CO
Culture @ the Olympics
issues, trends and perspectives
Where the ancient and modern collide1
Beatriz García
This paper will focus on
those points that have had a
greater influence in my
current perception of
Olympism as a social
movement, the philosophy
of the ancient Games and
the relation between the
ancient and modern
Olympic Games.
The philosophy of the
Ancient Games
One can distinguish the concept
of the Modern Olympic Games
from the ancient tradition of
sporting competitions by
acknowledging the Ancient
Olympics as only one of four Pan-
Hellenic Games, which included
the Olympic, but also the
Isthmian, Nemean and Pythian
Games, among others.
Fundamental elements of those
first contests were their strong
association with religious rituals,
as each of them was dedicated to
a God. Their Panhellenic nature,
which would be transformed into
a more “universal” one in Roman
times as it would allow the
Culture @ the Olympics, 2000: vol. 2, issue 5, pp. 21-30
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participation of citizens of all
countries under Roman rule and
not only Greek citizens, was
competitive, but peaceful.
Although these are strong
themes, discussions have arisen
regarding the central function of
the Games. While traditional
sources argue that the contests
served for training youth for war,
archaeologist Steven Miller has
insisted on the opposite: the
Games would offer the
opportunity to relax from it and
there is a range of examples that
corroborate this account.
For example, the establishment of
the Olympic Truce to interrupt
any violent confrontation among
Greek polis –city states - to be
allowed participation in the
Games, the relevance of musical
contests at a similar level to the
sporting ones, and the focus on
individual competitions rather
than team events (which would
suit better the purposes of
military training) provide some
indication of the reconciliatory
explanation of the Ancient
Olympic Games.
With this in mind, the
fundamental philosophy of the
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Ancient Games must be achievements in the arts. Issues

interpreted as a celebration of
youth and a gathering and
exchange of cultural experiences
where the practice of sports was
not the only focus.
A key example of this argument
is found in Olympia, as historical
sources indicate that the current
archeological site was well
renamed as a communication
centre in ancient Ellas, and the
Games would serve not only the
purpose of showcasing sporting
competitions, but would also
allow well known politicians,
philosophers, poets and artists
the opportunity to present their
works or discuss their ideas with
others.
that need to be looked at carefully
though, are the exclusive nature
of the Games, as they would only
allow the participation of those
included in the restricted
definition of “citizen” and this
would exclude women, working
classes and ”foreigners”.
It is also necessary to query the
status of the participant athletes,
as it is still not clear whether they
participated exclusively “for the
sake of competing” (an ideal that
provoked a strong emphasis on
amateurism in the Olympics by
the beginning of the century) or if
they did so for the sometimes
notorious prizes or wages gained
in the event of victory.

Another good example of the

argument is found in Delphi, site
of the Pythian Games, where the
musical and poetry competitions
in honour of the god Apollo
would play a greater role than the
sporting ones. The other Games
around Greece included
competitions in dance, painting,
ceramics and sculpture at the
same time as athletic contests.

As a whole, the ancient Games

Greek high-jumper Labras Papa Kostas
seem to have been addressed receives the torch in the Ancient
fundamentally to the stadium of Olympia, as the first runner
development of excellence in a for Sydney 2000 torch relay.
wide range of activities, where
competition would play a very
strong role, but where the
emphasis would also be on
aestheticism and harmony to
celebrate the beauty of the body
and the beauty of human

