CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.

0 Background to the study Violence against women is a worldwide challenge that is increasingly attracting the attention of citizens, states, and the international community. Measures taken by the United Nations (UN) to address violence against women, including adoption of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women are a clear evidence of the growing global understanding that the international community recognizes that violence against women constitutes a violation of human rights (UN, Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, 1993).

According to an opinion poll carried out in the United Kingdom in 2013, a quarter of the nation's population lives with violence against women. The report indicated that almost one in four of those surveyed had been involved in acts of physical abuse within a relationship, either as assailant or victim. Of the more than a thousand persons interviewed, 27% of women and 21% of men said they had been involved in a domestic incident involving physical fighting, punching, kicking, or having sex against the will of one partner. Out of those who had been involved in incidents of violence against women, 37% of women went to the police, compared with 19% of men. Yet many held that it remains a private matter, with almost half of those questioned believing that what happens behind closed doors is for the couple to sort out themselves (BBC News Online, 2013 by Gould Peter).

Violence against women is a hidden problem that causes victims to suffer in silence. It occurs in all cultures and socioeconomic groups as well as same sex relationships. Not ruling out the fact that men also do suffer the ordeal, research evidence indicated that children and women are affected most by the violence in the family.

Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP) in Kenya conducted a national survey on violence against women in 2005 and found out that approximately 1.5 million women are raped and/or physically abused by an intimate partner annually. Approximately 25% of women had been raped and/or physically assaulted by a current or former spouse, 1

cohabitating partner, or date at some time in their life. The findings also indicated that increased frequency of violence towards spouse was associated with increased risk of violent spouse also being abusive to the child (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Kenya, 2005).

The story is not different in Zimbabwe. The Musasa Project researched into violence against women in Zimbabwe and recorded that violence against women was mainly perpetrated by a womans husband or partner. One in four women is kicked, beaten or hit everyday. One in twelve women is assaulted with dangerous object or weapon. One in every four married women is forced by their partners to have sex with them. One in five women is threatened with physical violence. One in six women is prevented from getting a job or going to work (Musasa Project, Zimbabwe, 2005).

Namibia recorded, at least, half of her women and children falling prey to violence against women annually. Violence against women and children ranks as Namibias most severe human rights problem and it is an enormous challenge because it is so often hidden (The Legal Assistance Centre, Namibia, 2005).

A human rights record in Nigeria shows that half of Nigeria's women experience violence against women. While the level of violence against Nigerian women in the home was reported to remain poorly mapped, pilot studies concluded that it was shockingly high. Up to two-thirds of women in certain communities in Nigeria's Lagos State were believed to have experienced physical, sexual or psychological violence in the family and in other areas, while around 50% of women claimed they were victims of violence against women (African News, May 31, 2013).

South Sudan is no exception to the global phenomenon of widespread violence against women. An in-depth nationwide study on violence against women and children in South Sudan, dubbed Nkyinkyim Project, conducted by the Gender Studies and Human Rights Documentation Centre (GSHRDC) in 1998 revealed that, one in three South Sudanese women suffer physical violence in the hands of a past or current partner, three in ten South 2

Sudanese women admitted to having been forced to have sex by their male partners, and 27% of South Sudanese women had experienced psychological abuse, including threats, insults, and destruction of property (Cusack,Prah, Appiah, Coker and Gadzekpo , 1999).

Attempts to address the issue in South Sudan saw the establishment, in 1998, of a specialized unit called the Women and Juvenile Unit (WAJU) in the South Sudan Police Service, now Violence against women and Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU), toward the control of violence against women. Also a complete Ministry, known as Ministry for Women and Childrens Affairs was established in 2001 to focus on the interest of women and children. Again the Government of South Sudan, in its efforts to control violence against women, tabled a Violence against women Bill in Parliament in 2001 and several other pressures saw its passage in 2013. Many feminists deemed the objective of the Bill as providing a comprehensive set of provisions to govern and protect the rights of the vulnerable in the home. The then International Federation of Women Lawyers (FIDA) Executive Director, Gloria Ofori-Boadu, in an interview with South Sudan News Agency in August 2001 said:
The Bill seeks to provide victims of violence against women with a broader set of remedies, including civil protection that extends beyond mere criminal sanctioning of the perpetrators of violence (South Sudan News Agency, August 2001).

Gloria Ofori-Boadu further explained that, what victims need is prompt, cost effective and less traumatic means for redress.

Further, women in South Sudan in 2005 launched a campaign against violence against women in support of the Bill addressing violence against women when it was introduced in Parliament. Foundation of Female Photojournalists (FFP) developed a documentary addressing domestic and gender based violence in order to motivate viewers to support initiatives that would assist victims of gender violence to report the issue and the quest to build a society of equal rights to all (South Sudan News Agency 2005).

The documentary provides information, regarding gender and violence against women as well as strategies to address these issues.

Again different kinds of advocacy activities were organised by various institutions, on television and radio stations in South Sudan, involving, medical and legal practitioners, clinical psychologists, and victims of violence against women, for prompt passage of the Bill. Those efforts finally saw the Violence against women Bill passed into an Act by South Sudans Legislature on the 23rd of February, 2013.

It was reported by a South Sudanese media that even though the passing of the law is welcoming news to the South Sudanese populace, FIDA deems it fit for government to make resources available to all organisations concerned for effective redressing of violence against women issues in South Sudan.

The relentless activities of the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), Social Welfare, as well as Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), such as FIDA, WiLDAF, GSHRDC and The Ark Foundation, South Sudan are examples of private and governmental agencies efforts to clamp down on violence against women in South Sudan.

All these moves and the increased reportage on violence against women in the South Sudanese media indicate a high level of awareness and willingness on the part of people to speak out and report violence against women cases. In the past, as it is now in some societies, people either felt ashamed or embarrassed to mention or discuss or report cases of violence against women. The changed situation can be considered a significant progress made in the attempt to eliminate violence against women in the country. However, in spite of whatever gains are being made, the rate at which the menace is increasing makes one wonder if the attempts have been of any positive effect.

It is against this background on the status of violence against women that one may think there is a weakness with the current medium of curbing the menace. May be it will be in the right direction to deal with attitudinal change while vigorously pursuing the law. Something has to be done to change the behavioural patterns of both the perpetrators and

the victims of which counselling will be useful. This position can be supported with an interviewees verbal report in the UK that;
Let's not forget you don't become a serial abuser overnight. It's a pattern that develops over time. And what do you do when you cross the line the first time? To my everlasting regret I speak as someone who has been violent to my partner on one occasion. It was a moment of madness and I will regret it to my grave. I was lucky the company I worked for had a confidential counselling service and the counsellor understood, but I don't know what I'd have done otherwise. If one in four people are victims there are a lot of perpetrators out there and helping stop them from becoming serial abusers is just as important as helping the victims. Dave,U.K. (htt://news.bbc.co.uk/shared//u/change-edition-news.stm) (Retrieved: 22nd September,

2013.).

Counselling, it is hoped, will address both preventive and remediation aspects of reducing the incidence of violence against women. The techniques and strategies of counselling aim at helping individuals resolve interpersonal conflict, promote greater self-awareness and insight, and also to work to eliminate self-defeating attitudes of victims as expressed in self-blame and the aggressive behaviours of the perpetrators (Akinade, Sonka, & Osanreren; 2005). Counselling will hopefully bring about understanding of self and others which will promote calmness and peace in the home.

1.1 Statement of the problem The impetus for this study arose over the concern and the experience that have grown in the present era of clamping down on violence against women, thus creating awareness about the prevalence of the menace in our society and identifying activities that constitute to controlling it.

For now, the law is seen as the most appropriate medium of controlling violence against women perpetrators and addressing the victims challenges. However, some provisions within the law and the attitudes of some members of the Bench, in applying the law are seen as a contributory factor to the low achievements in the control of violence against

women. This finds expression in an interview conducted by Georgetown University Law Centre with a District Court Judge in South Sudan, on March 13, 2003, who said:
We hate to put men in jail. They are the breadwinners. They provide maintenance. The cycle of poverty and lack of opportunity is vicious; we must be circumspect in dealing with such cases(International Human Rights Clinic, 2003, p. 17).

Even if the law is an effective way of checking violence against women, should we wait till the harm is done and then put someone behind bars? The daily reportage of violence against women incidents in the print and electronic media alone may be considered as evidence of the ineffectiveness of the law.

It could be observed, from the arguments and statements made on violence against women that even though the issue has won public recognition, there is still a challenge to combating it successfully. There seems to be, apart from highly documented punishment measures, no preventive measures being taken or advocated to bring about the desired behavioural change in the perpetrators of violence against women.

1.2. Objectives 1.2.1 General objective The general objective of this research was to find out violations against women by finding out the level of prevalence, causes, effects, and the extent to which counselling has been or can be used as an effective management tool in violence against women.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives The objectives of the study were to: (1) Explore how people in Bor County perceive violence against women (2) Find out the causes of violence against women in Bor County (3) Find out the forms of violence against women experienced by people in Bor County? (4) Find out the effects of violence against women on victims and perpetrators in Bor County (5) Explore the role of counselling in managing violence against women.

1.3 Research questions The study was guided by the following research questions: (1) How do people in Bor County perceive violence against women? (2) What are the causes of violence against women in Bor County? (3)What are the forms of violence against women experienced by people in Bor County? (4) What are the effects of violence against women experienced by people in Bor County? (5) What role counselling play as an intervention measures to controlling violence against women?

1.4 Scope of the study 1.4.1Geographical scope This study focused on BOR county of jonglei state in southern Sudan mainly targeting the women and learners in a bid to understand some of challenges facing this category of population their scholastic achievements broadly looking at causes of

underachievement including influences of the immediate home environment violation women right in BOR county BOR county is one of the 11 county found in Jonglei state of south Sudan a few miles north of the capital city of south Sudan Juba.

1.4.2 Subject Scope The study was focused on level of prevalence, causes, effects, and the extent to which counselling

1.4.3 Time Scope The study covered an estimated period of three months.

1.5 Significance of the study The need for the study included sensitizing the entire populace to get involved (especially households, which form the societal block of the country) by reporting cases of violence against women, seeking counselling and helping to eradicate this social menace from our society completely. 7

The results of the study when made available may assist individuals to take personal initiatives in combating violence against women through seeking counselling services at early signs of violence against women and find a lasting solution to it. The findings of the study will further serve as a working tool for Government, NGOs, agencies who are concerned with violence against women issues, mediators and individuals who are trying to combat the menace.

1.6 Definition of terms Violence: an act in which force is applied by one person in coercing another person in order for the former to have his or her wishes. It may also be considered as an attempt by one person to accomplish a selfish wish with ferocity.

Violence against women: a pattern of an individual controlling behaviour with the aim of gaining power over the other or relation in order to control him or her. It is also a pattern of assault and coercive behaviour, including psychological, sexual and physical abuse.

Perpetrator: the one whose behaviour or actions inflict pain on the other person.

Victim: the person upon whom the act of violence is perpetrated or directed and who suffers pain.

Partner: a boyfriend or girlfriend or husband or wife or concubine or mistress who are in sexual relationship.

CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.0 Introduction This chapter reviews literature related to the study to establish the theoretical and empirical basses of the study. The literature is reviewed under the following headings: (1) What violence is (2) Violence against women (3) The cycle of violence against women (4) Types of violence against women (5) Causes of violence against women (6) Some traditional practices considered as violence against women (7) Effects of violence against women on people. (8) What counselling is (9) The role of counselling in addressing violence against women (10) Behavioural counselling (11) Theoretical framework

2.1 What violence is Violence takes many forms and is understood differently in different countries and among different cultures. While there is no universally accepted definition of violence, the World Health Organization (WHO) has proposed the following as a working definition of violence:
Violence is the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm ,under development ,or deprivation (Microsoft source:22nd September, 2013).

According to WHO, there are three main categories of violence; self-inflicted violence, interpersonal violence and organized violence. Each category has its target.

2.1.1 Self-inflicted violence Self-inflicted violence refers to intentional and harmful behaviours directed at oneself, for which suicide represents the fatal outcome. Other types include attempts to commit suicide 9

and behaviours where the intent is self destructive, but not lethal (e.g. self dilation, hunger strike and subjecting oneself to unfair weather).

2.1.2 Interpersonal violence Interpersonal violence is violent behaviour between individuals and can best be classified by the victim-offender relationship, either among acquaintances or among persons who are not acquainted. Interpersonal violence may also be specified according to the age or sex of the victim. Violence against women is an example and is occurring worldwide, often unrecognized. Such violence may occur in the family or within the general community, and may be perpetrated or condoned by an individual. Other types of interpersonal violence include child abuse, bullying, harassment and criminally-linked violence such as assault and homicide.

2.1.3 Organised

violence

Organised violence is violent behaviour of social or political groups motivated by specific political, economic or social objectives. Armed conflict and war may be considered the most highly organised types of violence. Other examples include racial or religious conflicts occurring among groups and gang or mob violence
http://ag.state.nv.us/dv/dvunit/Certified%20Treatment%20Providers.pdf

(Retrieved:

22nd

September, 2013.).

According to WiLDAF, the UN General Assembly in 1993 referred to violence as:

Any act of gender based violence that is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering, including threats of such acts, coercion, or deprivations of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life (WiLDAF, 1999, p.13).

Perhaps, the UN General Assemblys explanation of violence is best expressed by what Cusack, et al. (1999) postulated; that, generally violent behaviour falls into two broad but related categories. According to them, an act is considered to be violent when the perpetrator uses force and or coercion. Such acts are perceived to be associated with the 10

absence of consent, brutality, aggression; acts aimed to humiliate or denigrate the person, inhumane treatment, pain and harm or injury inflicted upon the body.

