host rock and structure of the ore body. For such geochemical surveys fast and cheaper options of sampling as well as analysis are adopted. The most effective methods are stream sediment as a medium of sampling and ICP-AES as a method of rapid analysis. Sampling in regional geochemical survey may vary from terrain to terrain, depending on local morphology. It may vary from 1 to 2 samples per sq km. Multielemental interpretations are made through the use of various geochemical softwares. The regional geochemical surveys are more effective in delineating target areas in tracts that have poor exposures. Once areas are identified through a Regional Geochemical Exploration further geochemical work can be launched in conjunction with ground geophysical surveys in smaller blocks of 10 to 20 sq km area. Detailed Geochemical Exploration Detailed geochemical survey or exploration is usually carried out where the base metal block has been identified (as indicated above) and the current objective is to know its potential. Such types of survey have a regular grid pattern of sampling and the medium of sampling is either bed-rock or insitu soil (from B or C horizon), Figure-6.6a. The bed rock sampling is preferred along the borehole profiles so that a surface and subsurface correlation of the chemical parameters is established properly.

24

Block identified during Geochemical Mapping

25

Stream Sediment Geochemical Survey Many exploration agencies rely on stream sediment geochemical survey for fast and effective results. This is a time tested (with the variation stated below) reliable method of geochemical exploration which is effective in all scales of work. BRGM, France adopts such surveys for near surface deposits. It involves selective concentration of the useful mineral fraction at the sample preparation stage based on specific physical properties. In this respect densimetric (fractions with specific gravities more than 2.9, or analysis of flotation residues) and magnetometric (paramagnetic fractions preferentially consisting of the oxidization products of sulphides) methods are those best developed at present.

6.3.3.2. Geochemical Anomaly As stated locating the geochemical anomaly of a targeted base metal spatially is the final output of a geochemical exploration. Such anomalies in a map are either decided by univariate statistics or by multivariate statistics (factor maps). An anomaly is a value of the target element (i.e.,Cu, Pb, Zn or Ni, Co, As, Sb etc) generally several orders above its crustal abundance or its statistical population mean. The main objective is to locate this anomaly spatially. The anomaly values are of different intensities for the same element in the two scales of exploration, viz., regional and detailed or local (see Figure-6.7A & 6.7B). Traditionally the anomaly of an element is defined by univariate statistical methods of mean value and standard deviation (SD) and assigning the values above (mean + 2 SD) for the element as anomalous. Such anomalous values are plotted in a

26

map (geochemical map) to show the spatial disposition. The shape of the anomaly and other informations like area covered by the anomaly and the contrast or the intensity of the anomaly are of great importance to prioritize the exploration blocks. The recent trends of geochemical anomaly selection for base metals depend on multielement dataset and multivariate statistics. The advantage of this method is that the geological influence on mineralization is more clearly understood and selection of anomalous blocks for detailed exploration is geologically sounder. The multivariate statistics allows interpretation via geochemical associations (Table-1) that is fingerprinted in the overlying weathered profile. A dominantly granite-granite gneiss country will definitely relay a granitic geochemical imprint to the weathered profile. For example the elemental values of K, Si, Al, Na, Ba, Li, B, Pb etc. will be comparatively higher. A basaltic country on the contrary will have significantly elevated values of Fe, Mg, Ca, Ti, V, Ni, Cu etc., (Fig. 6.8), in the weathered profile. Pure chalcophile signature (Table-2) from epigenetic or remobilsed ores is generally lost in the geochemical noise of country rock. The uses of multivariate staistics like factor analysis with nonparametric correlation matrix comes in handy in selecting such low intensity base metal anomalies. Several softwares like the BRGMs GDM, Syn-ARC etc., are able to spatially plot the multivariate data including factor scores of metallogenic importance. Apart from the use of uni- and multivariate statistics a valuable interpretative tool of geochemical data in exploration is the geochemical map. Simple contour maps created by using any geochemical contouring software like Surfer-8 of all the elements and overlaying them on one another and/ or the geological map, brings out a rich set of information on various aspects of geology, structure and mineralization. In any geochemical exploration, regional or of local scale of work, this contouring option should be used freely even before statistical approach is resorted to.

27

24.175

24.170

24.165

24.160

24.155

74.035

74.040 Ni (ppm)

74.045 CO (ppm)

74.050

74.055 Cu (ppm)

74.060

Fig. 6.7a : Illustration of regional geochemical anomaly

Cu- anomaly profile

T SA
Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co
Mn (OH) or Fe(OH) or Al(OH) or Humus

Dispersion halo
Soil

Host rock

Primary mineralisation

Fig. 6.7b : Geochemical anomaly

28

Fig. 6.8 : Stream sediment map of Cu, Zn, Ni & TiO2 of toposheet 55M/4
23.24
23.25

23.22

DT
23.2
23.2

DT
Zn (ppm)
115

23.18

Cu (ppm)

23.16

V
23.14 23.12

110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70

V
23.15

170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80

23.1

23.1

23.08

MK

65 60 55 50
23.05

MK

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

23.06

23.04

45 40 35 30 25 79.02 79.04 79.06 79.08 79.1 79.12 79.14 79.16 79.18 79.2 79.22 79.24
23.24
23
79 79.05 79.1 79.15 79.2 79.25

23.02

23.25

23.22

DT
23.2

DT
23.2 23.18

Ni (ppm)
23.16
80 23.15

V
23.1

75 70 65 60

23.14

23.12

23.1
55 50

23.08

MK
23.05

45 40 35 30 25 20

23.06

MK

23.04

23.02 79.02 79.04 79.06 79.08 79.1 79.12 79.14 79.16 79.18 79.2 79.22 79.24

23
79 79.05 79.1 79.15 79.2 79.25

15

3 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

DT - Deccan Trap MK - Mahakoshals (Carbonates-volcanics) V - Vindhyans

Table-1 : Geochemical Association of Elements Type of Deposit MAGMATIC DEPOSIS Chromite Ore (Bushveld) Layered magnetite (-do-) Immiscible (Sudbury) Major Components Cr Associated elements

Ni, Fe, Mg V, Ti, P Pt, Co, As, Au Cr, Co, S Na2O,Zr, P B, U, Th, REE

Fe Cu-Ni-S Cu-Ni-S

Pt-Ni-Cu in layered intrusion Pt, Ni, Cu (Bushveld) Nb-Ta carbonatite (Oka) Nb, Ta Rare metal pegmatite Be, Li, Cs, Rb

29

Type of Deposit

Major Components

Associated elements

HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS Porphyry copper (Bingham) Cu, S Porphyry molybdenum Mo, S (Climax) Skarnmagnetite (Iron Fe Spring) Skarn-Cu (Yrington) Skarn-Pb-Zn (Hanover) Skarn-W-Mo-Sn (Bishop) Cu, Fe, S Pb, Zn, S W, Mo, Sn

Mo, Au, Ag, Re, As, Pb, Zn, K2O W, Sn, F, Cu Cu, Co, S Au, Ag Cu, Co F, S, Cu, Be, Bi

HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS Volcanogenic MSD Zn-Cu- Zn, Pb, Cu, S Pb Base metal vein Sandstone type U Pb, Zn, Cu, S U Ag, Ba, Au, As Ag, Au, As, Sb Se, Mo, V, Cu. Pb

SEDIMENTARY TYPES Copper shale Cu, S (Kupferschiefer) Copper sandstone Cu, S Mississippi Valley Pb-Zn Red-bed Cu Zn, Pb, S Cu, S

Ag, Zn, Pb, Co, Ni, Cd, Hg Ag, Co, Ni Ba, F, Cd, Cu, Ni, Co, Hg Ag, Pb

Table-2 : Goldschmidts Classification of Elements Group Siderophile Atmophile Chalcophile Lithophile Elements Fe, Co, Ni, Pt, Au, Mo, Ge, Sn, C, P H, N, O Cu, Ag, Zn, Cd, Hg, Pb, As, S, Te Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, REE,

30

Extended classification Lithophile Chalcophile Siderophile Atmophile

C, O, P, H, F, Cl, S, Se, Te, As, Sb, Pt, Ir, Os, Ru, Rh, N, O, C (as CO2), H, Br, I, Si, Al, Fe, Bi, Ag, In, Ge, Tl, Pd, Au, (Fe) Mg, Ca, Na, K, Ti, Hg, Cd, Zn, Pb, Cu, Sc, Cr, V, Mn, Th, Ni, Co, Mo, Re, U, Nb, Ta, Sn, W, (Fe), (Sn), (Au) Be, Li, Rb, Cs, Ba, Sr, B, Y, Zr, Hf, REE, Ga, (Cd), (Cu), He, Rh, and other noble gases (S as

oxides), (Hg)

(Zn),

(Pb),

(Ni), (Co), (Mo),

(Tl)

6.3.4 Geophysical Prospecting Geophysical prospecting is the art of searching concealed deposits by measuring physical property of subsurface from the Earths surface. Though the fundamental principles of physics for these measurements are quite simple, it is generally difficult to apply these to the study of rock material because rocks and minerals are rarely homogeneous and have complex and /or overlapping physical properties. The measurements yield information on the physical properties of material within the Earth. When properly interpreted, these lead to location of mineral deposits of economic value. The reliability of geological picture thus derived depends on the quality of data and the skill displayed in their interpretation. The success rate in mineral exploration is becoming increasingly poor and currently it ranges between 1: 150 to 1:100 (one economic deposit for 100 prospects or to 150 mineral shows). Thus, mineral exploration is a challenge to geoscientists world-wide and more so because outcropping or near surface ores have mostly been explored, exploited and/or

31

exhausted. The search for new deposits is now to be focused on concealed tracts. It is here that geophysics enters into picture. Physical Properties Ore bodies frequently differ in physical properties (Magnetic Susceptibility, Electrical Conductivity, Density etc) from the country / host rock. Thus, ore bodies can be located on ground by suitably observing variations in physical properties and carefully interpreting the anomaly maps. Geophysicists use sophisticated instruments to measure variation of physical properties such as: Density Magnetic Susceptibility Electrical Resistivity Natural Electrical fields Radioactivity of rocks Velocity of seismic waves Variation in gravity and magnetic fields of the Earth Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves Geophysicists use one or more of these measurements to find base metals, potash, coal, iron ore, oil, natural gas and many other minerals. In addition, the variation in physical properties is also used to identify environmental hazards and evaluate sites for dam, tunnel or building construction. Only a small fraction of activity in geophysical prospecting has gone into search for solid minerals. It is mainly because, the physical properties of many ore bodies do not show substantial contrasts with the corresponding properties of the country rock surrounding them. Thus, quite a few ore deposits may not be suitable as geophysical targets. Apart from locating the mineral occurrence, the geophysical exploration is also useful in separating promising areas from barren tracts. The selection of a geophysical method for exploration depends on nature of physical properties of the desired material.