García, 2000: Ancient and modern 22


Relationship between
Ancient and Modern
Olympic Games
According to ancient sources,
Greek athletics seemed to be the
perfect example of a “well-
rounded’ education system,
where the practice of sport would
be combined with the practice of
music and poetry to both develop
body and mind.
The aspirations of French Baron
Pierre de Coubertin demonstrate
an interest to recover such ideals.
Initially, he was motivated by his
desire to improve the formation
of French youth and his
experience of the advanced
English sport education system,
provided a basis for how to make
manifest these aspirations.
Coupled with the Greek games
tradition, this was an ideal
mechanism to shape his
educational and philosophical
project.
The aim to provide a “well-
rounded” education in the
pursuit of building character and
developing human excellence
was at the very heart of the
Olympic ideal established by de
Coubertin at the turn of the 19th
century, which is described by
the three strings of the Olympic
Movement: sport, culture and
education. Alternatively, the
relevance of religious practices
within the Games celebrations,
and the mythical origins they are
all associated with has led to an
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impressive display of symbols
and rituals in modern times that
in John MacAloon claims that
these symbols are still central to
understanding the enormous
appeal of the Olympics.
Coubertin would use those
rituals with the aim of creating a
strong Olympic imagery and to
build up a long term philosophy
of life potentially applicable to all
nations. However, there are some
problematic limitations with this
“symbolism”, which I will
discuss later.
the emphasis on national
instead of individual
achievements has
transformed an apolitical
encounter into a stage for
political struggle
Both the educational and
symbolic approach seem to prove
a continuity between ancient and
modern Games at the ideological
level. However, the practice of
the Games has introduced some
remarkable discontinuities with
ancient times.
First, the unbalanced emphasis
on sport activities instead of
educational and cultural ones has
transformed an originally
humanistic movement with
“universal” aspirations, into a
highly professional, worldwide
sports administration system.
Second, the emphasis on national
García, 2000: Ancient and modern 23

instead of individual
achievements has transformed an
apolitical encounter into a stage
for political struggle that has
provided many opportunities for
ideological displays, especially
during the cold war period. Other
noticeable discontinuities
between modern and ancient
Games include the tradition to
host the modern Games in a
different city each time, where it
was previously rooted in Greek
mainland during ancient times.
Fly poster from Sydney 2000 streets
during the Olympics
In the last instance, it is important
to mention a possible area that
could be further explored and
may offer evidences of an
alternative link between the
practice of the ancient and
modern Games. I am referring to
the role of aesthetics within the
Games’ performances, eg. the cult
of the body and the praise to the
hero. The spectacular showcase of
the athletes’ peak achievements
through the media and the
‘emotional’ coverage of the medal
ceremonies has surely a lot in
common with the ancient
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customs to create poems, songs
and paintings depicting the
athletes’ performances and the
well known tradition to set up a
sculpture of the victors in their
home town or close to the Games’
site. This obsession with image
provides some evidence of the
denial of the body and its
objectification in modern times,
as the media depictions transform
the human athletic being into a
muscular machine whose only
function is to perform and
become the “brand identity” of
some sponsor.
However, the growing
journalistic and promotional
emphasis on finding out the
athletes’ personal stories, no
matter how reductionist, may be
a return to an ancient tradition -
the production of heroes and the
creation of outstanding role-
models that could be followed.
Both arguments open a new
direction in the study of what has
not changed in the relationship
between athletes and spectators
from antiquity to modern times.
Perceptions of Olympism
There has been widespread
confusion between Olympism
and the Olympics or,
alternatively, the Olympic
Movement and the Olympic
Games. The general public will
almost exclusively refer to the
Olympics or the Olympic Games
and will identify both concepts
with the great elite sports
García, 2000: Ancient and modern 24

competition held every four years
in a different parts of the world.
Interestingly, among those with
an Olympic interest whether
from an sporting, institutional,
journalistic or scholar point of
view, the term Olympism and
Olympic Movement will be heard
as frequently as the term Olympic
Games, but the difference
between both dimensions will not
always be made. This lack of
distinction has led to a number of
difficulties.
One problem lies in the
perception that the Olympic
Movement and the Olympic
Games are interchangeable
notions, depicting the same
reality and affected by the same
concerns. This common
misunderstanding has
diminished the power of the
“philosophy” and “ideals” found
in the Olympic Charter and has
increased the impact of the
explicit practices manifested
during the Games staging
process. The result seems to be
the widespread belief that the
only purpose of the Olympics is
the display of elite sports
competitions, where the ambition
to win medals is the most
relevant goal.
Taking into account that the
Games are the most visible aspect
of Olympism – if not the only one
for an important majority of the
public worldwide – it is relevant
to consider the popular images
with which they are associated
and the resulting values they are
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effectively promoting. Arguably,
the most celebrated images are
the outstanding performances by
top athletes, which cultivate
feelings of nationalism and a
passion for “reaching the top” or
breaking the barriers of physical
activity. In this regard, one might
question whether the Olympic
Games are suitable to properly
exhibit the Olympic ideals of fair
play and mutual respect and the
extent to which these ideals are
truly exemplified by current elite
athletes. More specifically, one
might ask whether sport alone
can really transmit the Olympic
philosophy.
only the integration of sport
within an educational
program and the use of
other cultural manifestation
can achieve the cultivation
of Olympic ideals
In response, only the integration
of sport within an educational
program and the use of other
cultural manifestation can
achieve the cultivation of
Olympic ideals, but the lack of
visibility of such programs
during the Games staging period
(eg. the Cultural Olympiad or
Olympic Arts Festivals, Olympic
Education activities and so on)
limits this achievement.
It is necessary to explore the
possibilities to better integrate the
García, 2000: Ancient and modern 25