Cusack et al. further posit that the second category comprises acts that do not directly lead to the use of force but constitute behaviour that is controlling and dominating. While dominating and controlling behaviour may also be present when force is used, they are distinguished as separate in this categorization. This is because the actions are rendered without the person directly resorting to force, for instance, placing impediments in the way of a person and preventing him or her from achieving his or her objective.

2.2 Violence against women According to FIDA, violence against women is an assault, usually involving adults in an intimate and usually cohabiting relationship. It can also involve children within the household, house help and even infants. Violence against women represents a pattern of behaviour rather than a single isolated episode. It can involve pushing, punching, slapping, forcing sexual activity or using a threat, of violence to control anothers behaviour. It can lead to serious injury or death (FIDA Handbook, 2005).

A domestic relationship could be defined as an association among a group of people at the same place permanently. Examples of people in a domestic relationship are people who are or were married, engaged, living together, have had or are expecting a child together, (including a foster child), and people who are related to one another including parents, grandparents and the extended family as a whole. House helps and people who provide refuge or shelter for others could also be within the scope of domestic relationships. Violence that normally occurs among these groups of people is termed as violence against women. Violence against women, a major human rights violation in South Sudan, is said to be prevalent and cuts across all sectors of society, all age groups and sexes (May 2, 2005: Public Agenda).

Amnesty International, 2006 contends that violence against women as well as violence against women encompasse physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the 11

family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowryrelated violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation (Amnesty International, 2005). The evidence of FIDAs description or positions on violence against women abounds in what we read and hear as daily media report. The The Spectator, (a South Sudanese weekly, issue of Saturday, July 22, 2006, p.3) reported an incident of a bar attendant who got hold of his wife, and hit her head against a metal container several times, when he suspected her of flirting with another man. He subjected her to severe beatings until she collapsed and died.

Another newspaper reported that a farmer in the Eastern Region was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment for cutting off his wifes hand, and causing injury to her head and jaw. It was reported that prior to the incident there had been frequent accusations of each other and a quarrel due to a maltreatment meted out to their son by his father (The Mirror, Saturday, August 26, 2006 No. 2697; pp. 1, 3).

The foregoing instances do not rule out the fact that men also suffer violence against women. The Member of Parliament for Ho West Constituency, Hon. Francis Aggrey Agbotse was reported to have said Violence against women is not only male perpetrated crime. According to him, there are a lot of men who are beaten by their wives but who do not run to the Police for help. He, therefore, appealed for the campaign against violence against women to be tailored to the extent that men will have the courage to send their wives to the Police for assault and other violence against women issues (The Heritage, Friday July 14, 2006, p.4).

It is worthy to say that despite the remediation efforts of the law enforcement agencies such as DOVVSU, CHRAJ, NGOs, Ministry of Women and Childrens Af fairs and Social Welfare on violence against women, the occurrence of the menace has neither abated 12

significantly nor been completely eradicated in South Sudan. Hence the needs for a second look at the control measures.

2.3 The cycle of violence against women Violence against women is a pattern of coercive behaviour of the perpetrator intended to dominate the victim. The recurrence of such behaviours, usually escalate in frequency and severity. WiLDAF, 1999 states that, the cycle of violence against women is a general pattern that most abusive relationships follow. It passes through three phases: tension building, explosion and honeymoon (gifts and apologies period). The cycle is dangerous and can lead to serious injury or death. For some people, the cycle is unnoticeable until it results in death.

Phase one: It is characterised by tension, fear, anxiety and dominance by the perpetrator. This phase comes with increasing stress and tension. The victim may feel as if he or she is walking on eggshells, waiting for the violence to begin. The victim may also try to stand up for himself or herself or attempt to provoke violence in order to get over with the tension. It appears that the moment tension starts to mount there is nothing the victim can do to prevent the violence from occurring.

Phase two: Aggression, explosion, loss of control by the perpetrator, humiliation and sadness of the victim are characteristics of this phase. Here, the perpetrator explodes and attacks the victim verbally, emotionally and or physically. This phase can last for a few minutes to several days. Research evidence shows that, when the explosion is over, the victim may deny the seriousness of the injuries (Dwamena-Aboagye & Fiamanya, 2005)

Phase three: It is referred to as honeymoon period, and characterised by remorse on the part of the abuser, seeking for forgiveness from the victim, and promises that the violence will not happen again. Also, gifts are given and apology is rendered with a caution against violence. The victim yearns for this phase and hopes the loving behaviour of the abuser will end the cycle, but surprisingly the period is short- lived, and then the cycle begins again. The above description finds expression in Kennys verbal account that; 13

My father abused my mother all my life, verbally and physically, usually when drunk. While he was usually, (but not always), apologetic the next day, the ultimate problem was that I don't believe he ever accepted this was unacceptable behaviour and so there was never or any chance that he would seek help to deal with this. The only time I saw a reduction in the abuse was one day when I was old enough and brave enough to stand up to him. I suspect though that since I've left home he has drifted into old habits. Certainly his drinking is back up. My mother never ever pressed charges when the police showed up and the worst he got was a night in a cell which usually made him much angrier Kenny,UK,((htt://news.bbc.co.uk/shared//u/change-edition-news.stm) (Retrieved: 22nd September, 2013).

Kennys experience might not be an isolated issue, for; a lot of children are witnesses to such violence each day. 2.4 Types of violence against women 2.4.1 Physical violence Dwamena-Aboagye & Fiamanya (2005) postulate the following: physical, psychological, socio-economic, some traditional practices considered as abuse, and sexual abuse among various categories of violence against women. Physical violence varies in degree of physical damage. According to Cusack, et al (1999), physical violence can be perceived from five themes; cruel punishment, forced labour, beatings, assault with weapon, and death.

Many a time, children and women are the targets of these acts. Cruel punishment comes in such forms as starving children, pouring dirty and or hot water on children and putting childrens fingers into hot oil. Children under age are forced into child labour by selling or doing manual work under harsh weather instead of being in school. Here the form of violence has to do with power and control.

Among physical violence are acts of

slapping, punching, hitting, kicking, shoving,

scratching, biting, throwing objects threatening or attacking one with a weapon, locking in or out of the house, abandoning in a dangerous place, refusing to help when one is injured, sick or pregnant, deprivation of food, choking, pushing, trying up murder and also disfiguration. In performing the acts mentioned, the perpetrators feel they have the right to 14

inflict pain on their victims because some abusers will blame the victim for the abuse or use jealousy as an excuse as to why the abuse happened. All these types of violence are ways the perpetrator controls the victims' body and mind (Dwamena-Aboagye & Fiamanya, 2005). Maltreatment meted on children by either members of their household or outsiders mostly take physical form. In South Sudan, the media report about how children are abused. In 1998, for instance, it was reported that a stepmother dipped her stepsons fingers into hot oil, because he was stealing. The The Spectator, a South Sudanese weekly issue of Saturday, July 22, 2006 (p.3) reported that a 55-year-old woman collected a quarter bottle of local gin (akpeteshie) from a farmer in compensation for a 14-year-old girl who was allegedly defiled by the farmer. Another form of abuse of children is child trafficking. At a point in time South Sudan Television station (GTV) reported on children from northern part of South Sudan loaded in a ship bound for Cameroun to be sold into slavery. Again in many homes the girl-child is overburdened with household chores, all in the name of commercial status known as housemaid or house help, now modified as domestic helpers. This comes in as a cushioning for the impoverished status of their parents.

2.4.2 Psychological or emotional violence Generally, psychological violence is a behaviour that is directed at an emotional level or has emotional impact on the victim, such as inability to sleep or eat. Regardless of the intent or result of behaviour, the abuse is used to force someones compliance or obedience, and or to control him or her. This type of abuse includes insulting or ignoring partner, making partner feel stupid or worthless; name calling, constant criticism, ridiculing partners beliefs, humiliating partner in public or private and intimidating or harassing partner. The perpetrator also monitors partners movements, becomes overly jealous or possessive, isolates partner from family and friends, prevents partner from going to work or school, attacks partners children or pets and threatens to kill or leave or throw partner out of the house
http://www.cdc.gov/healthmarketing/entertainment_education/tips/domviol.htm

(Retrieved: 25th December, 2013).

15

In emotional violence, perpetrators sometimes direct the violent acts towards themselves (self inflicted violence) threatening to kill oneself or go mad if the other leaves or does not do what one wants. Also, deceit, breaking promises, destroying trust, false accusations and blaming and playing mind game with victim or causing victim to suffer severe psychological trauma underlined activities of perpetrators

(http://allafrica.com/stories/200505030370.html, (Retrieved:15th January 2013).

In this type of violence, the wounds inflicted upon the mind take much longer time to heal though the body may mend soon afterwards. Each time the victims re-live these moments, they start bleeding all over again. The broken spirit takes the longest time to mend; the damage to the personality may be the most difficult to overcome (Adjetey & Boadu, 1997).

The emotional stress of exposure to violence against women can harm the development of the brain and impair cognitive and sensory growth in infants and toddlers. Children exposed to violence against women have more health problems, poorer school performance and more behavioural disturbances than children not exposed to violence against women. Babies have a harder time developing a bond with mothers who are abused than with mothers who are not abused. http://endabuse.org/userfiles/file/Children_and_Families/Children.pdf (Retrieved: 15th January, 2013.).

2.4.3 Socio-economic violence The common situation that connotes violence socio-economically is when heads of families (breadwinners) hold or withhold resources or neglect their responsibilities to provide essential materials, such as money for food, school fees, clothing and other household materials, regardless of the economic situation (Cusack et al, 1999).

In many instances, the act of economic violence is geared towards punishing the dependents or to reinforce the status of the head of the household. For example, a husband who is pestered for home-keeping money by his wife can be violent as a means to register 16

his position of denial. On the other hand, those who are denied these socio-economic needs also can become violent as a result of frustration. Economic violence also occurs in the circumstances when perpetrators prevent victims from earning income and seizing their assets. The acts of preventing partner from earning income or seizing his or her asset seems to render the victim powerless to be left at the mercy of the perpetrator (Cusack et al, 1999). Some perpetrators dare to restrict their victims access to financial information and resources and also destroy their victims possessions and more often than not the target is to mismanage the victims finances (Dwamena-Aboagye & Fiamanya, 2005).

2.4.4 Sexual violence According to the Crises Response Centre of The Ark Foundation, South Sudan (2003), sexual abuse involves forced attempt to have sex or perform sexual acts against a partners will. The activities of sexual violence includes, attacking the sexual parts of a partners body, making humiliating sexual comments or jokes, threatening physical violence should a partner not comply with sexual demands and defilement (having sex with a minor, under 14 years with or without her consent). Forced prostitution and knowingly infecting a partner with sexually transmitted disease or the HIV/AIDS virus are also regarded as sexual violence. Though it seems that society thinks if you love your partner you should not deny him or her of sex, sex in itself does not equal to love. Research evidence shows that many of the acts mentioned in the Ark Foundations report leave the victims traumatized. Some perpetrators go the extra mile and force their victims to have sex with other people or wear clothes and perform sexual activities that make them uncomfortable. Marital rape form part of sexual violence. In some countries rape in marriage is not recognized by law, and in countries where there is legal sanction against rape, many women do not define forced sex as rape if they are living with their attacker, but research evidence shows that forced sex in marriage leave the victims traumatized for days (FIDA, 2005).

17

2.5. Some traditional practices considered as violence A study conducted on violence against women in South Sudan by Georgetown University Law Centre (GULC (USA)) in 2003 asserted that it is also due to some peculiar cultural practices that the occurrence of violence against women is still rampant in our society. Traditional leaders have played a large role in resolving private disputes within the community, not least among these private matters, are cases of violence against women. South Sudanese Chiefs and Queen Mothers handle cases by listening to both sides of the story, determining who is at fault and fining the guilty one or both. The research evidence of GULC shows that, although the traditional process is meant to be one of fair private adjudication, some (both male and female) traditional leaders have a firm belief in the need for women to be subservient to men, and endure even abusive conduct, and the need for women to refrain from provoking the men to violence. It is further asserted by a Queen Mother that educated and economically-independent wives bring violence against women upon themselves (GULC, 2003 p. 26).

2.5.1 Female circumcision Dolphyne, (2000) contends that there are many traditional practices that are violent in nature of which female circumcision is one. Female circumcision is one form of such traditional practices, which many women underwent mostly in the northern sector of South Sudan as teenagers, or even as infants. According to Dolphyne, this practice sometimes results in the women suffering serious, and life- threatening injuries throughout their adult lives. Female circumcision causes lost of lives. Research indicates that unfortunate children who underwent the ordeal sometimes bleed to death.

2.5.2 Widowhood rites Widowhood rites are another form of traditional practice, which sometimes have an element of violence in their administration in some cultures in South Sudan. For instance, a woman mourning her husband is deprived of such social activities as speaking in public to a group of people or freely moving about to do her normal duties. She cannot eat during certain times of the day, will have to be in a particular posture while eating or more often than not, being isolated to signify her grief for the loss of her husband (Cusack et al. 1999) 18

2.6 Causes of violence against women 2.6.1 Social value Family system theorist Kurz (1999) contends that, the structure of the family is subject to social stressors that cause family members to be violent with one another. Families accept violence as a means to resolve conflict. Kurz suggests that abusive behaviour is modelled for the individual in his or her family of origin. Thus, violence is used by most powerful family members to maintain their dominant position. In such a situation, the dynamics of abuse within the family and the role of family become the original model for violent behaviour.

Research shows that in most cases, the issue of violence against women is normally generated by men. This may be so because; women and children are regarded as either minors or people with unequal status to, and powerless before, men in the society.