32

Physical Properties and Methods of Geophysical Exploration Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Density Magnetic Susceptibility Electrical Conductivity/Resistivity Electrical Polarization Elastic Wave Velocity Thermal Conductivity Radioactivity Physical Property Geophysical Method Gravity Magnetic Resistivity /EM/GPR SP / I P Seismic Geothermal Radiometric

Variation of Physical Properties Resistivity The resistivity of crustal rocks normally varies in the range of 105 to 106 m and falls to 101 - 10-1 m in case of ore deposits. This property has been used very successfully in locating sulphides, clays, graphite, aquifers, brine, etc and for structural discontinuities. Induced Polarisation (IP) It is normally in range of 2-5 mV/V (0-2 PFE) in crustal rocks and may increase to several tens (10-20 PFE) in ore environment. IP method is a very powerful tool in locating disseminated sulphide deposits in particular, and in exploration of sulphide hosted Au and Ag deposits. It is also useful in locating graphite and clay pockets etc. Spontaneous Polarisation / Self Potential / SP
33

It is 5 to 10mV as background over crustal rocks and predominantly negative (20 to Hundreds of mV) over sulphide and graphite deposits. Density () Normally the changes in density of rocks and minerals are not as wide as other physical parameters (2.1 to 3.2 gm/cc). In cases of volcanogenic sulphides, chromite, manganese, barite etc. the density is 3.5 to 4 gm/cc and in case of coal, evaporites (halite/ sylvite) and sand the density goes down from 1.8 gm/cc and less. The gravity methods find use in exploring massive type sulphide mineralization which is generally associated with volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits and also at times with SEDEX type deposits. The density contrast between massive ores and the surrounding country rock is quite conspicuous and can be measured by close spaced gravity surveys for locating ore bodies. Magnetic Susceptibility () Magnetic susceptibility varies from 10-6 cgs units in sedimentary and some metamorphic rocks to as high as 10-4 cgs units for basic and ultrabasic rocks. Magnetic susceptibility is as high as 10-3 cgs units in metallogenic environments rich in pyrrhotite, iron-ore, ilmenite, manganese etc. Au or diamond as placers, burried channels etc are easy targets by magnetic method. A good example of magnetic surveys is provided by VMS type Cu-Zn deposit at Danva. The sulphide mineralization is hosted by metabasalt (amphibolites), actinolite-chlorite-biotite and muscovite-sillimanite-quartz schists. Muscovite-sillimanite-quartz schist occurs in small amounts. Study of drill cores shows that there exists gradation from relatively fresh amphibolites to muscovite-sillimanite-quartz schist through carbonated amphibolites and actinolite-chlorite biotite schist. In relatively unaltered zone, magnetite occurs in considerable proportions, often up to 5% of rock. It occurs both as disseminated crystals and as thin discrete layers. However, as sulphide content increases the proportion of magnetite decreases and it is almost absent in massive sulphide zone. This is well reflected from low magnetic anomaly of 200 to 400 over sulphide zones as compared with the enclosing unaltered amphibolites where

34

magnetic high reach up to 2000 . Such a drop in magnetic susceptibility is linked to break down of magnetite and its conversion to sulphidic phase, pyrite in this case. Seismic Wave Velocity (VP) It varies from 500 m/S in loose sand, 1000 in alluvium to 6000m/S in upper crustal rocks and 7000 m/S in lower crustal rocks (basalts). It is not used in exploration of metallic minerals. It is however, very useful in coal/lignite exploration and for mapping the structures favorable for oil and natural gas accumulation. It is also useful in mapping shear zones, faults and other structural features that act as favourable locales of ore deposits. Electromagnetics SP, resistivity and IP surveys are used for conductive bodies and a good contact with ground is essential to get any response. When contact with ground is difficult, the current is induced by generating EM field on ground. The field propagates through air to ground and to the subsurface conductor. If a conductive body is present in the path of the Primary Field, it induces small currents in the conductor and a small secondary EM field is generated indicating presence of a good conductor like massive sulphides, shear zones etc. Radiometrics Measuring the - radiation emanating from isotopes of U, K, Th etc suggest their presence. These are often used in boreholes for variety of other purposes. In addition, this is an excellent tool in airborne mapping. Changes in the concentration of the three radio-elements U, Th, and K accompany most major changes in lithology that may be potentially important for indicating mineral deposits. The radiometric measurements assist in locating some intrusion- related mineral deposits. The data is presented both in profile as well as in contour form in general. At times, it is presented as Bar Diagram or as Fence Diagram. Quite a few software produce 3-D fishnet diagrams or images.

35

Combination of Methods and Integrated Approach to Mineral Exploration Interpretation Each method studies the variation of some or other physical property of the rocks at depth. Geophysicists face a lot of ambiguities. For example, a smaller object at shallow depth and a larger object at greater depth show same order of gravity anomaly. Ground water, base metal sulphides, clay or graphite all have low resistivity. Pyrrhotite, magnetite as well as amphibolite are all magnetic. Limestone and gneisses have same P-wave velocity. A combination of methods is deployed as integrated geophysical surveys reduce the ambiguity and interpretation is close to factual. Due to overlapping properties and complexities in nature, the solution is never unique. It is emphasized here that close interaction and integration of the geophysical, geochemical and geological studies alone can lead us to new mineral discoveries at larger depth. It may be noted that all the geophysical data are digital in nature. The objective is to Interpret the geophysical data and to convert the digital data into the terms of Geology. This is achieved in 2 stages; firstly by interpreting the behavior of the geophysical data itself and later interpreting the geological meaning of such a data base. Mineral Discrimination and Locating Missed Lodes The physical properties of several minerals are overlapping thus necessitating mineral discrimination. It is still a world wide problem. Some attempts have been made on international and Indian level. The laboratory and tank model studies are very encouraging but field results are qualitative only and thus far from satisfactory. Similarly, attempts for missed lode has reasonable success in laboratory, but hardly successful in field.

36

Interpretation Geophysical Methods in Exploration and Indicator Anomalies Mineral Commodity

Pyrite, associated metal pyrrhotite,

Method Used Indicator Anomalies

and SP, Magnetic, Massive Sulphides TSC>50%

economic base Resistivity sulphides and IP.

Strong -ve SP, Moderate Magnetic, Very high or even ve IP and Very Low Apparent Resistivity. Total Sulphide Content > 15% Moderate to strong -ve SP, Moderate Magnetic, High IP and Low Resistivity. Total Sulphide Content < 15% Low -ve or No SP, Moderate or No Magnetic, Low IP and High Resistivity.

(chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, arsenopyrite etc)

and graphite deposits

Gold

associated

with SP, Magnetic, Same as above

sulphide mineralization Porphyry copper deposits

Resistivity and IP. Predominantl Moderate IP anomaly y IP

Manganese, barite, chromite Gravity and Residual Gravity High and moderate and other heavy mineral magnetic magnetic for Mn & Chromite. Moderate

deposits

(GM) Resistivity

IP for Mn.
& Residual Gravity High and strong

Kimberlite pipes for diamond GM

magnetic and low resistivity.

Low Gravity Residual, high resistivity for coal and low resistivity for lignite and

Potash, coal deposits

and

lignite GM, Resistivity

and Seismic Groundwater aquifers Resistivity sounding

sylvite. Potable water resistivity ratio of at least 5:1:5

Mineralisation associated Resistivity In general, the fault/shear zones are with fault/shear zones / profiling/soun shown as fall in resistivity and quartz / quartz veins etc. ding
pegmatite veins are indicated by rise of

resistivity.

37

Field Examples Various field examples illustrating utility of geophysical methods in exploration of various mineral deposits are given below:

38

39

Fig. 6.12 : Geophysics in coal exploration

40

SPR (KOhm) 0

SP (mV) 0 0

IP(mV/V) 10 40

Rest(Ohm-m)

Mag.Susc(x10

-6 )

0
0

3.5

-700 -10

2500 5000

300 600 0 0

-20

-20 -30

1 -20

-20

-20

-40

-40 -50

-40

-40

-40

2
-60

-60

-60

-60

-60

3
-70

1
-80 -80
-90

-80

-80

-80

DEPTH (m) -100

-100

-100 -110

-100

-100

-120

-120 -130

-120

-120

-120

-140

-140

-140

-140

-140

-150 -160 -160 -170 -180 -180

-190

-160

-160

-160

-180

-180

-180

-200

-200

-200

-200

-200

Casing

1. Amphibolite

Geophysical anomaly LITHOLOGS 2.Pegmatite with amphibolite 3. Amphibolite with Quartz vein.