Olympic cultural activities within
the established Olympic Games
communication strategies. As
suggested by John MacAloon and
Bruce Kidd and reinforced by my
own research, a successful
combination of cultural,
educational and sporting
activities adequately promoted
during the Games period would
assist in the task to convert the
Games in a more accurate
expression of the Olympic
philosophy.
A second problem is the growing
gap between Olympism as a
movement and the IOC as the
institution in charge to
implement its principles. John
MacAloon has raised the question
of whether it is possible for the
Olympics to be a social and
cultural movement at the same
time as being a highly developed
industry. Looking at the current
structure of the IOC, it is difficult
to deny that it has evolved into a
remarkably effective organisation
very much dependent on
corporate models where the
existing finance, legal and
marketing departments have
been given far more decision-
making and executive power
than the areas and commissions
dedicated to culture and
education.
The remarkable emphasis given
to sport as the key component of
all Olympic related activities, and
its progressive transformation
from a means towards the ideal
of peace, mutual understanding
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and so on for which the IOC was
initially created, to an end in itself
to which everything else needs to
be adapted, seems to be a key
reason for the gap and its
consequent contradictions.
one must question the
current domination of
sports industry schemes in
prejudice of the possible
inclusion or application of
humanitarian institutional
schemes
To question the ability of the IOC
to put into practice the Olympic
ideals in a moment when the
Olympics enjoy unmatched
worldwide recognition and
financial success might seem
paradoxical. Alternatively, it may
look like another unilateral attack
against the dangers of
commercialism and its damaging
effects on any social cause.
This is not the intention of this
paper. The position is not to deny
the value of the IOC
transformation under
Samaranch’s mandate, nor to
diminish the value of introducing
modern corporate strategies into
a traditionally highly aristocratic
and secretive management
system group or club. Rather,
this paper questions the current
domination of sports industry
schemes in prejudice of the
possible inclusion or application
García, 2000: Ancient and modern 26

of humanitarian institutional
schemes.
The fact that an increasing
majority of IOC members and
staff have a background in
corporate management, law and
finance while there is hardly any
diplomat, politician or cultural
anthropologist in the influential
decision making positions
inevitably leads to John
MacAloon’s rhetorical question
“Is there in any real sense an
Olympic Movement in present
days?”. In order to recover this
sense of a Movement within the
Olympic environment, it is
necessary that the IOC, as the
leading institution demonstrates
that it believes in the Olympic
ideals and commits to them in
ways that are effective and real,
beyond the use of slogans for
marketing or communication
strategies.
This leads us to discuss the extent
to which the ideals and resulting
philosophy preached by de
Coubertin at the end of the 19th
century are still applicable by the
beginning of the 21st century.
There is something very
persuasive at the heart of the
Movement that could be
considered universally appealing,
such as the values of respect,
honesty and fairness. However,
the way of approaching those
ideals should be questioned and
updated so that the remnants of
any Victorian paternalistic,
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Eurocentric and aristocratic
perspective are eliminated.
Aspects of de Coubertin’s ideals
that maintain currency are the
attempt to use sport together
with education as a means and
not an end for the Movement’s
original pursuits of peace, fair
play, international understanding
and so on. In order to secure that
they are truly relevant to all
Movement members and
beneficiaries, the only
requirement would be to check
the extent to which those ideals
are equally interpreted and
valued around the world so that
no cultural biases are introduced
and there is a guarantee of a
shared interpretation.
Some remarks on
Olympism
The points mentioned above
reveal the many, strong tensions
dividing the theory and practice
of Olympism. One of the most
interesting components fo this
debate is the “permanent” or
“intrinsic” contradictions within
the Movement philosophy:
For example, there is a strong
emphasis on the use of symbols
to provide a remarkable sense of
identity to the Games, but there is
also an attempt to promote
universal values and worldwide
ownership of the Games. The
existing Olympic symbols have
been defined by John MacAloon
as “open signifiers” in the sense
García, 2000: Ancient and modern 27