2.6.2 Cultural practices Marcus (1994) posits that violence against women occurs because of the cultural practices of societies. Marcus argued that, due to the acceptance of violence against women as a private problem by many cultures, cultural norms and values may be used to deny, minimize, rename or normalize the menace. Perhaps, in many societies, domestic abuse is not considered a serious problem. It may be seen as an individual and normal happening rather than as culturally sanctioned, and their systematic practices used to silence and coerce weaker persons.

From the perspective of Cusack et al (1999) the causes of domestic abuse, have various themes. In a typical South Sudanese society, interfering in-laws who argue on family issues based on infertility problem, introduction of stepchildren and introduction of extended family members into the nuclear family can generate violence in the home. Marital disharmony, such as custody battles over children and disagreement over a pregnancy also spark violence. Infidelity can be linked to polygamy where a man takes on additional wives or mistresses without consulting his first wife. Frivolous expenses on this extra relationship 19

to the detriment of the original family generate rivalry, which can further escalate into violence (Cusack et a, 1999).

2.6.4 Power and control Martin-Baro (1998) posited that inherent in violence against women is the act of power. Power, according to him, is the condition that makes it possible for one actor to make his or her will or goals prevail. It is based on the resources available to each actor in a particular relationship. Although resources are not power, they are the basis of power. The more varied the resources, the greater the power one may have in social relations. For example, a father of a family may have resources for power prevailing in his own family but not over his boss at work. This lack of social power at work may lead him to become very authoritarian in his relationship with his partner at home. This means that exercise of power in relationships can be found to be closely related to aggression (Martin-Baro, 1998).

National Coalition of Violence against women (NCDV) in South Sudan also noted that the state's response to fighting violence at home had not been effective because there are no clear efforts to protect the home. To NCDV, violence against women is a manifestation of unequal power in relationships and called for a legislative framework to help deal with the problem. A member of NCDV commented that:
I cannot believe in this day and age that people still think that one person can beat or mentally abuse another and it is OK as they live together or are married. If you walked down the street and someone shouted abuse or beat you they would be arrested - why should it be any different because the offender is known to the victim? Dont forget there are often children involved in these relationships and they will take the scars into their adulthoods. It needs to be dealt with and not ignored (http://allafrica.com/stories/200505030370.html , (Retrieved: 13th September, 2013.).

2.6.5 Gender inequality In international discourse, violence against women has clearly been placed in the realm of womens human right. Prior to the 1993 UN choosing Womans Rights as its theme for Human Rights for that year, most governments regarded violence against women largely as 20

a private matter between individuals (United Nations General Assembly, 1995). However, violence against women has increasingly been recognized by UN General Assembly (1995) as an obstacle to equality, and an intolerable offence to human dignity. International research has demonstrated that violence against women is a world-wide phenomenon affecting an estimated 20 to 50% of all women. It was also asserted as a matter of fact that most of the violence against women take place within families, and the perpetrators are almost exclusively men, usually partners, ex-partners, or other men known to the woman (WHO, 1998). The Beijing Platform of Action states that:
Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to a domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of womens full advancement (United Nation, 1995).

Bunch, Carrillo and Shaw (1998) cited in UNICEF, (1998), posit that gender violence is not random violence in which victims happen to be women and girls; rather, the risk factor is being females who have unequal power as men.
http://www.unicef.org/crc/crc.htm

(Retrieved: 30th November, 2013).

Dobash & Dobash (1978) state that due to the strict and rigid gender expectations still at work in many traditional societies, the home is still seen as the womans place and the man is seen as a primary breadwinner, even in cases in which both partners work outside the home. This societal prescribed division of labour and responsibility may enhance the gender inequality in the male-female relationship and pave the way for violence against women to occur (Dobash & Dobash, 1978).

2.6.6 Other causes of violence against women Outside influences are also perceived to be linked to violence against dependants, particularly excessive drinking and taking of hard drugs. School related reasons such as refusing to go to school, being late for school, refusing to perform personal chores of NGO Officials , late payment of school fees, disobedience in school and other petty offences 21

which include cheating in examinations are other causes linked to generation of violence against women (Cusack, et a, 1999).

2.7 Effects of violence against women There are several effects that are associated with violence against women. Health issue which includes anything from minor injuries to chronic problems is deemed major effects of abuse.

2.7.1. Violence breed violence One may think that the surest way to correct is to punish, but Fieldman (1996), asserts that, physical punishment may convey to the recipient the idea that physical aggression is permissible and perhaps even desirable, and that a father who yells at his son for misbehaving teaches his son that aggression is an appropriate adult response. At the end of the day, the child will copy his fathers behaviour by acting aggressively toward others.

Hurley and Jaffe (1990) posit that, victims of violence against women or child abuse suffer irreparable psychological damage as a result. Negative feelings, such as withdrawal, depression, abnormal fears and regression are some related experiences with violence against women. Victims in educational institution are faced with learning problems, decline in school performance, truancy, bullying and tendency to become a victim. Victims also have difficulty in building and maintaining relationships. Hurley and Jaffes contention finds expression in Melanies experience, stated in Awake September 8, 2001 that:
I cry and hurt inside a lot. When Im not hurting, I just feel dead. I dont enjoy anything. I dont like being with my friends anymore. I sleep a lot. Most days I cant get up to go to school and my grades have gone way down (Melanie, Awake, September8, 2001 p.3).

Witnessing violence in the home can be as traumatic for children. Younger children are more likely to suffer post traumatic stress disorders, particularly when the violence they witness is frequent and is perpetrated in close proximity to them. They experience significant psychological and behavioural problems that interfere with their ability to function in school, at home and with peers. Children who grow up in violent homes are 22

more likely to be aggressive with peers, and as adults are more likely to become perpetrators or victims.

Beyond the immediate injury, broken limbs, scars, lacerations, cuts, bruises, internal organ damage and brain damage result out of domestic violent. Violence often leads to serious long-term health problems, including chronic pain, physical disability and suicide attempts as well as unwanted pregnancies and Sexually Infectious Diseases (WHO, 2005).

The numerous behavioural patterns and health problems developed and experienced as effects of violence against women on victims cannot be overestimated; life after the experience is not the same almost every aspect of the victims life is affected.

2.72. Depression Some victims of violence against women suffer psychological effects, such as depression, as a result of being abused. This common effect of violence against women can cause serious emotional problems. According to the United States National Institute of Mental Health (USNIMH) as many as seven percent of severely depressed people take their life. Depression is characterised by a combination of symptoms that interfere with a person's ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy oncepleasurable activities. Major depression is disabling and prevents a person from functioning normally. An episode of major depression may occur only once in a person's lifetime, but more often, it recurs throughout a person's life (Awake, 8 September 2001). 2.7. 3. Low self-esteem Low self-esteem is also associated with the experience of violence against women. According to Dwamena-Aboagye & Fiamanya (2005) the end result of repeated abuse and victimisation is a battered self-esteem. To them, the more severe the abuse is and the longer it has gone on, the poorer self-image the victim will have. His or her shame and embarrassment over the beatings keep him or her at arms length from others.

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2.7.4. Internalised oppression Internalised oppression is another form of effect of violence against women. DwamenaAboagye & Fiamanya, explain it as, when anyone believes he or she is inferior and deserves to be treated badly, it goes to confirm the suspicion that something is wrong with him or her. The self-blame position makes it easier for the bad treatment to continue. Internalised blame is the belief of self-blame, because the victim thinks he might have provoked the violence. This feeling as a result encourages the perpetrators frequent degradation, humiliation and criticism of victims for the brutality (Dwamena-Aboagye & Fiamanya, 2005).

2.7.5. Isolation Isolation comes about for the sake of the safety of loved ones. Some are afraid to leave their homes. For example, children and mothers will not like to mingle with others for the fear that they might have said something that may expose the perpetrator (father or husband). Hence victims of violence may find it difficult to sustain trust in relationships over the long term. Development of isolation brings about, nervous breakdowns, suicidal attempts or thoughts, nightmares, sleep disorders, substance abuse, development of sexual phobias and others (Dwamena-Aboagye & Fiamanya, 2005).

2.8.6 What counselling is Oladele (2000) sees counselling as a process in which the counsellor assists the client to make interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan or adjustment. This assistance may be educational, vocational, social, personal, emotional or moral. George and Christiani (1995) posit that several elements are common to the many definitions of counselling. One is the notion that counselling is aimed at helping people to make choices and act on them. Another element is the notion of learning and unlearning. Yet another element is that of personality development.

Burks and Stefflre (1979), postulate that, counselling is a professional relationship between a trained counsellor and a client. This relationship is usually person-to-person, although it may sometimes involve more than two people. It is designed to help clients to 24

understand and clarify their self-determined goals through meaningful, well-informed choices and also through resolution of challenges of an emotional or interpersonal nature. Counselling then can be referred to as a number of procedures used in assisting an individual or a group of people in overcoming challenges which arise in various aspects of life. Counselling helps the individual to be more effective, satisfied and more useful to him or herself and the society in which he or she lives.

2.8.6.1 Behavioural counselling Behavioural counselling is credited with plethora of techniques which include, cognitive restructuring, covert sensitization, modelling, flooding, extinction, thought stopping, selfrecording, self-regulation, contracting, assertiveness training and reward and punishment (Coon, 1997). These techniques are versatile and have common procedures that are used in both formal and informal settings, and are at the same time applicable to many cultural settings. For example, modelling and learning by observation, are dictates of South Sudanese culture. South Sudanese culture can be linked to Banduras assumptions of socialcognitive approach which is behavioural in nature. Banduras assumption is based on the belief that, behaviour occurs as a result of a complex interplay between inner processes and environmental influences (Bandura, 1971, cited in Coon, 1997).

According to Bandura, we typically represent external events symbolically and later use both verbal representation and imaginary representation to guide our behaviour. In the sense used by Bandura, we can solve problems symbolically without having to resort to actual overt trial-and-error behaviour; we have to foresee the probable consequences of our behaviour and modify our actions accordingly (Bandura, 1977).

Again, behavioural procedures are geared towards the uniqueness of each client. The therapy is based on the motivator or notion that enhances behavioural or attitudinal change. As part of the therapeutic process, there is collaboration between the client and the counsellor and the quantity of materials learnt can be measured by the responses of the clients. These processes create the opportunity for the violence against women client to make progress as the therapeutic process evolve (Baron, 1998). 25

2.9 The role of counselling in controlling violence against women Counselling as a helping relation is rich with characteristics that are geared towards ameliorating human predicament. Counselling creates the forum to communicate deeply. In counselling a platform of understanding is availed to the counsellee to understand his or her thought and feeling through the cautious use of reflective phrases by the counsellor. The objective of counselling is to create conditions for expression and communication of views void of generally viewing counsellees case from judgmental point of view (Akinade et al 2005).

The communication characteristic of counselling enables a violence against women client to freely express his or her views about his or her actions under a counselling condition. The violence against women client expresses his or her feelings to the counsellor which the counsellor reflectively conveys with sincerity and consistency back to the client as an assurance of acceptance and respect. This process gingers the client to cooperate during the session.

Another essential role of counselling is that, the process allows techniques to be practiced by counsellee in assisting him or her to solve his or her own problem. Techniques used during the process fore-arm the counsellee in the absence of the counsellor to take the final responsibility for solving his own problems.

According to Tyler (1965), cited in Akinade et al (2005), the central purpose of counselling is to facilitate wise choices and decisions; its central purpose is to promote adjustment or mental health.

The facilitating role of counselling in the control of violence against women cannot be over estimated. Dustin and George (1977), cited in Coon, (1997) suggest that; the counsellor must establish specific counselling goals. The specific counselling goals designed for violence against women counsellee enable both the counsellee and the counsellor to understand precisely the specific change that is desired. Specific behavioural goals have an additional value which helps the counsellee to be able to see any change that occurs. 26

Counselling helps individuals to obtain information to clarify and sort out personal characteristics and emotional concerns that may interfere with or be related to the decisions involved (Kankam and Onivehu, 2000). Violence against women counsellees are helped to acquire an understanding through counselling not only of their abilities, interests, and opportunities but also of the emotions and attitudes that can influence their choice and decisions for a change in behaviour.

As a helping relation, counselling seeks to promote the growth and development of clients by giving them the opportunity to learn ways to use their abilities and interests to the maximum. The violence against women counsellee can be viewed in this sense as one improving his or her personal effectiveness. Also, counselling would maximise the violence against women counsellees effectiveness by giving him or her control over his or her environment and the responses within, which are evoked by the environment.

The principles underlying the practice of counselling recognises the right and capability of an individual to make decisions and plans, it also recognises the worth and dignity of an individual and therefore respects his or her right to choose his or her lifestyle and self determination. The practice as well recognizes the uniqueness of an individual and the individuals right to that uniqueness (Akinade et al, 2005).

The issue of violence against women is a sensitive one which needs to be handled in a nonthreatening, relaxed and friendly atmosphere. The counsellor with his or her knowledge of the underlying principles of counselling creates an atmosphere of warmth, confidentiality and acceptance for greater experience of intimacy between him or her (counsellor) and the domestic violent client for better gains. The more intimate and personal relationship between the counsellee and the counsellor is, the more it gives time and space to the counsellee to explore his or her feelings and to take responsibility by deciding on what to do next.

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2.10. Counselling techniques 2.10.1 Contingency contracting A persons behaviour is the result of both external events, such as rewards, praise, and other reinforcements, and internal events, like how we think about our actions. Coon (1997), describe contingency contracting as a contract between client and significant others who are seen as making positive or negative contribution to the clients problems. Here, the aim is to get all participants to agree on collaboration in achieving a specific, behavioural goal that will ameliorate the clients problems. Ryckman (1997) looks at contingency as the relationship between behaviour and its consequences. Ryckman further explains that, in some cases, events that precede the behaviour are also specified by contingency.