Fig. 6.13 : Geophysical log of borehole DBH-1, basemetal prospect, Pali district, Rajasthan

Dhikan

Fig. 6.14 : Mise-a-la-masse Map, Borehole DBH-1,

Dhikan Area, Pali District, Rajasthan. FS 2008-09
(Body char ged at de pth of 12 0m) 150

100

50

DBH-1

-50

-100

220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20

-150

-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50

INDEX Old Working

Charging Point
Anomaly axis

41

6.4 Exploration This section deals with borehole planning, core logging and core sampling. 6.4.1 Borehole Planning General Although mineral exploration is concerned with answering a complex range of geological, mining and economic problems, it is based chiefly on geology. Hence a detailed geological map is a pre-requisite for carrying out any mineral exploration program. Based on the data marked on a detailed geological map depicting lithology, structure, altitudes, mineralized zones, old workings etc, planning of bore hole is made. Drilling is an important stage of the mineral exploration process where the third dimension of a prospect, viz. the subsurface geometry is defined. Drilling provides most of the information for the final evaluation of a prospect and will ultimately determine the fate of the prospect as a workable deposit. Due to its high costs drilling is usually only undertaken in the advanced stages of an exploration program, after the target site has been located by other cheaper methods, such as, geophysical surveys and by careful analysis of samples collected by teams of geochemists and geologists from the suspected target zone. Diamond drilling is the most expensive of all the drilling techniques, but its versatility allows it to be done at most surface and underground locations. Diamond core drilling is the only method available that provides a core, a complete record of geological structure and rock texture. It is also the only commonly used method that provides reliable samples for accurate geochemical testing. Auger Drills for Shallow Boreholes Shallow boreholes and also trial pits are methods of surface mineral exploration which obtain data on the depth, extent and quality of the mineral, the make up of overburden, and hydrological data. Shallow boreholes use small capacity
42

of rigs. Trial pits are mostly used in assessing shallow deposits, in particular sand and gravel. After the information is recorded the pits are backfilled and reinstated. In the Geological Survey of India truck-mounted Auger drills are used to spud shallow boreholes up to depth of 30m to 35m for getting exploration data from the soil covered target areas. Augers are drills, which have rods with 'spiral shaped flights' used to bring soft material to the surface. These are particularly used to sample placer deposits. Power augers are useful for deeper sampling in easily penetrated lithologic units in areas where a technique known as 'trenching' is not viable. Trenching is simply removing the top layer of earth and rock, usually used where ore bodies are at shallow levels in the ground. The sampling of trench can then be geochemically tested for traces of ore.

In soft ground augering is rapid and sampling procedures need to be well organized to cope with the material that is continuously being drawn to the surface by the spiral action of the auger head. Therefore, a lot of care is needed to minimize the mixing and contamination between different depth samples. Augers are light drills and are incapable of penetrating either hard ground or boulders. Borehole Planning in Simple Ore Deposits: For the geologically simple ore deposits, which are homogenous in extent with horizontal to sub-horizontal to low dipping in disposition and covering large area like coal, limestone, bauxite etc., the borehole planning is fairly simple. Usually vertical boreholes are drilled at regular grid pattern of 100m x 100m or 200m x 200m. The grid pattern can be modified according to situations such as the type of data required, heterogeneity of the rock formations and nature of deposits.

43

Borehole Planning in Deformed Ore Deposits (Base metals and Gold) The planning of boreholes is complex in base metals and precious metals. The planning of initial borehole is important. The fate of exploration project depends on the initial boreholes. The following guide lines are observed for planning initial boreholes. (1) The point of intersection of the mineralized zone should be planned to intersect the primary zone of the ore body below the oxidized zone/weathered zone. The intersections are planned generally at a depth of 20-30 m from the oxidized zone. The depth of oxidized zone is tentatively estimated from the study of gossan, weathered zone and in well sections. In case of any old mine existing in the area, the target point of intersection should be located at least 20-30 m below the deepest level of old working. The depth of old working can be tentatively fixed by old mine dump. At times one or two boreholes may indeed pass through the oxidized zone.

44

68
0

73
0

90
0

71
0

Fig. 6.16 Borehole on a geological map (2) Some amount of pitting and trenching may be carried out to expose the ore body at few places when it is covered by soil and the borehole area located on the basis of geological information available in such pits/trench. (3) The intersection of first few boreholes may be planned at the most promising locales and representative portion of the mineralized body.

45

(4)

Steeply dipping ore bodies may show reversal of dip directions. Such a behaviour needs to be recorded in planning subsequent boreholes.

General Practice to be Followed In Drilling (1) The bearing or Azimuth of the borehole should be perpendicular to the plane of the ore body to minimize the length of borehole and to get correct picture of the width of the body. (2) The first borehole should be short in length, but not too short that it does not reach the ore body. (3) The boreholes are located generally in the hanging wall side of the mineralized body. (4) For inclined boreholes, the angles with the horizontal are generally between 30-90. But it is advisable to restrict the boreholes between 40 -90 as shallower angle create lot of drilling difficulties which include high deviation and low core recoveries. (5) (6) (7) (8) Faults, fracture zones or mine dump, old workings etc. have to be avoided. Cutting of large thickness of very hard rock should be avoided. Environmental factors should be taken into account. Availability for water for drilling is to be assured.

Fixing of Borehole on Ground Keeping in view of the above factors, the boreholes are planned on the map. Profiles are drawn generally across the strike and anticipated sections are prepared. The proposed borehole is then fixed on the ground from the triangulation survey point with the help of the Theodolite or Telescopic alidade or suitable survey instruments. Once the borehole point is given on the ground its bearing and alignment is fixed by putting pegs along and across the borehole point for positioning of the drilling

46

machine. The rig is brought to site for its anchoring. The alignment or bearing is checked and it is ensured that the rig is perfectly horizontal (by spirit levels). The machine is finally anchored and the proposed angle of the borehole is fixed. Thus, the machine is all set to start drilling.

Fig. 6.17 : Fixing of borehole on ground

6.4.2 Core Logging The cores obtained by drilling are kept in core boxes, which are generally wooden and have partitions according to the size of the core. The wooden boxes area now a days replaced with G.I. core boxes to preservation of cores. The cores are kept with arrow markings and showing top and bottom of the core. Steel or wooden pegs are placed between each run and the depth of the borehole is written on them. There are two ways of keeping the core.

47

These days most of the drilling projects in the Geological Survey India, book pattern is adopted for keeping the core. Examination of Core The following guidelines are observed while examining the core. 1 2. The core should be cleaned and wetted to get a clear picture. The tools for examination of core are streak plate, grain size, index card, steel knife, pocket lens, steel tape, HCl acid etc. 3. Attitudes of structural features like bedding, foliation, fracture, cleavage etc. should be recorded and intersection of these planar structures with core axis, is to be determined. 4. Variation in the lithology, if any, in a run should be recorded taking into consideration the core recovery. 5. If core recovery is less, then it should be adjusted.

48

6. 7.

Quartz veins, calcite veins and other veins should be recorded depth wise. Nature of core eg. Broken, fractured, powdery etc. should be recorded. The naturally broken core pieces of 10cm length and above are to be measured and recorded for determination of Rock Quality Designation (RQD).

8. 9. a.

Sludge should be collected in sludge boxes/polythene bags. Mineralised portion of the core should be studied in greater details as follows. Nature of mineralisation eg. stringers, specks, disseminations and grain-size etc. should be mentioned.

b.

Ore minerals which can be identified should be mentioned eg:, galana, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, etc. The unidentified minerals should be described giving their properties.

c.

Visual estimate of the ore should be given. The percentage of metal in ore minerals is as follows :

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii ix. d. 10. 11.

Sphalerite-ZnS Galena PbS Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Bornite Cu5FeS4 Covellite CuS Chalcocite Cu2S Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2 Smithsonite ZnCO3 Cerussite PbCO3

67% Approximately 96% 34% 63% 63% 80% 57% 52% 77%

Sampling zones should be identified. Size of the bit and core should be invariably mentioned. Water loss zones, gaps in drilling (large voids) cavities, nature of starta should be mentioned.

49

12.

Core boxes of sulphide mineralisation should not be kept in open. This results in oxidation and tarnishing.

Core Angle Core axis is the borehole line that passes through the center of core along the direction of drilling. The angle between core axis and bedding / foliation plane of the rock unit that had undergone drilling is known as core angle (). This angle is very important in core logging for calculation of true width of the strata as well as to know about the dip of the beds at that depth.

For measurement purpose the impression of the planar structure on the core is first marked by a marker pen / pencil. Then the pencil is placed along the imaginary core axis. Finally with the help of rounded protractor the angle is measured. For better accuracy the angle is measured in both up dip and down dip direction and mean of the two is taken. Recording of borehole data The details of core should be recorded in a tabular form as given below Borehole No. - X Location Latitude Departure Angle and Azimuth (bearing) RL of borehole collar RL of borehole bottom Total depth drilled (m.) -

Date of commencement Date of completion -

The table for recording of borehole data is given for core logging
50

Table (Core logging)

Drill run (m) Sr. No. Box / Run From Core Length recovery of run (m.) Drilled Core To (m) % Rock quality designation Lithology M
Where M is

Structure

Mineralisation

Core angle

% Color, texture, mineral Bedding, foliation,

fractures Ore minerals and their and nature description, of

Size of borehole Remarks and casing

cumulative
length of core pieces more

composition other structural mineralization,

nature of features visual (VE) estimate and other

than 10 cms.

rock

details

51

6.4.3 Borehole Geophysics Borehole geophysical logging is the systematic study related to depth for obtaining information on physical parameters in borehole drilled during exploration, testing and exploitation of sub-surface natural resources. It all started in 1928 when Schlumberger brothers first made electrical well measurements in the Pechelborn oil field in France and thereafter geophysical well logging is a regular input in petroleum exploration. The application of borehole geophysics has since expanded manifold and currently it is an integral part of sub-surface exploration of various mineral commodities. It plays an important role especially when the core recovery is poor or nil. Electrical logging of boreholes drilled during base metal exploration play a significant role in 1) finding the depth and thickness of mineralized intersections, especially in zones of core loss or when borehole diameter is small or drilling is by percussion, 2) correlation of mineralized zones from borehole to borehole, 3) delineation of lithology and interpretation of surface geophysical data and 4) planning borehole geophysical surveys. Generally self-potential (S.P.) and resistance /resistivity (or conductivity) are considered as the main parameters to infer conductive zones of metallic mineralization in electrical logging. However, electrical polarization ability is also important because the occurrence of base metal deposits in a disseminated form is quite common. Although electromagnetic logging is increasingly employed I. P. logging offers some possible advantages, even when the ore comprises massive sulphide and is a good conductor. This is because the target size is frequently increased by the surrounding zone of alteration and disseminated sulphides which are responsive to the I. P. method. Moreover, the target is in effect brought closer to the hole. In addition, experience has shown that some zones of a fairly high percentage of sulphide, which one would presume to be conductors, do not in fact respond to EM methods but appear clearly as I.P. targets. Thus, I. P. can provide a
52

useful detection log for larger electrode spacing to detect anomalous zones away from the hole.