that they allow a wide range of
interpretations and do not need
official explanations to have an
impact on the general public.
However, the current Olympic
symbols reflect a strong bias
towards the classical Greco-Latin
values, myths and rituals and a
sincere commitment towards
universalism should allow the
introduction of iconography.
Additionally, there is the
theoretical aspiration to avoid
politics within the Movement,
which contrasts with the reliance
on nationalism, which is the core
business of Olympic competition.
There are other many reasons
explaining the vulnerability of
the Games to propagandistic uses
and abuses, but the issue of
nationalism is one to be explored
closely as it is leading to unfair
comparisons between countries
and giving rise to “values” that
are oppositional to those for
which the Movement stands for.
the reform process has
assisted the IOC to be more
aware of itself, in particular,
to question its public image
and study its inherent
structures and power
relations
Thirdly, there are the ambiguous
connotations of the Olympic
motto ‘Citius, altius fortius’.
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Although the motivation for self-
development may be seen as
positive, ie. at the initial stages of
formation and training, the
emphasis on indefinite progress
has led to radical dysfunctions
within the Movement: the trend
towards over training, hyper-
technology of sport and drug
abuse among athletes and
coaches, and the obsession with
record breakings, hyper-
excitement and spectacle among
spectators.
One might question the
acceptability of the motto in a
time when Olympism continues
to preach for a humane sport,
while sport itself is being
transformed into a laboratory for
medical and technological
experimentation. An alternative
might be a motto emphasizing
personal bests and self-
realization, as it would avoid the
trend towards “winning at all
costs”.
Before concluding, it is relevant
to mention the IOC 2000 Reforms.
John MacAloon indicated the
importance of the Olympic crisis
in 1998-99 and consequent reform
debates for the “healthy” survival
of Olympism. In his words, the
reform process has assisted the
IOC to be more aware of itself, in
particular, to question its public
image and study its inherent
structures and power relations.
One could argue that the effect of
this process has been a real effort
to make the IOC more governable
and consistent with current times.
García, 2000: Ancient and modern 28

However it also possible to argue
that there has not been an
institutionalization of the process
of reform and that there is no
guarantee for ongoing revisions
of IOC policies so that possible
biases are regularly reviewed.
The emphasis seems to have been
on healing existing problems
rather than on preventing
possible new ones, and on re-
considering institutional power
relations rather than on re-
considering the applicability of
the Movement ideals.
Evidence of these last points is
provided by the fact that the
areas receiving major attention by
both most IOC members and the
media have been the ones related
to the group organization,
composition and structure and
the ones related to the Games
bidding process (which affect the
members’ power relations) in
contrast to the areas related to the
role of the IOC (which could
enhance and fortify the
philosophy of the Movement).
In consequence, the IOC seems to
have gained in transparency,
accountability and the IOC may
become an increasingly
representative and effective
organization in terms of
management (the creation of an
Athletes Commission looks to be
a great advance in the direction of
representation). However
traditionally disregarded areas
associated with the principles of
Olympism do not seem to have
received much attention.
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An innovation worth mentioning
is the fact that these educative
and cultural aspects of the
Movement have been merged
into what is called the
Commission on Education and
Culture and this might provide
better opportunities to influence
IOC decision making in the
future. Yet, as the IOC Reforms
have been focused on
organizational and bidding
issues, it is not very clear whether
the new Commission will be able
to address or encourage other
more influential departments to
address the Movement
fundamental philosophical
contradictions.
Conclusions
The Recent IOC 2000 Reforms,
although very relevant to the
survival and modernization of
the IOC, have still not made
consistent steps in the direction to
establish a stronger cultural and
educational policy that
guarantees the survival and
“modernization” of the
Movement.
Great opportunities for the
successful application of these
policies lay in two of the most
problematized components of the
IOC practices at present times:
the involvement of the mass
media and the controlled use of
the highly developed IOC
marketing and communication
strategies. My research on the
potential impact and relevance of
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the Cultural Olympiad explores

the beneficial effects of better
integrating the Olympic Cultural
program within the IOC
promotional practices. A similar
approach could be given to the
Olympic Education program. The
question is open to debate.

1 This paper was originally written as a

critical review of the 8th International
Post-Graduate Seminar on Olympic
Studies at the IOA (4th May-14th June
2000). References to authors relate to
lectures given by these scholars during
the seminar.

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