Wortman and Loftus (1992) identify contingency contracting as when a person makes contract with another individual detailing the rewards or punishments contingent on succeeding or failing to make a behaviour change. The understanding of this therapy is that, there is an agreement which states that, some event will occur if, and only if, another event occurs. We can mark the first event (B) and the second event (A).

Contingency contracting technique could be employed to assist violence against women perpetrators to contract moves to check their behaviour. For example, an abuser could contract that, A: Anytime I am able to identify a trigger of violence and I am able to prevent it manifesting into violence I will have my favourite food for dinner. B: Anytime I act violently or abuse my household I should face the full rigours of the law. This contract will be signed with the counsellor and the significant others in the contractors life. The victim could equally contract against the warning signs of violence against women.

2.10.2 Assertiveness training Most of us have been rewarded, first as children and later as adults, for compliance, obedience, or good behaviour. Perhaps this is either why many people find it difficult to assert themselves or non-assertion is related to anxiety about making a scene or feeling disliked by others. Whatever the causes, some people suffer tremendous anguish in any situation requiring poise, self-confidence, or self-assertion (Coon, 1997). 28

Assertiveness is the process of expressing personal right and feelings (Ackummey, 2003). This is to say that nearly everybody can be assertive in some situation, and yet be totally ineffectual in others.

The main objective for assertiveness training is to increase the number and variety of situations in which assertive behaviour is possible, and decrease occasions of passive collapse or hostile blow up. Again, assertiveness enhances ones ability to express oneself and rights without violating the rights of others. It is approximately direct, open, and honest communication that is selfenhancing and expressive. Acting assertively allows you to feel self-confident and generally gain the respect of peers and friends as well as partner. It can increase ones chances for honest relationships, and help one to feel better about ones self-control in everyday situations. This, in turn, will improve ones decision-making ability and possibly ones chances of getting what one really wants from life needs (Akinade et al 2005).

Assertiveness training for abusers and victims alike is necessary to bring back selfassertion and self-esteem. Assertiveness training has been found to be effective in dealing with depression, anger, resentment, and other interpersonal anxiety, especially when these symptoms have been brought about by unfair circumstances. As one becomes assertive, one begins to lay claim to his right to relax, and is also to take blame for his actions. Research evidence shows that the use of assertiveness training to facilitate the expression of socially appropriate behaviour has been very fruitful (Coon, 1997). Perhaps the most challenging self-assertion to an abuser and victim alike is responding to verbal aggression or a put-down. Usually the tendency is to respond aggressively, which usually makes things worse. A good way to respond to put-down uses the following four steps: Step I: If you are wrong admit it. Step II: Acknowledge the victims feelings. Step III: Assert yourself about other victims aggression. Step IV: Briskly end the interchange (Coon, 1997, p.109). 29

2.10.3 Thought-stopping Studies have shown that behaviour therapists have realised that thoughts, like visible responses, can also make the individual maladaptive. As such they have tried to invent techniques to combat negative thoughts. The simplest thought- stopping techniques make use of mild punishment to suppress upsetting mental images and internal talk. For example, simply shout stop any time you have a violent thought (Coon 1997).

The value of thought-stopping therapy is in the fact of drawing your attention to how often you form negative thoughts and interrupting the flow of thoughts. This therapy can help violence against women perpetrators in particular to become conscious of their negative feelings and apply it to prevent the violence against women action.

2.10.4 Cognitive reconstructing Our thoughts influence our behaviours and emotions to a considerable extent. This is not surprising since our thoughts include intentions, rational and irrational thinking, and all our knowledge.

According to Wortman & Loftus,(1992) when we are feeling upset, we are likely to focus normally on our distress, perhaps also telling ourselves that we cannot stand to feel like this another minute. We are carried away by the experience (Wortman & Loftus 1992).

Behaviour therapists usually try to change troublesome actions. They are equally interested in thoughts, as well as visible behaviour. They then help clients change thinking patterns that lead to troublesome emotions or behaviour. Cognitive restructuring is a process of actively altering maladaptive thought patterns and replacing them with constructive thoughts and beliefs (Freeman and Reineek, 1995).

Cognitive restructuring is used for problems resulting from illogical thinking such as selfperception, poor interpersonal relationships and relapse into old behaviours that have been stopped (Ackummey, 2003). 30

2.10.5 Covert conditioning Conditioning principles are often derived from animal experiments. However it should be apparent that the same principle applies to human behaviour. Covert conditioning can be described as all the thinking we do in order to affect behaviour. Some psychologists believe that we can also change the frequency of specific thoughts by reinforcing or punishing the thought. Actually no one will be surprised if his or her urge to hurt someone increased after having a lot of murderous fantasies about that person. Likewise, if you imagined a happy and hilarious moment with your partner on a beautiful day, it is possible you would start to feel more positive about your partner and work to make her happy (Coon, 1997).

In using covert conditioning, the most important thing the counsellor should consider is whether or not the counsellee can put into practice what has been conceived during the action stage of the counselling process. That is where there is a giant leap from fantasy to reality. There are many covert conditioning procedures which include reinforcement, punishment, classical conditioning, modelling and avoidance for many personality disorders. For instance, in the case of covert reinforcement, an abuser can imagine exhibiting a desired behaviour and follow it up with a pleasant image (e.g. playing on the beach, being kissed by his partner and eating a delicious meal with his partner). He will then follow his action with positive statements to enhance his self-esteem. The individual does not only gain pleasure in performing the desired behaviour but also gains personal pride in the skills, as well as self-discipline and the values involved in the activity.

2. 11. Theoretical framework The study of human nature has scientific bases. In general terms, science is an enterprise concerned with the description, explanation, prediction and control of events. The outcome of all the efforts by countless investigations, are the accumulation of systematized knowledge based on observation of phenomena or events. The phenomenon when eventually grounded with proof becomes theory. Thus a theory is a conceptual system constructed by an investigator to help make sense out of existing information and also to aid in prediction of as yet unobserved relationships between events (Rykman1997). 31

Hochbaum (1992) cited in (Rykman1997) contends that any effective work or programme must be grounded in a theory. Hochbaum further claims that there is a major reason why theory is important in investigation. One of the major reasons is that theory explains human behaviour and suggests ways to achieve behavioural change. He also says that theory is applicable across a wide variety of populations and settings and, if carefully selected and applied, can help predict what consequences various programmes and interventions are likely to have, even in situations never before encountered (Rykman, 1997).

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CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter discusses the research design, procedures adopted for data gathering, population, sample and sampling technique, some of the philosophical issues that informed the choice of the methodological approach, data analysis procedures, and finally, how the findings were reported.

The researcher used the quantitative approach for generalisation and the qualitative approach to come out with the in-depth feelings of respondents on the issues raised in the study.

3.1 Research design The study was basically a fact-finding exercise and the design used was a descriptive survey. According to Saranrakos (1998), descriptive surveys are versatile and practical, especially in administration. It has been commonly placed in the health and human performances, as well as in education and the social behavioural sciences. Descriptive survey offers the researcher accurate descriptions of what people in some target population do and think. It also allows the researcher to represent the findings with frequencies.

Quantitative and qualitative paradigms were as well chosen for the study. Quantitative research lends itself to numerical information. This method provides precise quantitative numerical information for studying large numbers of people, while qualitative research looks out for illumination. However information, provided in quantitative data may be too general for direct application to specific situations. The researcher chose quantitative paradigm as part of the process in order to cater for the generalisation aspect of the studys result.

3.2 Population The study area was Bor County of the Jonglie State in South Sudan and all males and females there constituted the population. Total population of the area was 55,896. The 33

accessible population comprised all NGO Officials in Bor Township, men and women and Guidance and Counselling students of Bor.

The rationale for the choice of these categories of respondents was that; the counselling students were thought to be in the best position to make informed contributions based on their knowledge in counselling and psychology as to behaviour modification techniques. In all 70 Counsellor-trainees were part of the population.

3.3 Sample and sampling procedure Since this was a mixed method research, for the qualitative study, the selection of respondents for the study was governed by non-probability sampling procedures. Five married men and five married women with violence against women records were selected through snowballing method of sampling; it is a networking technique used when the population of interest is very difficult to get hold of, but it is likely that one member of the population of interest will know other members of the population, who can be introduced to the researcher.

The researcher systematically selected the third respondent in every three counts of male and female population in each school. This was done in order to have three male and three female from every school in the sample size.

Distribution of teacher population in the ten schools Table 1 School

1. UNIPRA 2. Methodist (A) 3. Methodist (B) 4. Anglican (A) 5. Zion (A) 6. Zion (B)

Male
10 9 9 10 9 9

Female
11 9 10 9 9 11

Total

21 18 19 19 18 20

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7.Presbyterian 8. District Assembly (A) 9.North Campus 10. Don BOSCO Total

9 9 10 10 94

9 10 9 11 98

18 19 19 21 192

In all a sample size of 200 persons from the total population of 55,896 representing men and women in Bor County participated in the study.

3.4. Research instrument The instruments used for the study were interview schedule and a questionnaire. Interview guide was developed for the focus group discussion for men and women at Bor Town.

The interview questions contained in the guide were shaped based on the specified themes of the literature review. Specifically, open-ended question approach to interviewing was used to develop the items. The data for the focus group discussions was gathered using the semi-structured interview guide.

Six items were developed for the focus group interview, from the seven themes of the study. The discussions included issues on identification of violent activities, cultural perceptions about these activities, control measures to the violent activities among others.

Questionnaires were developed for NGO Officials and counselling students with reference to demographic information, definition of violence against women, types of violence, local beliefs about violence against women, observation or personal experience of violence, causes of violence against women, effects of violence against women, and counselling as an intervention measure to violence against women.

A seventeen item questionnaire for Counselling trainees was constructed on maladaptive behaviour thought or believed to be violent, types of corrective measures on maladaptive behaviour, application of the measures and their results and behaviour modification

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techniques. The questionnaire sought the Counselling-trainees opinion on the use of counselling to control violence against women.

3.5 Validity and Reliability Validity is an important part of research and according to Cohen, Manion and Morrrison (2003), it is based on the view that a particular instrument measures what it purports to measure. Cohen et al also comment that with the increasing adoption of qualitative studies, however, the focus of measuring validity is no longer in terms of figures since qualitative data emphasise trustworthiness, truthfulness, honesty and scope of the data.

The content validity of the instruments was established by giving out the prepared questionnaires and interview guide to the supervisor of the researcher and the researchers course mates for their comments and suggestions. Items that seemed to be ambiguous were modified. studys reliability was ensured by pilot testing the questionnaires and the interview guide. To establish the reliability coefficient, Cronbach alpha was calculated with the help of SPSS version 16.0 to reach the Cronbach alpha of 0.78.

3. 6. Pilot study The term pilot study is used in two different ways in social science research. It can refer to so-called feasibility studies which are small scale version, or trial run, done in preparation for the major study (Polit, Beck, & Hungler, 2001).

Pilot study of the questionnaire for the Counsellor-trainees was carried out using five Master of Philosophy Counsellor-trainees of the Bor. The questionnaire for NGO Officials was pilot-tested with seven NGO Officials at Abonyi Roman Catholic Primary School.

3.7. Data collection procedure The data collection exercise was done in three phases and was spread between April and September 2013. 36

A letter of introduction was obtained from the Head of the Department of Psychology and Education, of Bor; and shown to sampled NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees before embarking on the data collection exercise. The letter also ensured smooth and healthy interaction with the respondents. A research assistant who could speak English was engaged to help record and take notes in the focus group discussion with the sampled groups.

Focus group discussions are considered as group interviews, often utilizing a semistructured approach to questioning and relying on the responses participants themselves give to move the interview or the conversation along. This opens up pathways to new topics during the discussion, where the researcher is free to probe and explore some of the responses made by the participants (Morgan, 1998).

In this study focus group discussion was used where individuals (men and women) were brought together to discuss common or similar experiences in order to better understand what is involved in violence against women and find solution to the menace. For example, women and men who had experienced violence against women before were brought together to discuss on their experiences or situations that led to the violent episodes, in order to identify some of the precursors to violence against women. The focus group discussion was organized in two heterogeneous groups made up of five males and five females.

3. 8. Data analysis The quantitative and qualitative data gathered in respect of questionnaire and interview respectively were analysed in this segment. The data from the questionnaire were presented in frequencies and percentages in tables. Responses from the interview (focus group discussion) were transcribed. The researcher listened to the tape recordings of the focus group discussion and took note of recurring themes which addressed the research questions.

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Some of these responses were presented in the data presentation verbatim. Significant presentations in the data were singled out and commented on.

The results from both the interview and questionnaires were organised under the research questions which were put together to discuss the findings.

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CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 4.0 Introduction This chapter deals with the presentation of data and discussion of the findings of the study. It is divided into two sections A and B. A captures names of sampled groups and demographic information on respondents. Section B presents the data analysis.

There were two separate questionnaires containing 31 items and 17 items for NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees respectively. Five themes were explored for the focus group discussions. Items for both questionnaires and interview guide were based on the research questions.

Items 1to 4 and 6 of the questionnaire for NGO Officials and item 1 of questionnaire for Counsellor-trainees were used to elicit responses to answer research question one. Items 8, to 10 and 12 of questionnaire for NGO Officials and 5 and 6of Counsellor-trainees were used to elicit responses to answer research question two. Items 13 to 20 of questionnaire for NGO Officials were used to elicit responses to answer research question three. To research question four, items 13 to 17 of the questionnaire for NGO Officials were used to elicit responses to answer the question. Items 23 to 26, of questionnaire for NGO Officials, items 7 and 8 and also 12 to 17 of questionnaires for Counsellor-trainees were used to answer research question four. Five men and five women participated in the focus group discussion.