6.4.4 Core Sampling The core is halved into two, one for sampling and analyses and the other for record. Core splitting is done using a rock saw or an impact core splitter. There is always the problem of obtaining a representative split of the core. Great care must be taken to avoid this problem. Sometimes the entire core is analyzed to avoid this problem, but usually only if logging is extremely thorough. Sampling Sampling is done to ascertain the grade of mineral and metal values that vary in proportion from one place to another. One single sample taken from one part of the ore body generally does not provide a representative picture of the grade of the entire ore body. A large number of well-spaced samples are required for ascertaining the average grade with an acceptable amount of accuracy. Normally, no amount of sampling will give a truly representative picture of the ore body. There is always some degree of error between the actual value and the value computed from the samples. The aim of sampling is only to reduce the error to the minimum possible level. In addition to knowing the grade of the ore, sampling also reveals the pattern of mineralisation within the ore richer and leaner ore portions. Similarly, the limits of mineralisation towards both the hanging and footwall contacts can also be precisely defined by careful sampling. After examination of the core, the mineralized zones are demarcated and sampling zones are fixed. The sample lengths may vary from 25 cm to 50 cm

53

depending on the nature of mineralisation, core size and core recovery. The core loss should be adjusted in all the samples in a particular run. These samples are cut into two halves in longitudinal fashion by core splitter/ core cutter. Subsequently the samples are crushed and powdered up to -120 to 200 mesh. The size of the sample may be reduced by conning and quartering process. Half of it is sent to chemical laboratory and the other half is preserved as duplicate sample for further studies and check analyses. The table of recording of sampling data is as follows:
Depth Assay x Length Actual Rock Chemical along of sample % core type assay in % width Sp. Box Sample borehole Remarks no. No. gravity sample length recovery From To (m.) (m.) Cu Pb Zn Cu Pb Zn (m.) (m.)

50 gms to 100 gms of sample finally will be packed and sent to chemical laboratory for analysis. Remaining sample will be packed in polythene bags, numbered and kept as duplicate for future reference.

Coning and Quartering

54

1. Assay checks Samples are subject to following tests i. ii. Quantitative assay for principle constituent. Semi-quantitative spectrum assay and quick procedure to determine all elements in one. iii. Assay for useful (by products) and harmful constituents.

2. Check samples It is customary to send about 5-10% of samples drawn from the same zone with different number for checking assay values are given by laboratory (Recording manual errors etc.). 3. Duplicate samples Out of the duplicate sample one set of duplicate samples can be sent to another laboratory to determine of the analysis and random error, if any. 4. Composite sample It is customary to prepare composite sample by combining a number of samples for determination of other elements in addition to the normal constituents. The cumbersome and costly chemical analytical methods forbid the termination of all or large number of elements in all the samples collected. Care should be taken here so that equal amount of sample should be taken to mix and make a composite sample. 5. Sample Error

55

i.

Random assay error. Measurement error due to imperfect equipment, human eye on judgment.

ii.

Systematic Error: Error due to crude mistake, miscalculation, misprint, confusion in numbering, shortcomings of sampling techniques and treatment.

Testing of samples Samples collected during exploration are generally subjected to the following tests: 1. 2. Assay of useful constituents and harmful ingredients. Mineralogical investigations to ascertain mineral composition, grain size, texture and structure. 3. Semi-quantitative spectral analysis to determine all the elements present in the ore. 4. Technological tests to establish the most efficient method for treating the mineral. 5. Tests to determine certain physical properties of the mineral to establish the grade and mining methods and to estimate the reserves. Of these, in most cases, only the first test is done to establish the grade of the ore. The others are done as and when a special necessity for such tests arises. A few important tests which find application in both exploration and ore beneficiation are given below. Laboratory-scale examination Certain laboratory investigations are conducted as a part of mineral exploration and beneficiation. The laboratory scale investigations are listed below:

56

1. 2. 3. 4.

Testing physical characteristics Petrological tests Chemical analysis X-ray and spectroscopic and other method.

Testing of physical characteristics The aim of these tests is to establish the hardness, specific gravity, brittleness and toughness of the sample. Determination of grain sizes also may be involved in certain cases. Petrological test These may involve a quick examination of the minerals in a powdered from for identifying the major minerals. Detailed petrological studies are done by obtaining thin sections of samples and examining them under a petrological microscope. The details studied are the mineral assemblage, ore and gangue minerals, texture, grain size, types of bonds between the various ore minerals and between ore and gangue minerals, etc. Besides, studies can be carried out for establishing the possible sequence of mineralisation or paragenesis. In complex cases, it may become necessary to carry out modal analyses, grain counting etc. which can be carried out only on microscope with a mechanical stage. Correlation on the basis of mineralogical composition and textural features can be done by these studies. Petrological studies are followed by ore-microscopic studies where the polished ore surfaces are examined in an ore microscopic study where the polished ore surfaces are examined in an ore microscope. Ore microscopic studies can establish ore texture, grain size, and shape and the relationship between the various ore minerals and gangues. Minerals are recognised in this case by their colour, brightness, anisotropism, hardness, internal reflection, etch effects, cleavage, polishing, characteristic behavior under oil immersion etc.
57

Chemical analysis Conventional chemical analysis aims at establishing the chemical composition of the ore minerals and gangue. The valuable element is determined by chemical analysis and its percentage availability with respect to the whole minerals is expressed which helps in determining whether an ore can be commercially mined or not. X-ray, spectroscopic and other methods X-ray analysis helps in determining the mineral composition of certain ores which are otherwise difficult for determination. The mineralogy of bauxite for example can be reliably determined only by x-ray studies. X-ray fluorescence tests are helpful in identifying the rare elements. Modern equipment are able to provide percentage of minerals in a given powdered sample. Minerals and ores are known to possess certain special characteristics which show out conspicuously in the presence of activators. This principal has been made use of in the neutron activation analysis which is the most reliable and sensitive method for trace element determination. This method involves high cost though up to 55 elements can be detected by it with very high degree of precision. From the data so obtained, the geochemical history and ore genesis can be inferred which in turn may lead to the discovery of valuable mineral deposits in adjoining areas. REE and trace elements geochemisty is being increasingly used as a prospecting tool during on going exploration programmes.

58

7. RESERVE ESTIMATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS The main aim of geological survey is to size up rocks, minerals, oil. Natural gases and underground water etc. for the use of men kind. This sizing up of the ore body is known as reserve, which tells about the quantity, the quality and amenability to commercial exploration of raw material (ore, rock, coal, oil etc.). The calculation of reserve of prospects, deposit and mine is done at every stage right from preliminary to last stage of exploration and mining. Reserve are computed to determine the extent of exploration, development; distribution of values; daily and annul output probable and possible, productive life of the mine: method of extraction; plant design treatment, processing, requirements of capital equipment, labour, power and to prepare raw material report of a project. 7.1 Principles and Assumptions Ore reserves and grade estimation principle involve certain unavoidable but un- provable (i.e. geological uncertainties) assumptions based upon some accepted principles like. 1. The sampling followed is reliable and random enough for enabling the sampling average judiciously arrived at the approximate deposit mean vise population mean. 2. Basic parameters established in any ore body based upon points estimates such as surface, drill holes etc. extent to the adjoining areas, only in consonance with appropriate principle of interpretation. 3. The commonest principles of rule of gradual change and/or rule of nearest points have capability of generating realistic estimate in the matter of ore volume computations.

Rule of Gradual Change According to rule of gradual change or law of linear function, all elements of a mineral body can be expressed numerically, change gradually and continuously along a straight line connection two adjoining stations (Fig.7.1). With the help of this principle one can calculate the grade, thickness or reserve of any unknown point or block falling between two known points or block values.

While mining this helps in prediction the grade or reserve of the sub-blocks for future planning, the volume reserve grade or thickness of the unknown point falling between two points can be determined by graphical and mathematical procedure. Mathematical Procedure : The following formula are used to determine value, reserve, grade or thickness: Ga (d1) + Gb (d2) ---------------------(d1) + (d2) Ta (d1) + Tb (d2) ---------------------(d1) + (d2) Ra (d1) + Rb (d2) ---------------------(d1) + (d2)

Gc

Tc

Rc

Where Gc Ga Gb d2 d2 = = = = = Grade at point C the unknown point Grade at point A the known point Grade at point B the known point Distance of C from B Distance of C from A

Ta, Tb and Tc are the thickness at point A, B, and C respectively. Similarly Ra, Rb and Rc are the reserve at point A, B and C respectively. Graphical Procedure: In Fig. 7.2 the measurement of vertical height at any point between point A and B of reserve, volume, grade or thickness will be value at the point. Similarly in Fig. 7.3 the required distance from point. A or B can be determine from the known value.

Rule of Nearest Points: This is also known as rule of equal influence and according to this the value of any point between two station is considered constant, equal to the value of the nearest station. In a general case of borehole A and B with thickness t1 and t2, the value of each one extent to midpoint M between holes (Fig. 7.4). Any point on line AB or in the area of t1 or t2, except M; is inside the linear or area of influence of a station A or B and near to it than to the adjoining one. Thus this property gives the rule its name of nearest point.

The rule of nearest point is widely used for construction of equal area of influence for areas and volumes of individual intersection. In most of the cases the rule of nearest point is used for reserve calculation. Geological, Mining and Economic Constrain The rule of nearest point and gradual change is governed by geological, mining and economic considerations. In a simple case of two drill holes with corresponding thickness t1 and t2 of ore and a prominent fault between them, the area of influence may be assigned on the basis of geological interpretation as shown in Fig 7.5 and 7.6 (depending on the strike and dip of the fault). The geological interference include natural geological boundaries due to structural features (folds, faults, change in strike and dip and other discontinuity) change in characters of mineralization, thinning out or pinching of ore shoots, zoning, weathering, different physical properties, heterogeneous composition varied alteration and presence of detrimental constituents.

Blocks Common technological, physiographic and economic grounds for inference in construction of blocks are topography, thickness of overburden or ratio of overburden to thickness of ore body, depth of water level, mining method, processing methods and cost of extraction; also property section, township and state boundaries. Beside this administrative problem also play an important role in demarcation of the blocks. Fig. 7.7 shows an example of construction of block on the basis of geologic structures.

Pre-Assumption a) Physical continuity of the ore body within the point of testing and also beyond but disrupted by geological discontinuities. b) Success in replicating any irregular natural shape and size to possible geometrical configuration, capable of measurements. c) Nature of ore necessarily changes smoothly from point to point in any general pattern sampling, geological, mathematical or like. d) Applicability of mensuration and integration techniques for ore volume estimation in all probable shape and sizes. e) Characters of samples recovered to be representative in spite of the known recovery of only 52.2% in case of NV size hole (by volume ), under test condition and assured 100% recovery on the basis of length parameter measurement. The ultimate object of an exploration at any stage is to compute the reserve of the mineral body and that include the following: 1. 2. 3. Determination of the quantity of minerals and all its valuable contents. Determination of quality and grade of mineral. Assertaining spatial distribution of the mineral in the deposit as a whole and in its separate blocks and 4. Reliability of the estimates of reserve (Categories). By the exploration technique normally insitu ore reserves (or geological reserve) are computed without allowing the loss or dilution. Other classes of reserves are calculated at the mining stage. The insitu reserve can be subdivided in two major groups.

Industrial reserves: Economically important with present mining techniques, beneficiation and smelting under present economic conditions.

Non-Industrial reserves: Industrially important in future when new mining beneficiation and smelting methods are developed and / or there is change in general economic condition of the area.

Parameters for Reserve Estimation Reserve is determined by multiplying the volume of the ore body by the bulk density. For the calculation of reserve the following parameters are to be defined and determined. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Cut off grade Stopping width Weighted average and average grade Tonnage factors Core recovery Thickness Strike influence or strike length Dip length or width influence Correlation of lode

7.2 Cut off grade Cut off grade mainly depend upon many factors such as economic scenario of the area, country, international market, value, strategic minerals, nature of deposit, nature of occurrence, concentration techniques, method of mining and requirement of industries. The cut off which is taken directly from mine without admixing is known as natural cut off. On the basis of economic consideration the cut off is determined by the following formula

Ct

Pc x 100 ----------Vm = = = Cut off grade Production cost Value of mineral content

Ct Pc Vm

Statistical Determination of Cut off Grade The cut off grade of a prospect can be determined by preparing the histogram of all samples analysed. The sharp fall and flattening point may be taken as the natural cut off (Fig 7.8 & 7.9)

To determine the optimum reserve and average grade of a deposit the reserve should be calculated at different cut off say for copper the calculation may be done for 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6% and 0.8% or if required for more cut off. Similarly for Pb- Zn cut off grade may be taken as 2%, 3%, 4%, 5% and 6% or as per requirement. Looking at the present economic condition of the market about 10% to 12% average grade is required to exploit the lead + zinc mine in a new area. Stopping width In general the minimum stopping width is taken as 2.0 m for underground mining methods. However, for open cast mining the bench thickness is taken as

stopping width, which varies from 2m to 5m. In some cases like noble metal the minimum stopping width may be taken as 1.0 m but that is in rare case. Weighted Average and Average Grade The mineralised zone may be termed as the zone, which contains the ore mineral in traces or in visible quantity. However, the zones that contain the ore mineral or element equivalent to or more than the cut off grade are defined as lode or ore zones. The weighted average of lode may be determine by taking the average of samples value if the samples are equal in volume, but this is in rare case. The sample width depends upon run length, percentage of core recovery, lithological change and grade. Therefore, all the samples may not be of equal length or volume. In such cases the weighted average of the lode is determined by the following formula. Vta Vta Is As Is = = = = = ls x As1s Weighted average or average grade Length of sample Assay value of sample Length of samples

For the determination of lode only those sample will be considered which have value equal to or more than cut off grade and the thickness of the continuous sample is equal to or more than stopping width i.e. 2 m or more. However, while determining the lode thickness, samples with lean values (i.e. less than cut off grade) with less than stopping width (i.e. less than 2 m) falling between high values (more than cut off grade; have to be considered provided that overall grade of lode do not fall below cut off grade. Suppose in one opening or drill hole three lode are intersected than in that case overall average grade of the opening have to be determined by the following formula: Wta1 x t1 + Wta2 x t2 + Wta3 x t3 ----------------------------------------t1 + t2 + t3

Agr

Wta t1 Agr

= = =

Weighted average of lode No. 1 Thickness of the lode No. 1 Average grade

Similarly the reserve and average grade calculated for different block have to be further averaged to determine the overall reserve and average grade of the deposit with the help of following formula Ag R Ag Agr = = = = R x Agr/R Reserve of the block Average grade of deposit Average grade of deposit or block

Tonnage Factor Tonnage factor or bulk density is a multiplier to the volume for the determination of reserve. The bulk density is determined by the following methods. The difference in density and bulk density is the volume of voids. The bulk density is determined for large volume in which the opening in the rocks (joint, fracture, brecciation, gouge material etc.) are also included where as density is determined of a small piece of rock or mineral. The bulk density or density may be determined by the following method. Cubical opening method Dig up a pit of lm x lm x lm size and weight all the material (rock, mineral etc.). This weight is the tonnage factor. In general (in exploration stage) in case of sulphide ore deposit at initial stage of exploration it is not possible to determine the bulk density by this method. However, in the case of limestone, iron ore, rock phosphates etc. exposed on the surface it is easy to determine tonnage factor by this method. In the mining state normally bulk density is determined by this method.

Conventional Density Measurement Method The density of samples (small or hand specimen) is determined by measuring the weight and volume of the samples by traditional method. This may also be determined by weighing the sample in the air and in the water by steel yard balance by the following formula: D D W V D W1 W2 = = = = = = = W/V Density Weight Volume W1/W1-W2 Weight in air Weight in water

This method will give the actual density where as the bulk density is found slightly less than the density. Determination of Bulk Density Using Drill Cores The bulk density can be determined by measuring the length of the core or half split core. Since diameter of the NX, BX, AX, NUT, AUT etc. bit size are known, therefore, the volume of the core can be computed by the following formula. V V V = R 2 1 (if the core is not split) = 1/2 R 2 1 if the core is half split (Fig. 7.10) = Volume, R=Radius of core sample, l=length of core sample

Weight the measured core and determine the bulk density by DB =M/V where D B is the bulk density and M is the mass of the measured core. The average on very sizable number of determination may be taken to represent the insitu tonnage factor. The samples should be taken from all the variations of the grade , which are taken for lode computation for true representative of the lode or deposit.

Core Recovery Core recovery plays an important role in computation of ore reserves. Therefore the core recovery should be very high at least in the mineralized zone. In NX core the actual core-recovery by volume is 52.2% and BX size is 40%. However, here for all practical purpose the core recovery is measure lengthwise i.e. by recovery = (Lr/L) x 100 where Lr is core recovered and L is run length. If core recovery in the lode is more than 95% then for the reserve calculation purpose it may be taken as 100%. However, it will depend upon the nature of deposit, its occurrence and mineral content. If core recovery is less than 95% than correction factor have to be applied while calculation of thickness of the lode. Mainly there are three options. Dilution Method In this method the assay value of recovered core is distributed in the whole run assuming that the part of core which is not recovered is barren; By this method the grade will go down the assay value. Gr = A* x L 1 /L Where Gr = Grade A = Assay value of sample

*Only in case where core recovery is more than 90%. Reduced Width Method In this case the core loss is considered as voids and the lode width is taken as the length of the core recovered. Thus the thickness of the lode will reduce; however, the grade will be as per assay value. Equal grade method This method is adopted where core recovery is more than 90%

or 95%. In this method the grade of recovered length is taken as the grade of run with the assumption that the uncovered portion also contains the same assay value. Thus the run length is the thickness of the lodes. In the loss of the core, the sludge samples may give some idea but that cannot be considered for the following reasons. i) The sludge represents fully the uncased column in borehole rather than the bit end. ii) The sludge collection contraption could only hold middling, with the slim falling running off and the heavier particles going down in the rock crevasses. iii) The sludge extraction is the function of return water, which were minimized (water loss) near the fault or shear zone. Thickness After fixing up the cut off grade the thickness of the body is determined by computing the thickness of the lode in individual hole, after giving the angle correction to determine the true thickness and then taking the average of lode thickness of all the boreholes. The openings or boreholes may not cut ore body perpendicular, therefore it will give the apparent thickness (Fig-7.11). The corrections of apparent thickness are required to be determined in zenith and azimuth deflection of the path of borehole. Thus, there are three possibilities and the true thickness can be determined with the help of following formula:

Azimuth and Zenith Perpendicular to Strike and Dip Plane In this case the intersection of the boreholes will give true thickness and there is no need of any correction (Fig. 7.12 A & 7.12B). Azimuth perpendicular to the strike and zenith oblique to the dip plane In this the borehole falls in the vertical plane perpendicular to strike but not perpendicular to the dip plane (Fig. 7.13 A & B and 7.14 A & B)

a) If borehole is vertical (Fig 7.13 A and B) Tr = Tv x Cos = Th x sin Where Tr = True thickness Tv= Thickness along vertical hole = Dip angle of ore body with core axis Th= Horizontal thickness b) If borehole is inclined (Fig. 7.14 A and 7.14B) Tr= Ti Sin where Ti= thickness along inclined borehole = Angle between core axis and bedding plane (acute angle) Azimuth and Zenith Oblique to the Strike and Dip Plane In general case when the dips of the body and hole inclination are unconformable (hole crossing the body at sharp angle to the strike and dip), the thickness is found by following formula (Fig 7.15 A and 7.15 B). Tr = = Tap x cos cos (cos tan + tan ) or Tap (cos sin cos + cos sin )

Th = Tap (cos cos + contan sin ) Tv = Tap cos (cos tan + tan ) Where = = = angle between the plane of the dip and the plane of the hole direction Dip of the ore body Angle of the hole intersected in the borehole

Strike influence (strike length) The strike length is determined on the basis of openings along the strike of the ore body, the strike influence of each opening is determined on the basis of nearest point and gradual variation. In the case of correlate able lode the strike influence is taken as half the distance between two openings (Fig-7.16). In non-correlate able lode also the distance along strike is taken as half the distance between two points or less than that depending upon the nature and variation of the ore body. More details are discussed under reserve calculation method.

Dip length influence As strike influence the dip length influence, for each opening is also taken as half the distance between the adjacent openings in the case of inclined ore body (Fig. 7.17), if the ore body have been intersected at different levels.