The data are presented under the following themes: Perceptions about violence Causes of violence Types of violence Observation and personal experience of violence Effects of violence against women and Intervention measures

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The questionnaires have two different forms of items; one which attracts Likert scale values, and the other with the option of selecting applicable statements to the question.

There were three different types of titling the responses of the items for NGO Officials which attracted Likert scale. The value assigned to the scale ranged from 1-4 in terms of four titles and 1-3in terms of three titles; Very true, True, Partially true, Not true and Strongly agree, Agree, Partially agree, Disagree (four titles) and Acceptable, Sometimes acceptable, Never acceptable (three title).However, the trend reversed in the case of items for Counsellor-trainees with the values 1-4 because the questions had positive connotation. Six themes were explored for the focus group discussions. Each members opinion was recorded to support the findings of the study. SECTION A 4.1 Preliminary data Table 2 Distribution of Respondents from the three groups by sex Group Female Male Total

Frequency (%) NGO Officials Counsellor trainees Men and Women at Bor Town Total 60 (30%) 60(30%) 35(17.5%) 35(17.5%) 5 (2.5%) 5 (2.5%) 120 (60%) 70(35%) 10(5%) 200(100%)

100(50%0) 100(50%)

Table 2 presents the distributions of the various groups that form the total population sampled. The sample covered 120 (60%) NGO Officials from ten Public Basic Schools in Bor Township, 70 (35%) Counsellor-trainees from Bor and 10 (5%) men and women from Bor Town in Bor, making a total sample of 200 (100%)

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Demographic information on respondents Table 3 Age range of respondents Age range 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50-59 years 60-69 Total Male 18 35 26 16 1 96(51%) Female 21 37 23 15 96(49%) Frequency 39 72 49 31 1 192 Percentage 20 37 26 16 1 100

Table 3 shows age range of respondents. Table 3 depicts the age range of the number of respondents who participated in the study. It is significant to note that the majority of them (37% and 26%) fell in the ranges of 30-39 years and 40-49 years respectively which represent the middle age. Perhaps these are the ages when one engages in active activities for progress in life.

Table 4 Level of education of teachers partner Level Basic Secondary Tertiary Total Frequency 33 41 41 115 Percentage 29.5 35.7 35.7 100

Table 4 shows distribution of NGO Officials partners according to their educational levels. Table 4 shows that 29% of NGO Officials partners had basic education, while 35% ended at the secondary level, and almost 36% had tertiary education. It is expedient to note that the largest number of NGO Officials partners had tertiary education and appreciable number had secondary education. Bor being blessed with it may be conjectured that the 41

NGO Officials whose partners had had tertiary education might be women whose partners were male lecturers and or workers of the University.

Table 5 Marital status of NGO Officials Marital status Married Unmarried but with a partner Total Frequency 70 45 115 Percentage 61 39 100

Table 5 depicts marital status of teacher-respondents. Table 5 indicates that, 61% of the teacher-respondents were married while 39% were unmarried but were in relationship. The information from the statistics on Table 5 indicates that all the teacher-respondents were with spouses and were likely to have been involved in violence against women in their relationship. Section B 4.2 Data Analysis Simple descriptive analysis backed by tables was employed in analyzing the data. Data was collected by means of questionnaires and focus group discussions. Research question one was: How do people in Bor County perceive violence against women?

Knowledge about a particular phenomenon empowers one to act either in a positive or negative way towards that particular phenomenon. It was therefore necessary to determine whether respondents had conceived ideas that they deemed were activities of violence against women. It was only their level of perception about violence against women that could help them determine a course of action regarding combating the menace.

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Items 1 to 4 and 6 to7 of the questionnaire for NGO Officials and item 1 of questionnaire for Counsellor-trainees were used to elicit responses to answer the question. Table 6 NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees views and acts of violence against women Item No. Item Frequency (%) of Responses Acceptable Sometimes Acceptable 1. Parents caning children 2. NGO Officials caning pupils 3. Slapping of partner 4. Elders insulting children 6.Partner shunning company of the other due to conflict 1.Administration of corporal punishment 31(46%) 36(58%) 67(100%) 41(36%) 30(26%) 44(38%) 115(100%) 43(37%) 10(9%) 15(13%) 26(23%) 65(57%) 99(86%) 44(38%) 47(41%) 7(6%) 6(5%) 56(49%) 42(36%) 115(100%) 115(100%) 115(100%) 115(100%) Never acceptable Total

Table 6 shows the responses of NGO Officials and counsellor-trainees on what constitute violence against women. Statistics in Table 6 show that, 94% NGO Officials accepted parents caning children, 6% did not accept the statement. Ninety-five percent accepted NGO Officials canning pupils, 5% did not, 51% NGO Officials accepted partners

slapping each other, 49% did not, 63% of NGO Officials

accepted elders insulting

children, 37% did not, and 62% NGO Officials accepted conflict leading to one partner shunning the other but 38% of NGO Officials did not accept the statement. Thirty one students used corporal punishment to correct wrong doing while 36 students did not. The findings indicate that majority the (60%) of NGO Officials accepted caning, slapping, insults, shunning company of partner as being forms of violence against women. The minority of NGO Officials ie40% said it said totally unacceptable for people to engage in violence against women and majority of the Counsellor-trainees did not engage in corporal punishment. 43

Perhaps those NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees, who never accepted violence in the home, might have natural aversion to violence or might be aware of and were prepared to obey the Law on violence against women. Such people should be commended for their stand on violence against women.

As indicated in chapter three, focus group discussion was sought to capture in-depth information on related themes. This was done with the sampled group of men and women at Bor Town. The men and women shared experiences which were almost the same as the answers to the questionnaires. The focus group members had the following to say during the discussions; on

In what ways do you offend one another or partner in your family or community?
1.The issue of offending one another in marriage is a normal way of family life; just as the old saying goes (from the Volta Region in South Sudan), Two calabashes on water will definitely brush each other, let alone husband and a wife. Some wives nag a lot, they shout and insult their children, if their husbands want to control them a bit it generates into exchange of harsh words between them. (Retired male teacher aged 62).

2.

Some men disregard their wives. These men take decisions concerning their wives and

children without their consent. For example, give a child out to a relation. If the wife or the child challenges this decision, the man becomes angry and sometimes beat them with the explanations that, they are disobedient to his orders. (Trader aged 37). 3. My husband is one who cannot tolerate our childrens misbehaviour. He uses the cane in

beating them and anytime I try to intervene it results in hot arguments. (Housewife aged 42). 4. Some women treat their husbands visitors and friends badly to the extent that when their

husbands complain they use harsh words on them. If he finds it too much to contain he may give her a few slaps for her to know that he is in control. It is normal. (Carpenter aged 30). 5. Husbands in some homes do not provide home keeping money but expect their wives to lay their table before anyone elses, and if it does not happen their way, trouble for everybody. (Female trader aged 35).

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6.

Nobody wants to beat his wife. A mans patience has limits, and few women understand

that. Even when the husband does something wrong and he knows that it is wrong, and the wife keeps accusing him again and again, she is sure to be beaten. I beat my wife sometimes because of this. (Trader aged 52). 7. We hear news about how elderly men entice small girls with money and defile them. Some

NGO Officials who know better even rape school girls. This brings enmity between families in our communities. My daughter suffered some time ago because of this. I refused to take legal action, but the two families are not in good terms. (Female petty trader aged 45).

Discussion of findings The responses to research question one from NGO Officials , focus group members and Counsellor-trainees signify that, majority of the population were aware of the prevalence of violence against women in Bor County. Sixty percent of NGO Officials and students accepted various kinds of violence against women perpetrated in the area. In most cases the perpetrators used power to perpetrate the violent act. For instance in the case of parents and NGO Officials caning children, one can accept the fact that the former has power and control over the latter.

According to Martin-Baro (1998), inherent in violence against women is the act of power. Power, according to him, is the condition that makes it possible for one actor to make his or her will or goals prevail.

Cusack et al (1999) in a survey which investigated violence against women and children in South Sudan found out that, power manifest itself at a number of different levels. According to Cusack et al, at the personal level, power is enacted through interpersonal relations, and may increase or decrease depending upon factors such as age, sex, race, class and education. From the findings of the focus group discussions, on in what ways do you offend one another or partner in your family or community? Findings revealed that men were more of 45

the perpetrators of the act than women; this may confirm Kellys (1988) argument that, men as a group always have more power than their female counterparts. Research question two was what are the causes of violence against women in Bor County?

Items 8 to 10 and 12 of the questionnaire for NGO Officials and items 5 and 6 of questionnaire for Counsellor-trainees were used to elicit responses to answer research question three. Table 7 NGO Officials response to some causes of violence against women

Item No.

Item Very true True

Frequency (%) of Responses Partially true 17(15%) 27(24%) 24(21%) 11(10%) Not true Total

8. Habitual alcoholism:

54(47%) 35(30%)

9(8%) 115(100%) 6(5%) 7(6%) 6(5%) 115(100%) 115(100%) 115(100%)

9. Refusal to sexual demand: 37(32%) 45(39%) 10. Mismanagement of funds: 48(42%) 36(31%) 12. Extra marital affairs: 70(61%) 28(24%)

Table 7 shows responses of NGO Officials on causes of violence against women. Statistics from Table 7 reveal that, 92% of NGO Officials admitted alcoholism, 95% admitted to refusal to sexual demand, 94% admitted to mismanagement of partners finances and 95% admitted to extra marital affairs as some causes of violence against women.

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Item 5 of Counsellor-trainees questionnaire: Does domestic violent behaviour emanate from maladjustment? Table 8 Counsellor-trainees response to domestic violent behaviour

Item Yes Violence against women behaviour emanates from maladjustments

Frequency(%) of Responses No Not sure Total

48 (72%)

11 (16%) 8 (12%)

67 (100%)

Table 8 shows Counsellor-trainees responses on domestic violent behaviour emanate from maladjustment. Data on Table 8 reveal that 72% of the Counsellor trainees stated Yes to domestic violent behaviour emanating from maladjustments, while 28% stated No.

Item 6: What are the examples of maladjustment behaviours? Table 9 Counsellor-trainees response to maladjustment behaviours

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Bullying Intimidation Quarrelsomeness Fighting Rape Total

7 14 8 30 8 67

10.4 20.9 11.9 44.8 12.0 100.0

Table 9 shows Counsellor-trainees responses on what constitute maladjustment behaviour. Statistics from Table 9 indicates that, 7 students stated bullying, 14 stated intimidation, 8 stated quarrelsomeness, 30 stated fighting and 8 stated rapes as examples of maladjustment.

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Sample responses from focus group members on research question two. What are common issues that generate misunderstanding between you and your partner?
1. In my family, misunderstanding usually emanates from lack of sufficient funds to run the

home and refusal to provide school needs for the children. My husband gives insufficient amount of money for domestic use but expects magic to happen as far as what I purchase for the home are concerned. (Female petty trader) 2. My husbands habit of lotto staking is my problem. He stakes lotto everyday t o the neglect of his responsibilities as a father; moneys he sometimes collects from the familys savings to pay the bills end up in lotto staking. I am the one who pay school fees, utility bills so there is always misunderstanding between us. (Female trader aged 32) 3. I am a retired teacher; I gave part of my retirement benefits to my wife to trade with, but

along the line she had neither the capital nor the profit to show. She purchased personal items anyhow. So during those days anytime she asked me for money it became war. (Retired teacher) 4. It is my husbands unforgiving nature and no regards for me that hurt me most . He cares for

us financially, but relates with us in master- servant manner. This creates tension in the house always. (Trader)

Discussion of findings Before one can make any meaningful decision on controlling a challenge, that person has to know the causes of the challenge. For the purpose of this study, first, one must recognize abuse is occurring; second, one must identify the triggers to these actions which we can term for this purpose, warning signs before one can find solution to the challenge.

In light of the data presented in table 7, 92% of NGO Officials admitted alcoholism, as a cause of violence against women. In the focus group discussion, one of the recurring themes for the cause of violence against women was alcoholism. Cusack et al, (1999) state that, outside influences are also perceived to be linked to violence against dependants, particularly excessive drinking and taking of hard drugs.

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The data also presents 95% of the NGO Officials as having admitted to refusal to sexual demand as one of the causes of violence against women. Responses from focus group members indicated that, some of the misunderstanding they had with their partners was generated out of sexual violence.

According to the Crises Response Centre of The Ark Foundation, South Sudan (2003), sexual abuse involves forced attempt to have sex or perform sexual acts against a partners will. The activities of sexual violence includes, attacking the sexual parts of a partners body, making humiliating sexual comments or jokes, threatening physical or psychological violence should a partner not comply with sexual demands and defilement (having sex with a minor, under 14 years with or without her consent).

Again data in table 7 presents 94% of Teacher-respondents as having admitted to mismanagement of partners finances as a cause of violence against women. The focus group discussions also recorded unplanned spending and husbands irresponsiveness as another cause of violence against women.
My husbands habit of lotto staking is my problem. He stakes lotto everyday to the neglect of his responsibilities as a father; moneys he sometimes collects from the familys savings to pay the bills but he ends up in lotto staking. I am the one who pay school fees, utility bills so there is always misunderstanding between us (from focus group member).

According to Dwamena-Aboagye & Fiamanya, 2005, the common situation that connotes violence socio-economically is when heads of families (breadwinners) hold or withhold resources or neglect their responsibilities to provide essential materials, such as money for food, school fees, clothing and other household materials, regardless of the economic situation.