For the computation of the reserve of each opening the volume is determined by multiplying the strike influence with dip length influence and thickness intersected.

On the basis of strike length, dip length and thickness the geometry or morphology of the ore body can be determined and that is classifed as follows: 7.3 Morphology of the Ore Body and Variability To determine the geometric configuration of the ore body the exploration by opening carried out in all the spatial direction. Say X, Y and Z where X= Strike length Y= Depth or dip length Z= Width or thickness Geometrically mineral bodies fall into three main morphological type: Sheet like bodies The horizontal, low to steeply dipping beds, sheet like bodies lenses and other flat bodies will have two long and one short dimensions (Fig 7.18). Horizontal, low dipping bed, X and Y > Z to steeply dipping beds.

Pipe or Lensoid Body In this ore body will have one long and two short dimensions, either X>Y and Z or Y >X and Z (Fig 7.19).

Isometric Bodies Isometric bodies such as great stock works, pockets and other small bodies have more or less all dimension equal i.e. X= Y = Z

In simple homogeneous ore bodies morphological features like thickness etc., vary gradually and continuously, excepting, in cases of abrupt tectonic disturbances. In

complex ore bodies' variation are irregular in thickness and quality. Sometimes the mineral bodies suddenly pinches out and thickness tends to be zero. Sometime deposits consists a series of parallel en-echelon ore bodies or a group of small lenses and pockets separated by barren interval (Fig. 7.20). Depending upon the shape, size and quality of the mineral bodies the different methods are used to compute the ore reserves. 7.4 Ore Reserve Calculation Methods The exploration delineates the geometry and quality of the ore body and with the help of interpolation and extrapolation the volume of the ore body can be determined. This volume estimation is a geological exercise rather than mathematical exercises as lots of interpretation, interpolation and extrapolation are required on the basis of geological variations. The volume of the ore can be determine by using various method depending upon the type of exploration, opening space, complex or simple nature of deposit and quality of deposit. Therefore, two or three methods should be used to check the volume or reserve. The tonnage and grade is calculated by conventional methods based on geometrical models such as square, rectangular, polygonal and triangular blocks and method of sections such as cross, longitudinal vertical and plans or horizontal (structural contours) sections. Successful application of a particular method depends upon the shape, attitude, complexity of a deposit and pattern of sampling. The conventional methods have the following shortcomings: a) The area of influence assigned to individual openings / drill holes usually not actual. b) c) The methods do not provide confidence in reserve and They do not relate with amount of drilling and hence hamper optimization of drilling cost.

To overcome the above shortcomings classical statistical techniques using probability concept, moving average, variogram, krigging etc. are in practice by the exploiting agencies. In conventional methods the different methods are used for different types of deposits as detailed below: Reserve computation of homogeneous bedded horizontal or low dipping deposits In general this type of deposit consists limestone, iron ore, coal, gypsum, potash, evaporites bauxite etc. In such type of deposit the different methods are used depending upon the type of opening on grid pattern, irregular pattern and alternate pattern (Fig. 7.21) etc. and these arc described in details in following page:

Grid pattern and included area methods This method is adopted where the opening samplings or borehole drilling is done along a rectangular or square grid pattern. In this method one rectangle or square of the grade is taken (Fig. 7.22) and the grade thickness is computed of the center point of the grid by taking the average of thickness of all the four openings (at the corner of the rectangular of square) as detailed below.

T1+T2+T3+T4 Thickness T= ---------------4 This thickness of center point or average thickness of the four openings T1. T2, T3 and T4 are thickness intersected in BH1, BH2. BH3 and BH4 respectively (Fig.23). T1C1 + T2C2 + T3C3 + T4C4 Average grade Gav = --------------------------------------T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 C1, C2, C3 and C4 are the assay value of lode intersected in each borehole Volume V = X x Y x T Reserve of one rectangle or square = R= V x Bd X - Length along strike or length along X grid Y = Length along Y grid Bd=Bulk density Extended area and grid pattern method In this method, the area of influence is taken around each opening, thus constructing a rectangular keeping opening at the center of the rectangle (Fig. 7.23). Thus the thickness intersected in the borehole becomes the thickness of rectangle and reserve of each rectangle is as follow and grade remain as intersected in the borehole.

Volume = V = ST Where T S = = Thickness of borehole Area of recharge

Reserve of one block of rectangular = R = V x Bd = S x T x Bd Where Bd R = Bulk density = Reserve of one rectangle

Reserve of total deposit = RE = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 Rn R1G1 + R2G2 + R3G3 + ...........................Rn Gn -----------------------------------------------------R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + ...........................Rn

Grade of deposit, Gd =

G1, G2, G3. Gn is the grade of each rectangle or block R1 + R2 + R3. Rn is the reserve of each rectangle or block. Irregular grid pattern included area methods or Triangle Method When the sampling or opening drilling is done at irregular pattern, triangles are drawn to determine the area using included area method. In this the triangles are constructed keeping each open at the apex of triangle (Fig. 7.24). The average thickness and grid of the triangle is determined along with the surface area as detailed below :

T1 + T2 + T3 Average thickness = Ta --------------3 T1, T2, and T3 are the thickness of lode intersected in three boreholes. T1 C1 + T2C2 Average Grid = --------------------T1 + T 2 + T 3 C 1 , C 2 and C 3 are the grade of lode intersected in each of the three boreholes. Surface area triangle S = perpendicular x base. Volume of triangle = V 1 = S x Ta Irregular grid pattern and area influence method or polygon method. The procedure is to determine the area of influence of exploratory point or opening (pit or borehole) and construct polygon blocks by perpendicular bisectrix method of the triangle (Fig.7.25) as described above the apex of triangle are located at the point of opening. The polygon can also be constructed by joining the angle of bisectrix of each triangle (Fig. 7.26) but sometime this may give false influence area therefore, perpendicular bisectrix should be used for the computation of the surface area. The area may be measured by the graphical method or by planimeter or by computation dividing into simple triangles. The height of each polygon is the thickness of the ore body with a polygonal base. The entire outlined ore body is divided into number of polygonal prism of different height i.e. thickness. The grade intersected in the opening is the grade of entire polygonal prism. Volume of polygon= S x T Where S = Surface of polygon

T= Thickness of polygon or ore body.

Method of Isolines The method of isolines is used in geological exploration to represent the variability of shape and properties of mineral bodies. This method depends upon the rule of gradual change from one opening to other. In this technique the equal value (thickness or grade) points are joined by a simple line just like drawing the topographic contours. This is too laborious especially when applied to multi elemental deposits where the isolines are to be drawn separate for each element. However, with the help of computer ii has become easy. The determination of reserves and grade by this method is very helpful in open cast mining especially when one has to decide the bench .wise reserve and grade. When contours are drawn using different values the different terminology are used as below.

Isopach Maps Method The isopach maps are drawn through points at which the formation or lode are of equal true thickness (Fig-7.27). In open cast mining for benching purpose the contour interval may be taken equal to bench height and that will give the bench wise reserve and total reserve. Suppose the bench height is kept 2m then contour interval should be taken as 2m. Besides this-the benches are kept horizontal, therefore the contours are drawn with the RL of the thickness i.e. just like the topographic contours.

In Fig. 7.27 isopach plan is prepared on the basis of extrapolation contours at 2m intervals for actual thickness. The area falling between each contour is to be determined for example in S 1 from 0-2m, S 2 from 2m -4m, S 3 from 4m -6m, S 4 from 6m - 8m and S 5 from 8m -9m (9m is the maximum thickness). In such case the volume is calculated as follows. V=S x T, V,= S 1 x (0+2)/2 Therefore, V=S 1 (0+2)/2+S 2 (2+4)/2+S 3 (4+6)/2+S 4 6+8/2+S 5 (8+9)/2 The isopach can also be transferred on the vertical plane considering the horizontal thickness; this may be named as longitudinal vertical isopach map. In this case the horizontal thickness is considered with 2 m contour interval (Fig. 7.28). The method of calculation of volume is same as described above.

Isochore Map The map is prepared just like the isopach map but here instead of true thickness the thickness intersected in the opening is considered and contours are drawn. Isograde Map In isopach map the contours of different thickness are drawn which gives the quantity of the deposit. To understand the quality of the deposit the grade of respective thickness is plotted and isograde lines are drawn which gives an idea about the quality of the deposit and its variation (Fig. 7.29 and 7.30).

The isograde map of particular slice or bench can also be drawn to understand the variation of the quality in that particular slice or bench (Fig. 31). In this way different isograde maps are drawn for different slice or bench.

Reserve computation of moderately to steeply dipping tabular ore body (more or less homogeneous) In general base metals and noble metals, especially in India, occur in the tectonically disturbed area. In such area the ore body shows complex geometry because of folding and faulting. To understand the geometry of the ore body in three dimension different section and plans are prepared which give an idea of variation in the shape and quality of the ore body in three dimensions. These sections are also used for reserve calculations as detailed below. i) Cross section method iii) Level plan method. 7.4.1 Cross Section Method The cross section or transverse section prepared across the ore body represent the actual geological features in shape and quality. Cross section is prepared ii) Longitudinal section method

perpendicular to the strike along which openings or borehole have been drilled and in such case azimuthal corrections are not required. The preparation of cross section is as simple as preparing the geological cross section of any body, however, in this case the data collected by openings or boreholes are also considered (Fig. 7.32).

For the calculation of the reserve by this method the area of influence and quality is considered on the basis of the rule of nearest point. In estimates made by this method the ore bodies are divided into various segments by transverse cross section lines spaced at equal or in some cases at unequal intervals. In the cross section area method the reserve is calculated for individual opening and the area of influence of that opening is measured on the cross section (Fig. 7.33) or calculated by measuring actual thickness and dip length (Table-1). In this way the reserve of individual lode intersected in individual opening is estimated and from that reserve and grade of cross section with its strike influence is estimated. Thus reserve of each section is estimated and there by whole of the block. With the help of cross section the areas of different influence distance with degree of confidence and reliability are measured which can be defined to different category (Fig. 34).

Longitudinal vertical projected section method This method i s very helpful in correlating the ore body along the strike which is very important factor. This method is useful in determining the reserve of complex ore body like lensoid, vein like tabular and ore shoot body. !n longitudinal vertical project section the R.L. of the intersection of the ore body is projected on any vertical plane parallel to the strike of the ore body (Fig. 7.35) and lodes are correlated. In this the area of influence is taken half the distance between openings and that is measured on the section or computed by multiplying the X and Y.

If the ore body is inclined in the dip correction is applied to determine the actual area or the dip correction is given to the dip length to determine the actual dip length or actual dip length is measured by the cross section. In this method the reserve of individual lode in individual intersection is determined just like above described case, the difference is that in this case the area determined by the longitudinal vertical section (Fig. 7.35) is multiplied by the true thickness to know the volume of the body. The volume can also be determined by constructing the panel. Panel length for each intersection falls between half the distance between two intersections on either side. Width is taken the difference between upper RL and lower RL. The thickness is taken as the ore body intersected by a horizontal plane i.e. horizontal thickness. After determining the reserve and grade of the individual lode the reserve and grade of whole of the deposit is determined. 7.4.2 Level Plan Level plan is prepared by plotting of the lode intersection on a horizontal plan passing through the level of intersection or at particular R.L. (Fig. 7.36). It represents the lode at that particular level. The lode can be

joined along strike on the level plane and the strike length can be determined. The level plan gives the horizontal thickness of the lode, which can be converted into true thickness. Level plane is very helpful in deciphering the correlation of the lode, geometry of the ore body and strike length. The dip length of the ore body can be determined by the two level plane prepared at different R.L (The dip length between two level plane with different R.L. can be determined by the following formula). Since strike length, dip length and the thickness is known, therefore, the volume of the ore body can be determined. Dip L= Difference in R.L. / Sin Q Q-is the dip angle of the ore body

Average method In this method the complex body is transferred to a simple average body (Fig. 7.37) by taking the average of thickness (true thickness intersected in the each openings and dip length. The strike length is determined by level plane or by L.V. Section. Volume of the ore body equivalent to average thickness x average dip length x strike length.

7.4.3 Statistics and Error Estimation While computing the reserves by conventional methods there are ample chances of committing errors at various stages because of limitation of classical methods. To overcome the limitations of conventional methods the classical statistical techniques are employed as an efficient and handy tool for the exploration geologist

to check the results of conventional methods. The errors can be committed at the following stages. Error in sampling Error in analysis Error in estimation of average grade. Error in computed average grade and analytical assay of composite samples. Error in determinations of bulk density. Error in estimation of thickness Confidence limit of tonnage

Error in Sampling It is stated earlier that population mean is the deposit mean as the sampling is reliable and random enough to represent the deposit. Any error in samples mean will reflect the error in deposit mean. By plotting the histogram of the sample value it can be predicted that the values show normal distribution or log normal distribution and accordingly the statistical treatment is applied. The method provides arithmetic mean, variance, confidence limit etc. This can be cross checked by probability plot of cumulative distribution of the metal. This limits of error or error of mean or confidence interval of population mean can be determine with the help of following formula, if it shows normal distribution. For log normal distribution the formula is used. M - t5% D/<M<M+5% D/<M Where M = mean of sample. D= Standard deviation N=Number of samples T5% = t value form table at 95% confidence it can be calculated for 90%, 95% 97.5% and 99% confidence.

M-t5% D/N

indicate the lower limit of error at 95% confidence

M+t5%D/N indicate the upper limit of error at 95% confidence Error in Analysis The error can occur due to manual and method of analysis and this can be cross checked by the check sampling. The analyses of primary samples and check samples may be cross checked by the following statistical studies. Statistical Parameter Number of samples Mean of check assay Standard deviation of principal Standard deviation of check F value Correlation coefficient Pooled t Paired t Average random error Average systematic error Difference x 100 Average relative deviation of principal assay = ----------------------------------------No. of sample x mean of Principal In this the correlation coefficient should be equivalent to 1.0 if there is no error at any palace and departure to it will give the error, which can be determined on the percentage basis. Error in Estimation of Average Grade The error or standard error of average grade is determined just like as it is determined in case of assay values of samples. However, here only those values are considered which are used in estimation of average grade or in determining the lode thickness.

Error in computed average grade and analytical assay of composite samples The average grade of the lode is computed at the particular cut off. To check the computed average grade the analysis of the composite samples is carried out and comparative statistical studies as detailed above (under error in analysis) may be done to determine the error and acceptance of the results. Error in determining the bulk density If bulk density of a number of core sample of all grade are determined then the standard error of the bulk density can be computed using the formula as stated above under error in sampling. Error in estimation of thickness In a complex geometrical body the thickness of the deposit varies very much and this variation deviates from the mean. Therefore, the error of mean is determined to compute over all error of the deposit. Confidence limits of tonnage The reserves or tonnage of a deposit is computed by determining the reserves of individual lode in individual opening and further computing it for whole of deposits. Thus the reserves of individual lode show variation from mean reserve and percentage of that deviation can be calculated as the standard error of reserve estimation using the formula. Besides this reserves and all above described errors can also be determined using Blias and Caslier theorem if the distribution is log normal or population is log normal. For log

normal population first we have to convert standard deviation by the following formula. E d2 = SD 2 /A 2 +I Where d - standard deviation for log normal population

SD = standard deviation (arithmetic) A = Average or mean value e = exponential constant Formula to determine the standard error of logarithmic mean Eln - d/ N Where Eln = standard error of logarithmic mean N = number of samples Formula for determination of confidence of interval of the lognormal population M x e tEln <M<M x e tEln Where M=Mean of reserve

t = Value at particular Fiducian level it is 1 at 68.6% and 95% Fiducian level. Besides, the percentage of error can also be determined in the case of reserve by the following formula. In the formula the standard error of all those variables are included which play important role in reserve calculation as average grade, thickness bulk density, dip length and strike length. % Error of reserve = (EG 2 + ET 2 + EDb 2 ) Where EG = Standard error of average grade ET = Standard error of thickness EDB= Standard error of bulk density. Cut off Grade, Average Grade and Reserve Relation The cut off grade show direct relation with the average grade whereas with reserves it shows inverse relation. The average grade also shows inverse relation with reserve (Fig 7.38). By calculating the reserve at different cut off the optimum cut off, average and reserve can be determined of a deposit. The

average grade and reserve are plotted against the cut off and the intersection point of two curves gives the optimum value of all the three components (Fig. 7.38). While plotting case should be taken that on the graph the maximum average grade falls in the line of maximum reserve and minimum falls in the line of minimum average grid (Fig. 7.38) or the length of the graph should be equal in the case of average grade and reserves.

Anyone who stops learning is old, whether at twenty or at eighty, anyone who keeps learning stays young perennially for the greatest thing in life is to keep your mind young. Henry Ford

Table-1 : Details of lode, grade, thickness, dip length, strike length, tonnage and category of the reserve at 0.2% Cu cut off with 2 m stopping width determined by CS method, Block E_______ district.
Borehole Depth of lode in Length True Core Grade Dip Strike Tonnage Category Dip length Intersection No. along thickness recovery Cu% length length (factor of m hole 2.5) reserve From To up RL Lr. RL up RL Lr. RL

Table-2 : Details of lode, grade, thickness, dip length, strike length, tonnage and category of the reserve at 2% Pb+Zn cut off with 2 m stopping width determined by CS method, Block E_______ district.
Borehole Depth of lode in Length Core True Core Dip length Grade Dip of Dip Strike Tonnage Category No. m along angle thickness recovery Cu% lode length length (factor of hole 2.5) reserve up RL Lr. RL From To

8. BLOCK-PANEL DIAGRAMS AS A MEANS OF 3-D DEMONSTRATION THE NEEDS AND THE DISCRIMINATION The three dimensional construction is intended to picture the three dimensional aspects in an unified and scaled manner, the plane of the drawing, naturally endowed with only to dimensions. The methods are often, two fold: 1. Block diagrams: The 3-D effect is brought about by distorting in the surface contours and correspondingly the geological outcrops. 2. Block-Panel diagrams: The former can exhibit only the outer parts of a block and therefore, the block interiors, decided after detailed mineral exploration have no chance of figuring out Block-panel diagrams are innovated to meet these shortcomings and devise the pictorial representation of transverse, longitudinal and oblique sections through a target area, based upon

exploration openings and judicious interpretations. Each section is a panel and the composite effect of placing these panels in their respective places to scale and then viewing discreetly from a distance with a perspective vision; demonstrates the prospect inside out without disproportionate distortion. The concept: The Law of Perspective Vision Station, that the best effect of watching the three aspects of a solid body is to choose such a solid angle of vision that all the three axes are normally get uniformly tilted. The 90-9090 intersection is thus dilated into a 120-90-60 intersection about the path of vision, aspected on the 2-D paper as a point of collimation ray intersecting the place of construction.

The horizontal axes are realigned in the perspective of 30 dilated to 120 basis and the vertical is maintained still vertically. For ease of comprehension, the vertical axis is kept parallel to the lateral edges, of the construction plan, as far as practicable. This style of projection is known as isometric 60-30 projection.

If one of the horizontal axis and the vertical axis are maintained in the original intersection angle of 90 and the second horizontal axis is projected backwards at 135 either dextrally or sinistrally like common sketches of the artists; the perspective is called as a cubic 90-45 projection.

41

(iii) Experience with 3-D modelling has shown that a 60-30 projection distorts homogeneously and hence an uniformity is possible to attain so as to synoptically infuse a scalar drawing. A 90-45 projection tends to distribute this distortion somewhat heterogeneously and hence the total effect may be a sum total of variable scales infused at varying parts of drawing. Hence mineral exploration sector prefers 60-30 projection while the regional geological representations may use 90-45 mode with enhanced boldness of far away structures. The Methodology For reason of direct application in mineral geometry depiction, the procedural details of the 60-30 isometric projection are outlined below. 1. Choose a large sized drawing base to accommodate an untimingly growth of the picture in uneven directions. 2. Grid out the geological map at regular square mesh to scale where in, cardinal grids are preferable though not necessarily an only requisite. Number the eastings and northings suitably for direct transference to a control1ed distortion late. 3. Depending upon the exact structure which is meant to be exhibit if any; the direction of vision is predetermined, then the square griddings have to be specifically aligned symmetrically with respect to this vector of perspective. 4. Eastings and northings may satisfy the most common mineral exploration girds, particularly if the maps etc. are tied up with Survey of India co-ordinates; as is the modern tendency; for obvious advantage. 5. The square intersections are now transformed to gridded diamonds of 120-60 internal angles; oriented symmetrically with respect to the

42

depth dimension viz. vertical going parallel to the edges of the drawing media. 6. The horizontality of verticality of the diamond spread are bounded by the desired and direction of distortion.