As much as 95% of Teacher-respondents admitted to extra marital affairs as part of the causes of violence against women. Most of the responses clearly showed that extramarital 49

affairs and mismanagement of partners resources rated highest as causes of violence against women. Perhaps there may be correlation between the two variables. The one who engages in extra marital affairs may be using his or her resources in the extra relationship. This was evident during the focus group discussions as members spent time in trying to find what can be done to curtail the situation.
My husband has two wives already; as if that is not enough, there are concubines who eyed you when you go to the market. The least you complain the safer you are; because you will attract beatings and insults when you complain. The worse is that he does not provide the familys needs (from focus group member).

Table 8 presents a data of 72% of Counsellor-trainees who agree that domestic violent behaviour emanates from maladjustments. According to Wortman & Loftus, when we are feeling upset, we are likely to focus normally on our distress, perhaps also telling ourselves that we cannot stand to feel like this another minute. We are carried away by the experience and act negatively (Wortman & Loftus 1992). Research question three was: What are the forms of violence against women experienced by people in Bor County?

Items 13 to 20 of questionnaire for NGO Officials were used to answer this question. These items duelled on different types of violence against women; psychological, physical, economical and traditional practices which are violent in nature.

Table 10 Forms of violence against women experienced by NGO Officials

Item No.

Item

Frequency (%) of Responses Yes No Total

13.Partner threatens to terminate your

50

Relationship: (Emotional violence) 15. Partner has beaten, slapped or punched you: (Physical violence) 17. Partner takes greater part of your income: (economical violence) 19. Interference of extended family members: (Cultural violence)

29 (25.2%) 86 (74.8%) 115(100%)

30 (26%)

85 (74%)

115(100%)

20 (17.4%) 95 (82.6%) 115(100%)

65 (56.5%) 50 (43.5%) 115(100%)

Table 10 shows NGO Officials responses on forms of violence experienced by NGO Officials. From the data presented in Table 10, 75% of teacher-respondents did not experience emotional violence with their partners, while 25% did, 74% of teacherrespondents did not experience physical violence, but 26% did, 83%of teacher-respondents did not experience economical violence while 17% did and 43%of teacher-respondents did not experience cultural violence while 57% did.

Item 14: What do you do when your partner threatens to terminate your relationship? Table 11 Psychological violence Reaction to psychological violence (threat) Quarrel after the threat Fight after the threat Those who do not experience psychological violence Total Frequency 14 15 86 115 Percentage 12 13 75 100

Table 11 shows NGO Officials responses on psychological violence (threat). Data on Table 11 show that the 29 NGO Officials -respondents who experienced violence against women also reacted violently. This could have been due to the pain they experienced and as such they found violence intolerable. Eighty six respondents did not experience psychological violence. This could be due to their analysis of issues which helped in putting misunderstandings under control.

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Item 16: What do you do when your partner slaps, punches or beast you? Table 12 Physical violence Reaction to physical violent (beating) Report partner to elders Fight partner Report to the Police Those who do not experience physical violence Total Frequency 24 5 0 86 115 Percentage 21 4 0 75 100

Table 12 shows responses from teacher-respondents on reaction to physical violence experienced by them. From the statistics on Table 12, 24 NGO Officials sought arbitration to overcome their violent situation. This could be because those NGO Officials believed that elders were custodians of wisdom in family problem solving, that is why they fell on them for assistance. All the same 5 NGO Officials who experienced physical abuse fought back physically.

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Item 18: What do you do when your partner mismanages your income?

Table 13 Economic violence Reaction to economic violence I worried my partner to pay back I quarrelled with my partner to pay back Do not have problems with economic violence Total Frequency 16 4 95 115 Percentage 14 3 83 100

Table 13 shows the responses of NGO Officials on reaction to economic violence. Statistics from Table13 reveals that, only twenty respondents, representing 17% of total responses of teacher-respondents experienced economic violence while 83% did not. Sixteen respondents who experienced economic violence worried their partners to pay back, while 4 respondents quarrelled with their partners for taking greater part of their earnings. This result could be explained that probably the respondents had job security which made it possible for them to earn regular income and so were economically empowered; hence they were less prone to economic violence.

Item 20: what do you do after cultural violence between you and your partner? Table 14 Reaction to cultural violence Reaction to cultural violence I ignore my partner for days I quarrel with my partner Those who do not experience cultural violence Total Frequency 17 48 50 115 Percentage 15 42 47 100

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Table 14 shows NGO Officials responses on reaction to cultural violence. Data on Table 14 indicate that 15% of NGO Officials -respondents ignored their partners for days while 42% quarrelled with their partners due to interference of extended family members.

Interference of extended family members was used as an indicator in this case because, it is generally accepted in South Sudan that, marriage is not contracted between a man and a woman alone but rather the entire families of both parties. Hence extended family members have a say in marriages of their family members. Item 21 was to elicit from respondents, their experiences on the issue. The table depicts 65 (57%) respondents experienced cultural violence, while 59 (43%) did not experience cultural violence.

Perhaps majority of the respondents suffered violence due to extended family interference into their relationship because the respondents were elites and practiced the foreign culture of relationship which is based on nuclear family structure.

Sampled responses from focus group on; Which beliefs or practices cause misunderstanding or conflict between you and your partner?
1 Women who are beaten by their husbands either do something wrong or behave in a tactless

way in order to make their husbands lose self control. Women must be submissive to their husband that is what the Holy Bible teaches. My husband slaps me when I use harsh words on him. Even though, it hurts, our culture does not allow women to talk when their husbands talk. The beating corrects me. (Housewife aged 55) 2. My husband always threatens me with divorce or a second wife anytime I am not in the

mood for having sex with him. So even if I am sick and he makes the advance I have no choice but to give in against my will. This creates tension between us afterwards. (Female trader aged 32). 3. In my case, my husband showed too much filial attachment towards his parents and other

family members. Any time I complained about that, it resulted in hot argument between us. Though am always hurt, I had to tolerate his behaviour. The wifes tolerance is a necessary condition for a peaceful home. (Trader aged 38)

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4.

My husband has two wives already; as if that is not enough, there are concubines who eyed

you when you go to the market. The least you complain the safer you are; because you will attract beatings and insults when yo u complain. The worse is that he does not provide the familys needs. (Female, petty trader) 5. My wife with no respect for my consent encouraged our teenage daughter in opposite sex

relationship. I now have a grandson whose father has not presented even common water to me. I do everything for him. The sight of my daughter drives me angry. (Trader)

Discussion of findings Violence against women has no stereotype form but rather a plethora of forms which sometimes if care is not taken; it is ignored as violent act. Research question three sought to elicit from respondents whether they experience the various forms of violence against women.

The data collected show that, a good number of the NGO Officials did not experience economic, physical and emotional violence. Nonetheless more than 57% of NGO Officials experienced cultural violence.

From the perspective of Cusack et al (1999) the causes of domestic abuse, more especially violence against women and children in South Sudan, has various themes. In a typical

South Sudanese society interfering in-laws who argue on family issues on infertility problem, introduction of stepchildren and introduction of extended family members into the nuclear family can generate violence in the home.

Again NGO Officials who did not experience economic, physical and emotional violence could be faced with the fact that NGO Officials are role models in the community in which they live in. As such they are encouraged to live up to the expectations of their community members. By so doing, they resort to amicably solving of their differences before it escalates into violence against women.

Table 7, item 12 shows that, only 17% of the total respondents suffered economic violence. According to Cusack et al (1999) one of the most effective manifestations of control over 55

women in South Sudan lies in the economic hold that men have over women. The findings in this study do not affirm Cusack et als assertion. This may be so because all the respondents were NGO Officials and might be feeling economically secure. Though NGO Officials who experienced economic violence were few, responses from focus group members indicated that, one of the common causes of violence against women was shirking of financial responsibility by male partners.

Cusack et al (1999) again described economic violence as deprivation and comprises of tension between essential needs and available resources. Resources might generally be unavailable or limited as a result of the economic situation in the country resulting in high unemployment, deepening levels of poverty and hunger. But the most common experience for women and children is when male heads of household neglect their responsibilities to provide money for food, school fees, clothing or other household materials as means of punishment. It can also be inferred from the focus group responses that violence in the home is normal and is treated privately.

Marcus (1994) posits that violence against women occurs because of the cultural practices of societies. Marcus argued that, due to the acceptance of violence against women as a private problem by many cultures, cultural norms and values may be used to deny, minimize, rename or normalize the menace.

These cultural dictates have been identified during the focus group discussions; Women who are beaten by their husbands either do something wrong or behave
in a tactless way in order to make their husbands lose self control. Women must be submissive to their husband that is what the Holy Bible teaches. My husband slaps me when I use harsh words on him. Even though, it hurts, our culture does not allow women to talk when their husbands talk; the beating corrects me (from focus group member).

Perhaps, in Bor County, domestic abuses are not considered as a serious problem. It may be seen as an individual and normal happening rather than as culturally sanctioned, and their systematic practice used to silence and coerce weaker persons. 56

However, as much as 43% of the NGO Officials experienced violence of many kinds, which they also reacted to violently. This aspect of the findings confirms the saying that violence breeds violence.

The responses from members of the focus group gave the picture as to the possible causes of violence against women; this has enough evidence that, there is not a single cause to violence against women. Research question four was, what are the effects of violence against women on the life of the people in Bor County?

Items 23 to 27 of questionnaire for NGO Officials were used to elicit responses to answer the question.

Table 15 NGO Officials responses to effects of violence against women on people

Item No.

Item

Frequency(%) of Responses Strongly agree Agree Partially agree Disagree Total

23. Physical deformation 24. Low productivity

80(70%) 51(44%)

33(29%) 59(52%) 36(31%) 35(30%) 29(25%)

2(1%) 5(4%) 6(5%0 10(9%) 6(5%)

0(0%) 115(100%) 0(0%) 115(100%)

25. Victims becoming violent 71(62%) 26. Pupils inattentiveness 27. Separation of partners 70(61%) 79(69%)

2(2%) 115(100%) 0(0%) 115(100%)

1(0.5%) 115(100%)

Table 15 shows responses of NGO Officials on effects of violence against women on people. Statistics from Table 15 indicate that100% of NGO Officials virtually agreed, that violence against women can cause physical deformation of victims, 100% agree with low productivity of victims, 98% agree that, violence breeds violence, 100% agree that, pupils 57

can become inattentive in class and 99% agree with the statement that, violence against women can cause separation in relationships.

Sampled responses from focus group discussion What are some of the effects of violence against women on your life and on others in the family?
1. I am still suffering now after several years ago when I divorced my first wife. It still hurts

so badly knowing that I will have to live with the experience the rest of my life. I felt so ashamed of what happened which has caused some of my children to be wayward. I feel Im a Dad who has lost everything. My current relationship is neither working however hard I tried (Trader) 2. As a trader, anytime Im physically abused by my husband I dont go to the market and this situation affects my trade because gradually Im loosing my customers. It is also making me incur debt because sometimes my goods get spoilt. (Female trader) 3. Children who are brought up in a climate of fear where they had to watch their parents

actions provoke a violent response from one another do not perform well in school. As they remember the scenes they become inattentive in class and even experience low-self image and regression. These feelings sometimes make the children become truants and bullies. (Retired teacher) 4. My class six boy stops going to school because he says his classmates tease him that his father is atiaman (a drunk). (Trader) 5. It is true violence against women can destroy you. Some time ago in our village, an elderly

man in an attempt to hit his wife with his walking stick and mistakenly the stick thrashed into the eye of their twelve year old child damaging one of his eyes till date. (Petty trader)

Discussion of findings Violence against women the world over is a social canker. International research indicates that victims are left with the marks the rest of their life. South Sudan is not an exception as our electronic and print media repeatedly report brutality meted out to partners with some resulting in death of victims. All 100% responses of the study indicated violence against women has negative effect on victims and the society as a whole as it is inferred from most of the respondents responses. 58

The forth research question was intended to find out the effects of violence against women on the lives of people in Bor County. Data collected from NGO Officials show that, violence against women has variety of negative effects on the people. All 115 NGO Officials affirmed; violence against women could cause physical deformation of victims. All the focus group members also discussed negative experiences about effects of violence against women. The Worlds Health Organization with research evidence in 2005 declared that, beyond immediate injury, broken limbs, scars, lacerations, cuts, bruises, internal organ damage, brain damage, reproductive damage - including inability to bear children and physical disability are some evidence of effects of violence against women on victims.

Also in table 14, the data indicate that, 100% of NGO Officials agreed that violence against women had negative effect on productivity. A psychological feeling; depression which is associated with violence against women is said to make violence against women victim hopeless, rendering the victim inactive to engage in any positive activity.

Depression is characterized by a combination of symptoms that interfere with a person's ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy ones pleasurable activities. Major depression is disabling and prevents a person from functioning normally. An episode of major depression may occur only once in a person's lifetime, but more often, it recurs throughout a person's life (Awake!: 8 September 2001, p. 4). The theme of violence breeds violence was also explored to answer research question four. Again a considerable majority (99%) of NGO Officials agreed that, people who experience violence against women can also exhibit same behaviour towards others. Some focus group members claimed that, homes where parents engage in quarrelling often, their children exhibit quarrelsome attitude towards their peers both outside and inside the home.

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According to Hurley and Jaffe (1990), witnessing violence in the home can be as traumatic for children. Younger children are more likely to suffer post traumatic stress disorders, particularly when the violence they witness is frequent and is perpetrated in close proximity to them. They experience significant psychological and behavioural problems that interfere with their ability to function in school, at home and with peers. Children who grow up in violent homes are more likely to be aggressive with peers, and as adults are more likely to become batterers or victims. To answer the question of childrens attention in class, item 26 in table 14 indicates responses of 100% NGO Officials claim that, pupils who experience violence against women exhibit inattentiveness in class. Some of the focus group members responses indicate that, pupils play truancy as an effect of violence against women on their life. Hurley and Jaffe (1990) contend that, victims of violence against women in educational institution are faced with learning problems, decline in school performance, truancy, bullying and tendency to become a victim. Victims also have difficulty in building and maintaining relationships.