7.

The X-sections or L-sections meant to be fitted into the Block-Panel network are drawn with a datum line reduced to the lowest desirable R.L. uniformly, since the drawing media now assumes this R.L. and allows only for upward growth of each section thence. Warning: Downward growth of the sections of emplacement is fraught with the danger of disproportionate fitment.

8.

Since the vertical of the sections and the vertical of the intended drawing are kept identical, the section lines on the rhombus grid are suitably inserted and plotted over for ground profiles, vertical boreholes, pits and adits etc. Warning: Horizontal gaps are now per the rhombus grid replacing the squares but vertical ones are the properly vertical representations.

9.

While the profile or geological boundaries result from smooth joining of these vertically calibrated points, a point to note would be the distortions infused into inclined lines, planes and line, controlled imaginatively.

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Warning: The ones dipping towards the vision vector get enhanced angles while the ones away reduce proportionately based upon the principle of seeing the maximum angle for the true dip in a section perpendicular to the strike and seeing it as horizontal parallel to this direction and intermediately in any apparent dip. 10. The overlapping areas of the sections may be suitably wiped off with major lines of interest still kept dotted like see-through glass panes. The side panels are completed by joining naturally horizontal stripes parallel to the datum line as character induces an overall block-panel outfit to the image. The Output Each panel thus fitted in place and the block laterals trimmed off with suitable hatchings, present in totality a bread-slice composite appearance with many a slices just taken off and the rest left over as it is without collapse or compaction. Sometimes many prefer to only insert the panels and .leave the interpanel gaps unconnected, such as preferred in lode deposits and discontinuous entities. Continuous bodies like iron ores, limestone, coal or bauxite panels have a preferential interpanel connection and subtle hatching or stipling for the overview in entirely.

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9. REFERENCES Banerjee, D. M. (1996) A Lower Proterozoic palaeosol at BGC- Aravalli boundary in southcentral Rajasthan. J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 48, pp. 277-288. Banerjee, S., Mandal, S. and Sarkar, S. C. (1998) Geological structures of the northern part of Zawar belt, Rajasthan, and the problem of localization/translocation of the ores. Indian Journal of Geology, v. 70, pp. 171-183. Basu, P. K. (1976) Geology of stratabound native sulphur deposits in Zawar lead-zinc belt, Udaipur district, Rajasthan. Indian. Minerals, v. 30 (2), pp. 30-5. Bhushan, S. K. and Chandrashekhar, V. (2002) Geology and geochemistry of the magmatic rocks of the Malani Igneous Suite and Tertiary Alkaline Province of Western Rajasthan. Memoir of the Geological Survey of India, v. 126, 181p. Bookstrom, A. A. (1981) Tectonic setting and generation of Rocky Mountain porphyry molebdenum deposits. In: Dickenson, W. R., Payne, W. D. (Eds.) Relations of tectonics to ore deposits in the southern Cordillera. AR Geol. Soc. Digest 14, pp.215-226. Buchanan, L. (1981) Precious metal deposits associated with volcanic environments in the southwest. AR Geol. Soc. Digest 14, pp. 237-262. Chauhan, D. S. (1970) Some evidence about synsedimemtarynature of lead-zincpyrite deposits of Zawar: Transc.Mines Metals & Fuels, v. 28, pp. 81-86. Choudhary, A. K., Gopalan, a. K. and Shastry, C. A. (1984) Present status of geochronology of the Precambrian rocks of Rajasthan. Tectonophysics, v. 105, pp. 131-140. Coleman, R. G. (1977) Ophiolites: ancient oceanic lithosphere. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, 229p.

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Constantinou, G. (1980) Metallogenesis associated with the Troodos ophiolite. In: Panayioutou, A. (ed.) Ophiolites. International Ophiolite Symposium. Cyprus, 1979, pp. 663-674. Crawford, A. R. (1970) Precambrian geology of Rajasthan and Bundelkhand, Northern India: Candian Jour. Earth Sciences, v. 7, pp. 91-110. Crookshank, H. (1948)Minerals of Rajasthan pegmatites. Transactions of the Mining Geological Metallurgical Institute of India, v. 42, pp. 105-189. Das Gupta, S. (1968) The structural history of the Khetri Copper Belt, Jhunjhunu and Sikar districts, Rajasthan, India. Memoir Geological Survey of India, v. 98, 170 p. Datta, A. K. and Ravindra, R. (1980) Geology and Mineral Resources of Alwar district, Rajasthan (Ed. A. K. Banerjee). Memoir Geological Survey of India, v. 110, 137 p. Deb, M., Thorpe, R. I. (2004) Geochronological constraints in the Precambrian Geology of Rajasthan and their metallogenic implications. In Sediment-Hosted Lead-Zinc-sulphide Deposits (Eds. M. Deb and W. D. Goodfellow), Narosa Publishing House, New delhi, pp. 246-263. Deb, M., Thorpe, R. I. Krstic, D., Davis, D. and Korfu, F. (2001) Zircon U-Pb and galena Pb isotope evidence for an approximate 1.0 Ga terrane along the western margin of the Aravalli Delhi orogenic belt, northwestern India: Precambrian Research, v. 108, pp.195-213. Degens, E. T. and Ross, D. A. (Ed.) (1969) Hot brines and recent heavy metal deposits in the Red Sea: a geophysical and geochemical account. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York. Dewey, J. F. (1980) Episodicity, sequence and style at convergent plate boundaries. In: Strangway, D. W. (Ed.) The continental crust and its mineral deposits. Geological Association of Canada special Paper 20, pp. 553-573.

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Deposits. In Goodfellow, W. D. (Ed.) Mineral Deposits of Canada: a Synthesis of Major Deposit Types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces and Exploration Methods. Geological association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division, Special Publication No. 5, pp. 163-183. Goodfellow, W. D., Jonnason, I. R. and morganti, J. M. (1990) Zonation of chalcophile elements about the Howards Pass (XY) Zn-deposit, Selwyn Basin, Yukon: Journal of Geochemical Exploration, v. 19, pp. 503-542. Gopalan, K., Macdougall, J. D., Roy, A. B. and Murali, A. V. (1990) Sm-Nd evidence for 3.3 Ga old rock in Rajasthan, northwestern India. Precambrian Research, 48, pp. 287-297. Gupta, B. C. (1934) The geology of central Mewar. Memoir Geol. Surv. India, v. 65, pp. 107 -169. Gupta, S. N., Arora, Y. K., Mathur, R. K., Iqbaluddin, Prasad, B, Sahai, T. N. and

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Geological Survey of India, v.68, 120 p. Heron, A. M. (1953) Geology of Central Rajputana. Memoir Geological Survey of India, v.79, 389p. Hutchinson, R. W. (1990) Precious metals in massive sulphide deposits, Geol. Runds., v. 79, pp. 241-263. Jefferson, C. W., Thomas, D. J., Gandhi, S. S., Ramaekers, P., Delany, G., Brisbin, B., Cutts, C., Quirt, D., Portella, P. and Olson, R. A. (2007) Unconformity-associated uranium deposits of the Athabasca Basin, Saskatchewan and Alberta. In Goodfellow, W. D. (Ed.) Mineral Deposits of Canada: a Synthesis of Major Deposit Types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces and Exploration Methods. Geological association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division, Special Publication No. 5, pp. 273-305. Leblanc, M. (1981) The late Proterozoic ophiolites of Bou Azzer (Morocco): evidence for Pan-African plate tectonics. In Kroner, A. (Ed.) Precambrian Plate tectonics. Elseviers, Amsterdam. Pp. 435-451. Lydon, J. W. (1988) Volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits. Part 1 and 2. Geoscience Canada, v. 15, no. 1.

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Nilsen, O. (1978) Caledonian massive sulphide deposits and minor iron formations from the southern Trondheim region, Norway. Norges Geol. Unders 340, pp. 3585. Normark, W. r., Morton, J. L., Koski, R. A., Clague, D. A. and Delani, J. R. (1983) Active hydrothermal vents and sulphide deposits on the southern Juan de Fuca Ridge. Geology, v. 11, pp. 158-161. Ohmoto, H. (1986) Stable isotope geochemistry of ore deposits, reviews in Mineralogy, v. 16, pp. 491-570. Raja Rao, C. S. (1967) On the age of the Precambrian Groups of Rajasthan. Journal of Mines Metals and Feuls, v. 15, pp. 306-309. Roy, A. B. (1995) Geometry and evolution of superposed folding in Zawar lead-zinc mineralized belt, Rajasthan. Proceedings Indian Academy of Sciences (Earth and Planetary Science), v. 104 (3), pp. 349-371. Roy, A. B. and Paliwal, B. S. (1981) Evolution of lower Proterozoic epicontinental deposits: stromatolite-bearing Aravalli rocks of Udaipur, Rajasthan. Precambrian Research, v. 14, pp. 49-74. Roy, A. B., Golani, P. R. and Bejarniya, B. R. (1985) The Ahar River Granite, its stratigraphic and structural relations with the early Proterozoic rocks of southeastern Rajasthan. Journal Geological Survey of India, v. 26, pp. 315-325. Roy, A. B., Nagori, D. K., Golani, P. R., Dhakar, S. P. and Choudhuri, R. (1980) Structural geometry of the rock phosphate bearing Aravalli rocks around Jhamarkotra mines area, Udaipur district, Rajasthan. Indian Jour. Earth Sci., v. 7, no. 2, pp. 191-202. Roy, A. B., Paliwal, Shekhawat, S. S., Nagori, D. K., Golani, P. R. and Bejarniya, B. R. (1988) Stratigraphy of the Aravalli Supergroup in the type area. In Precambrian of Aravalli Mountain, Rajasthan, India ed.) A. B. Roy, Memoir Geological Society of India, v. 7, pp. 121-138.

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