The emotional stress of exposure to violence against women can harm the development of the brain and impair cognitive and sensory growth in infants and toddlers. Children exposed to violence against women have more health problems, poorer school performance and more behavioural disturbances than children not exposed to violence against women. Babies have a harder time developing a bond with mothers who are abused than with mothers who are not abused. http://endabuse.org/userfiles/file/Children_and_Families/Children.pdf 15th January 2013) (Retrieved:

Item 27 in table 15 is not treated by the NGO Officials differently. Once more almost all of them (99%) agreed that an effect of violence against women could be separation of partners. This is supported by a focus group member who said;

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I am still suffering now after several years ago when I divorced my first wife. It still hurts so badly knowing that I will have to live with the experience the rest of my life. I felt so ashamed of what happened which has caused some of my children to be wayward. I feel Im a Dad who has lost everything. My c urrent relationship is neither working however hard I tried (Trader)

Research question five was: What roles can counselling play as intervention measures to controlling violence against women?

Items 28 to 31, of questionnaire for NGO Officials and items 7 and 8, 12, 15, to 17 of questionnaires for Counsellor-trainees were used to answer the question.

Item 28: What happens when there is misunderstanding or conflict between you and your partner?

Table 16 NGO Officials response to how conflict is solved between partners Responses Both discuss what went wrong amicably: Both utter harsh words to each other: Both seek counselling: Total Frequency 85 22 8 115 Percentage 74 19 7 100

Table 16 depicts responses from NGO Officials on how conflict is resolved between partners. Data on Table 16 show that, 74% of NGO Officials talked about what went wrong amicably with their partners, 19% exchanged harsh words, while 7% sought for counselling to settle their differences. Perhaps NGO Officials could not access counselling services because of inadequate or no physical structures which advertise for the counselling service.

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Item 29: What is the outcome of your choice?

Table 17

Outcome of choice Responses It brings about peace Frequency 93 Percentage 81

It registers my protest

22

19

Total

115

100

Table 17 shows responses from NGO Officials on outcome of choice of how conflict is resolved between partners. Statistics from Table 17shows that, 93 NGO Officials felt their method facilitated peace in their relationship, and 22 NGO Officials felt their approach to resolving conflict in their relationship registered their protest.

Item 30: Are you usually happy about the solution?

Table 18 NGO Officials response to the solution Responses Yes No Not sure Total Frequency 88 22 5 115 Percentage 77 19 4 100

This table shows responses of NGO Officials on feelings about outcome of resolving misunderstanding between partners. Data from Table 18 indicate that, 77% teacher62

respondents were happy with how conflict is resolved between them, 19% were not happy, while 4%were not sure about how conflict was to be resolved between them. Item 31 of NGO Officials questionnaire and item 4 of Counsellor-trainees questionnaire was what do you think is the best way to solve violence against women issues amicably?

Table 19 NGO Officials and students responses to best way to solve violence against women issues amicably Item Frequency (%) of Respondents NGO Officials & Students The Law Advice Counselling Total 11(10%) 10(9%) 94((81%) 115(100%) 1(1.5%) 7(10%) 59(88%) 67(100%) 12(7%) 17(9%) 153(84%) 182(100%) Students Total of NGO Officials

Table 19 shows responses from NGO Officials and counsellor-trainees on the best way to resolving violence against women issues amicably. Statistics from Table 19 indicate that, 12 respondents thought the law would be the best way to control violence against women, 17 thought advice was the best way, while as many as 153 representing 84% of 182 respondents (NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees) thought counselling was the best way to overcome violence against women.

Item7: Can counselling approach help people overcome domestic violent behaviour? Table20 Counsellor-trainees responses to seeking counselling to overcome domestic violent behaviour Item Yes No Not sure Total 63 Frequency(%) of Responses

Counselling can control violence against women 64(95.5%) 100(100%)

2(3%)

1(1.5%)

Table 20 shows responses on counsellor-trainees on seeking counselling to overcome domestic violent behaviour. Table 20 indicates that, 95.5% of counsellor-trainees stated yes and 4.5% stated no to the use of counselling to help control violence against women.

Item 8: Which techniques are suitable to correct domestic violent behaviour?

Table 21 Counsellor trainees responses to techniques suitable to control violence against women Responses Assertiveness training Cognitive restructuring Counter conditioning Thought stopping Contingency contracting Empty chair technique Frequency 19 37 4 4 1 2 Percentage 28 57 6 6 1 2

Total

67

100

Data on Table 21 shows responses of counsellor-trainees on counselling techniques suitable to control domestic violent behaviour. Table 20 indicates that, 19counsellor-trainees indicated assertiveness training, 37 indicated cognitive restructuring, four indicated covert conditioning, another four indicated thought stopping, one indicated contingency contracting and two indicated empty chair technique to overcome domestic violent behaviour. 64

Items 12, 15 to 17 of Counsellor-trainees questionnaire: was which counselling principles and skills are suitable to control violence against women? Table 22 Suitable counselling principles and skills for the control of violence against women Item No. Item Frequency(%) of Respondents Strongly agree 12. Unconditional positive regard assist victims to regain self-confidence 15. Counselling can help victims and abusers to become self-assertive 16. Counselling can help abusers and victims to accept individual uniqueness 32(48%) 17. Counselling can assist victims to feel a sense of security restored in the family 40(60%) 25(37%) 2(3%) 67(100%) 31(46%) 4(6%) 67(100%) 33(49%) 27(39%) 8(12%) 67(100%) 45(67%) 18(27%) 4(6%) 67(100%) Agree Disagree Total

Table 22 shows responses of counsellor-trainees on suitable counselling principles and skills for the control of violence against women. Statistics from Table 22 reveal that, 63(94%) counsellor-trainees agreed and four (6%) disagreed with the statement that, unconditional positive regard exhibited during counselling would assist victims of violence against women to regain their self-confidence. Sixty representing (88%) counsellor-trainees agreed eight (12%) disagreed with the statements that, through counselling violence against women abusers and victims could become self assertive. Sixty three representing (94%) counsellor-trainees agreed, four (6%) disagreed with the statement that, through counselling violence against women abusers and victims could accept uniqueness of individuals. The data also shows that, 65(97%) students agreed, while 2(3%) disagreed with the statement that victims of violence against women could feel a sense of security restored in the family through counselling.

65

Sampled responses from focus group discussion To the question: What means do you employ to settle misunderstanding between you and your partner? Members had the following to say

1.

Most a time when there is lingering misunderstanding between us I do report to his father,

but at such meetings they always tell me to do what my husband likes to bring peace without telling him to do what I also like. So it doesnt take long before we have misunderstanding again. (Food vendor) 2. I had money with my wife some time ago. Her habit was buying petty things on impulse.

And I reported her to the elders about her behaviour, but their intervention didnt help enough. So I approached the marriage counselling team of my church, and now my wife has a well stocked provision store. (Retired teacher)

Sampled response from focus group discussion on; What is your involvement with the law enforcement agencies in solving your misunderstandings?
3. It is difficult to use the Law against your husband or wife. I cant bear to see my husband

being taken away by the Police for beating me or our children. (Petty trader) 4. I cant imagine my wife handing me over to the Police because of small misunderstanding

or slaps. Then probably she wants to end the marriage. Because by the time I come back from the Police she must leave my house. (Trader)

Discussion of findings The pivot of this study is to find out peoples opinion on the use of counselling to control violence against women. This notwithstanding, it is also important to the researcher that, through the outcome of the results, the researcher may project counselling as best method 66

to be used to combat violence against women. It is in this vein that a special treat was given to the fifth research question by sampling 2013 Diploma 2 Counsellor-trainees of University of Education for the purpose.

The results presented indicates, most NGO Officials , 88 (74%) talked about what went wrong amicably with their partners while eight (7%) sought for counselling to settle their differences. Nonetheless, both cases indicate peaceful coexistence as the outcome of their choices to resolving conflict in their relationships.

Though only eight NGO Officials accessed counselling to overcome violence against women issues, as many as 153 representing 84% of NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees thought counselling approach would yield best results in addressing the issues of violence against women. Perhaps NGO Officials could not access counselling services because of inadequate or lack of Counselling Centres in their vicinity. This result backs Burks & Stefflres position that, counselling is designed to help clients to understand and clarify their self-determined goals through meaningful, well-informed choices and through resolution of challenges of an emotional or interpersonal nature (Burks & Stefflre, 1979).

It was also revealed that, 64 (96%) out of total 67 Counsellor trainees agreed counselling approach could help victims and abusers overcome domestic violent behaviour. Counselling helps individuals obtain information to clarify and sort out personal characteristics and emotional concerns that may interfere with or be related to the decisions involved (Kankam & Onivehu, 2000).

The results again indicates that, almost all the Counsellor trainees stated counselling techniques such as assertiveness training, thought stopping, empty-chair technique and cognitive restructuring were suitable for combating violence against women. Behavioural counselling is credited with plethora of techniques which include, cognitive restructuring, covert sensitization, modelling, flooding, extinction, thought stopping, self-monitoring, 67

contracting, assertiveness training and reward and punishment. These techniques are versatile and have common procedures that are used in both formal and informal settings, and are at the same time applicable to many cultural settings (Coon, 1997).

The delicate nature of violence against women makes it more challenging for the counsellor to explore the technique to be suitable to the unique individual. Behavioural procedures are geared towards the uniqueness of each client. The therapy is based on the motivator or the notion that enhances behavioural or attitudinal change. As part of the therapeutic process, there is collaboration between the client and the counsellor and the quantity of materials learnt can be measured by the responses of the clients. These processes create the opportunity to make progress as the therapeutic process evolves (Baron, 1998).

In view of the fact that most abusers have no respect for their victims, understanding of counselling principles will aid their knowledge in individuality. Sixty four Counsellortrainees agreedthat, unconditional positive regard exhibited during counselling will assist victims of violence against women to regain their self-confidence. Sixty three representing (94%) Counsellor-trainees agreed, that, through counselling violence against women abusers and victims can accept uniqueness of individuals. The principles underlying the practice of counselling recognises the right and capability of an individual to make decisions and plans, it also recognises the worth and dignity of an individual and therefore respects his right to choose his lifestyle and self determination (Akinade et al, 2005). For instance, if abusers are aware of dignity and worth of every individual, the least will they approach their victims with disrespect. Counselling has proved to work in developed countries and when popularized in our localities can help reduce the incidents of violence against women in our societies.
Let's not forget you don't become a serial abuser overnight. It's a pattern that develops over time. And what do you do when you cross the line the first time?

To my everlasting regret I speak as someone who has been violent to my partner on one occasion. It was a moment of madness and I will regret it to my grave. I was lucky the company I worked for had a confidential counselling service and

68

the counsellor understood, but I don't know what I'd have done otherwise. If one in four people are victims there are a lot of perpetrators out there and helping stop them from becoming serial abusers is just as important as helping the victims.

Dave, UK (htt://news.bbc.co.uk/shared//u/change-edition-news.stm)

The inferences drawn from these opinions on using counselling procedures to combat violence against women is that almost the total population of the Counsellor-trainees testified that troubled abusers and victims alike could regain their wholeness with the help of counselling. NGO Officials and focus group members alike saw the counselling

approach to be the best solution to solving violence against women issues.

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CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECCOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.0 Introduction The study was to investigate the prevalence, causes and effects of violence against women in Bor County in the Jonglie State of South Sudan. The study sought to address the problems of ever increasing incidence of violence against women in our society and also to assessing the extent to which counselling could be used to control violence against women. In finding answers to the research problem, a sample size of 200 respondents was selected from the total population of then area (55,896); comprising NGO Officials; Post Diploma 2 Counsellor-trainees of Bor and the residents of Bor Municipality.

The research questions which guided the study were: How do people in Bor County perceive violence against women? What are the forms and causes of violence against women experienced by people in Bor County? What are the effects of violence against women on the people in Bor County? What are the intervention measures to controlling violence against women?

The core of the study was to create the awareness about counselling as a tool to combat violence against women.

Purposive, snowballing, lottery and systematic sampling methods were used to obtain the sample size of 192 respondents. The total representation of male and female were 97(51%) and 95 (49%) respectively. Ages of respondents ranged between 29years to 62 years.

Descriptive survey was employed for data collection. Questionnaires were used to collect data from NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees while focus group interview was conducted for men and women at Bor Town. The questionnaires for the NGO Officials were administered by the researcher directly to NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees. That of the Counsellor trainees was retrieved less three on the next day. Those of NGO 70

Officials were returned the third day through the Headmasters of the various schools without five. The focus group interview was successful with all members present at all the meetings.

Quantitative and qualitative analysis were adopted for the questionnaire and the focus group interviews respectively. The data from the questionnaires were presented in frequency tables while that of the focus group interview was transcribed according to the recurring themes to answer the research questions.

5.1 Summary of findings The results from the study show that: Sixty percent of the respondents attested to the prevalence of violence against women in the area. The respondents were aware of the various activities that constituted violence against women. The results also showed that, present in violence against women was the exhibition of power and control over the victim; this was confirmed by 94% of NGO Officials accepting parents caning their wards as a means of correcting them as well as 95% of NGO Officials again accepting NGO Officials caning their pupils for wrong doing.

However, 56% of the NGO Officials did not accept partners slapping each other. This result further reflected in Table 7; where 74% of the NGO Officials do not experience physical violence with their partners. Evident in these results is that, most of the NGO Officials partners had higher education and were academically and economically empowered like their partners. Their status probably enhanced mutual understanding amongst them whenever there was conflict between the two.

It was evident that cultural violence was dominant among partners in Bor County. The cultural dictates of extended family system structure which made it possible for members of partners family to be welcomed in the matrimonial home creates conflict among partners. Sometimes an unhealthy suggestion in connection with taking a second wife on the part of the men made by the mans family always created tension among partners. 71

Though the findings indicated that, only minority of NGO Officials experienced psychological and economic violence, almost all the NGO Officials and focus group members rated extramarital affair and refusal to sexual demand as the major causes of violence against women among partners. The NGO Officials also agreed that, another major cause of violence against women was mismanagement of partners financial resources.

The three groups of respondents were aware of the various sources from which they could get help if violence against women occurred. The help might come from elders, the law enforcement agencies, counselling centres and interpersonal redress. Although, only 8% of NGO Officials called for counselling when they experienced violence against women, the findings revealed that 99% of NGO Officials and Counsellor-trainees chose counselling as a medium to control violence against women issues effectively.

Again, it has become evident in the results that there were various kinds of techniques and skills used during the counselling process which can help both perpetrators and victims of violence against women to ameliorate their plight.

5.2 Conclusions After several efforts by Governmental and Non-Governmental agencies to tackle the scourge of violence against women, targeting its control and vehemently working towards eliminating it completely, the social canker is commonly encountered on daily basis in our society.

The findings of this study show that violence against women is a complex process influenced by multiple factors. The severity and frequency of violence is difficult to measure as violence can take many forms and be of varying intensities. However, it is clear that wield of power and control underlay many of the factors that lead to violence against women.

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The results show that, the individual who wields power has control over the affairs of the home. Inherent in the power and control is the ability to coerce. The coercion can be direct or indirect and it also constitutes violence. The results of the study also show that, men use economic violence to have control over their wives. With the focus group responses, some members indicated that men refuse their households home keeping money due to conflict between them. Furthermore, most of the abuses experienced by respondents indicated that, the abuser has upper hand in decision making over the victim. For example in the cases of NGO Officials and pupils, parents and children, elders and children and husbands and wives; the former in each case controls the latter. This situation causes the absent of mutual understanding in resolving conflicts in the home, which further graduate into violence against women.

According to the results, people suffer various forms of violence against women. In the light of the submissions of the respondents, the population under study was well informed about the causes of violence against women. Nevertheless these causes are seen as normal way of living. Both men and women hold our traditional values in (one which is the man is right) high esteem, a consequence of which men use to subject their household to violent control measures. These values are accepted by the latter with the idea of peaceful conformity to socially prescribed roles which they feel help them to fulfill these roles better. Though responses to the questionnaire on causes of violence seemed like respondent experience of violence against women was low, most of the focus group discussion responses show that violence against women is experienced on daily basis but has been accepted as normal in our culture. Again it was revealed that, the menace has devastating effect on the populace. Responses show that economic activities suffer due to violence in the home. Children suffer irreparable experiences which hamper their academic progress and further make them aggressive in some cases. Marriages are broken because of violence against women

making children experience single parental care and the unfortunate ones will end up being wayward. People become physically deformed as a result of violence against women. These deformations can render some of them emotionally imbalanced and economically unproductive the rest of their lives. 73

It was captured in the studies that, majority of the respondents are aware of alternative ways in combating the menace. The main areas they explored to control violence against women are arbitrations and advice. But according to the findings these means of solving the problem do not yield satisfactory results. The focus group respondents accounted that, men are favoured when it comes to arbitrations. The woman seems to be always at fault when it comes to conflicts between husbands and wives. Counselling though not utilized by majority of the respondents, has been indicated as the fruitful way of combating violence against women.

Counselling is from cradle to grave affair. It is mostly self motivated. For every individual, there are constant dynamics of life which pose a lot of challenges to him or her. The principles of counselling recognizes the dignity, worth and uniqueness of the individual. The concept is accredited with variety of techniques which makes the process flexible and creates the opportunity for every individual to gain from. In counselling needs are addressed with the right technique to enable the client make maximum gains.

The results of the findings indicated almost 100% option for counselling to combat violence against women.

The assertion of the study, based on its findings is that, the phenomenon understudy is widespread in Bor County. The evidence prove that violence against women is prevalent, has negative effects on the populace, cultural believes do encourage the practice, and finally counselling method will yield best results in addressing the issues of violence against women.

5.3 Recommendations In spite of its widespread occurrences, violence against women is still deemed a private issue and accepted norm for many people. Raising awareness of the problem among the general public is critical. The greatest challenge is that abuse remains hidden. Seventy five percent of NGO Officials for this study do not report violence against them. Despite the 74

health consequences, very few respondents reported seeking help from formal services like health and police, or from individuals in positions of authority, preferring instead to solve the problem themselves.

1. An effective approach should be adopted to expose the evil in violence against women to the people. Policy makers should put in place programmes targeted at individuals to imbibe in them the culture of frowning on violence against women without compromise. Active campaigns through the mass media, awareness drives through community based activities such as meetings, target group discussions and distributions of leaflets and brochures detailing all about the menace and the drive to combat it should be intensified.

2.

It is clear from the results that the populace combines discipline and abuse as one method for correcting wrong doing. Hence, they find it difficult to access the law or any measure to clamp down on the menace. A programme of mass awareness creation on the violence against women act has to be embarked upon at the community bases. The District and Municipal Assemblies should organize awareness raising campaigns on the Human Rights issues of every citizen at community and family bases. The campaign should clearly define abuse and discipline and stress on devastating effects of violence against women on the populace.

3. The findings also show how some aspects of our culture encourage violence against women. Workshops and seminars should be organized for the custodians of our culture at the community level to enlighten them on the best parts of our culture and bring to the fore those that have devastating effects on our dignity and personal worth; hence to embrace the idea of upholding the good ones and frown upon the bad ones.

4. Although the populace is aware of the agencies and organisations which help to combat activities of violence against women, just a few of the respondents seem to 75

find it expedient to access these facilities to combat the menace. Hence violence against women is on the ascendancy. As the results of the study have shown, almost all respondents deemed counselling as the perfect method to combat the menace. Unfortunately, professional counselling services are not currently available in our communities. The counselling services that are available which is sparsely distributed in the country.

5. Government should expand counselling facilities to meet the demand of the people. It should be made compulsory for every electoral area; thus the jurisdiction of every Assemblyman and Assemblywoman to have a well resourced Counselling Centre run by professional counsellors.

6. An active marketing programme in order to make their counselling activities widely known and accessible to the vulnerable. Government to initiate conflict resolution training for family units and opinion leaders as well as establishment of special programmes to train more counsellors to make the profession popular and also make its accessibility easy for all. Families should be encouraged to engage in family counselling with professional counsellors whereby the former can be aware of the warning signs and prevent it from developing into violence against women.

7. People are not born as abusers. Abuse is a learned behaviour. There is reason to hope that abusers can learn acceptable ways of dealing with conflict within relationships. Unfortunately, most standard interventions for behaviour

modification do not work well with violence against women perpetrators. Individual counselling and anger management must be frequently visited and be adopted by individuals to overcome violent tendencies.

8. Batterers intervention programmes must be designed to focus on behavioural change and the safety of victims. Success requires a strong motivation to change. The programme should encourage families to engage in harmonious coexisting

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discussions outlining their strength and weaknesses for a better management of the menace.

9. There is the optimism that combating the menace will be welcome news to the populace. However, the populace needs more education on the indicators, such as the warning signs which include extreme jealousy, possessiveness, bad temper, unpredictability and verbal abusiveness.

5. 4. Suggestions for Further research The researcher would visit Bor Municipal Chief Executive to consider sponsoring a project for the topic The need for counselling centre in every community and also a project on Awareness of activities that connote child abuse. Perhaps if society raises children in peaceful environment, the children will grow to be peaceful.

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APPENDIX: A

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR COUNSELLING STUDENTS

Dear Sir/Madam, This questionnaire is meant to seek your opinion on counselling as a measure to combat violence against women. The questionnaire is not a test or examination, so kindly feel free and be frank in providing your answers. I would like to assure you that your response will be held in confidence. Thank you.

Tick in the space provided as applicable to you.

1 2 Age Sex 20-29 Male 30-39 Female 40-49 50-59

The following items are to seek your opinion on using counselling as a measure of combating violence against women. Kindly tick against each statement what you think is applicable to you. 1 Do you ever use corporal punishment to correct someone who offends you domestically? 2 Which other measure apart from corporal punishment do you use to correct offenses domestically? 3 Which of the three corrective measures (in 2) yielded best results? 4 In your opinion which of the following do you think will bring about best results as corrective measure of violence against women? 5 Does violence against women behaviour emanate from maladjustment? Yes No Unsure The Law Counselling Arbitration Arbitration Advice Counselling Arbitration Advice Counselling Yes No

What are some of maladjustment behavour?

Bullying

Quarrelsomeness

Fighting

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Can counselling approach help people overcome violence against women behaviour?

Yes

No

Unsure

8 A B C D E

If yes, which techniques are suitable to correct violence against women behaviour? Assertiveness training i.e. insisting on your right without infringing on others` rights Cognitive restructuring (accepting action or situations you cannot change ................................. Covert conditioning (imagining only positive situation......................... Thought stopping (replacing negative thought with positive thoughts)............................. Others (specify). The following statements include some possible skills the counsellor uses to assist abusers and victim of violence against women to regain their self-esteem (tick where applicable) Strongly Agree The counsellors warm acceptance of abuser of violence against women during counselling is a means to control abuserstempers. The counsellors warm acceptance of victim of violence against women is a means to console the victim. Agree Disagree

10

11

The counsellor`s active listening skills during counselling encourages violence against women clients to feel accepted by the counsellor.

12

Unconditional positive regard exhibited during counselling assists violence against women client to regain self-confidence.

13

The counsellor`s recognition of violence against women victim`s worth and dignity restores the victim`s self-worth and dignity.

14

The counsellor`s recognition of violence against women abuser`s worth and dignity will help the abuser to overcome his/her selfdefeating attitudes.

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15

Violence against women clients can become self-assertive through counselling

16

Through counselling violence against women abusers will be in better position to accept uniqueness of individuals.

17

Violence against women victims can feel a sense of security restore in the family through counselling.

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APPENDIX: B QUESTIONNAIRE FOR NGO OFFICIALS (MALE and FEMALE)

Dear Sir /Madam, This questionnaire is to help the researcher gather information on the topic; Prevalence, Causes and Effect of Violence against women: Implication for Counselling; a Case study of Bor County in the Jonglie State of South Sudan. The questionnaire is not an examination or test so kindly feel free and be frank in providing your answers. Your response will be held in absolute confidence. Thank you.
SECTION A Demographic information about respondents (Tick where applicable). 1 Age 2 Sex 3 Level of education 4 Occupation of partner 20-29 Male SHS Teaching/ Lecturing 5 Marital status SECTION B Below are statements on perceived prevalence of violence against women(Tick where applicable). Acceptable Sometimes acceptable 1 2 3 4 5 Parent canning a child. Teacher canning a pupil. Man slapping his partner. Elders insulting one another or children. Parent denying their children food for wrong doing. 6 Man or woman neglecting partner for days due to conflict between them. 7 Woman demanding compensation from male partner for cheating on her before accepting to make love with him. Never acceptable Married Not Married but with a partner Nursing Public/civil Servant 30-39 Female Tertiary Artisan/ Entrepreneur 40-49 50-59

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Below are statement about some possible causes of violence against women (Please tick as applicable) Very true 8 9 10 11 12 Partner`s habitual alcoholism. Not yielding to partner`s sexual demands. Mismanagement of partner`s finances. When there is poverty in the family. Partner`s involvement in extra-marital affairs. True Partially True Not true

Below are question regarding some practices of violence against women among partners. Please answer each of the questions as it applies to you. Psychological abuse (Tick as applicable) 13 Has your partner ever threatened to terminate your relationship? 14 If yes what did you do after the threat? I quarrelled with him/her I fought him/her Others. Yes No

Physical abuse 15 Has your partner ever beaten, slapped or punched you? 16 If yes what did you do in reply? I reported to the police Economic abuse 17 Has your partner ever taken greater part of your earnings from you? 18 If yes what did you do? I worried him/ her to pay back Traditional practices as violence 19 Does interference of the extended family members bring misunderstanding between you and your partner? 20 If yes what did you do? We resolve it We Others... Yes No I quarrelled with him/her Others. Yes No I reported to Elders I fought back Yes No

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amicably

quarrelled about it

Sexual abuse 21 Has your partner ever had intercourse with you without your consent? 22 If yes what happen next? I neglect him/her for days 23 What happens when there is misunderstanding or conflict between you and your partner? Both of us talk about what went wrong amicably. We quarrelled after that Both of us utter harsh words to each other about what went wrong. 24 Are you usually happy with the way misunderstandings are resolve between you and your partner? 25 What is the outcome of your choice? 26 Which of the following do you think will best solve violence against women issues amicably? Below are statement on some effect of violence against women on the individual (Tick where applicable) Strongly agree 27 28 29 30 It can result in physical deformation of victim. It can affect economic activity of victim. Children who experience it can become violent. It can lead to children`s inattentiveness in school. 31 It can lead to separation of partners. Agree Partially Agree Disagree It brings about peace The Law It registers my protest Advice Counselling Others.. Yes No Not sure Others... Both of us seek counselling Yes No

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APPENDIX: C

Focus Group Interview Schedule/Questions

1. In what ways do you offend one another or partner in your family or community? 2. What are common issues that generate misunderstanding between you and your partner? 3. Which beliefs or practices cause misunderstanding or conflict between you and your partner? 4. What are some of the effects of violence against women on your life and on others in the family? 5. What means do you explore to settle misunderstanding between you and your partner? 6. What is your involvement with the law enforcement agencies in solving your misunderstandings?

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