SKM3413 - DRILLING ENGINEERING

Chapter 5 Formation Pressures

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail
Petroleum Engineering Dept.
Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Energy Eng.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
2
ConLenLs
ressure concepLs
ressure relaLlons
Abnormal pressures (causes/orlgln)
redlcLlon & deLecLlon of abnormal
pressures
lormaLlon fracLure gradlenLs
3
ueflne Lhe followlng Lerms:
8alanced pressure
underbalanced pressure
Cverbalanced pressure
1rue verLlcal depLh (1vu)
Measured depLh (Mu)
4
8LSSu8L CCnCL1S
1he dlfferenL formaLlon pressures encounLered ln
an area play a vlLal role boLh durlng exploraLlon
and explolLaLlon of poLenLlal hydrocarbon
resources reservolr
1he dlfferenL klnds of reservolr pressure whlch are
usually encounLered durlng Lhe course of drllllng
are broadly dlvlded lnLo Lhree maln componenLs:
a. PydrosLaLlc pressure
b. Cverburden pressure
c. lormaLlon pressure
3
a. PydrosLaLlc pressure (l
byJ
)
PydrosLaLlc pressure ls deflned as Lhe pressure whlch ls
exerLed by a column of waLer exLendlng from a sLraLum Lo a
surface
PydrosLaLlc ls caused by unlL welghL & verLlcal helghL of a
fluld column
1he slze & shape of Lhls fluld column have no effecL on Lhe
magnlLude of Lhls pressure:
where: l = hydrosLaLlc pressure
= average denslLy
q = gravlLy value
b = helghL of Lhe column
P gh =
6
ln Lerms of drllllng operaLlons, we can wrlLe:
0.052 ( )
since 8.33 ppg
0.052 (8.33) ( ) 0.433 ( )
hyd. P gradient, 0.433 ( )
hyd w
w
P SG h
P SG h SG h
P
SG
h

=
=
= =
=
0.052
hyd m
p h =
1yplcal average of hyd. gradlenL:
0.433 psl/fL fresh waLer
0.463 psl/fL salL waLer
Example: Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 40 API oil
in a well at 5,000 ft.
141.5
0.825
131.5 40
0.433 ( )
0.433 ( 0.825) (5, 000) 1, 786 psi
hyd
SG
P SG h
= =

=
= =
Solution:
Example: Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 10.5 ppg
mud in a well at 5,000 ft.
0.052
0.052 (10.5) (5, 000) 2, 730 psi
hyd
P h =
= =
Solution:
7
8
1he hydrosLaLlc gradlenL ls affecLed by Lhe
concenLraLlon of dlssolved sollds (l.e. salLs) and gases ln
Lhe fluld column aL dlfferenL or varylng LemperaLure
gradlenLs
An lncrease ln Lhe dlssolved sollds sllghLly lncreases Lhe
normal pressure gradlenL, whlle lncreaslng amounL of
gases ln soluLlon and hlgher LemperaLure would
decrease Lhe normal hydrosLaLlc pressure gradlenL
l.e. salL concenLraLlon |, normal gradlenL |
gases ln soluLlon |, normal gradlenL +
LemperaLure |, normal gradlenL +
9
b. Cverburden pressure (
o
)
Cverburden pressure are also someLlmes called load,
llLhosLaLlc or geosLaLlc pressures
1hls orlglnaLes from Lhe comblned welghL of Lhe formaLlon
maLrlx (rock) & Lhe flulds (waLer, oll, gas) ln Lhe pore space
overlylng Lhe formaLlon of lnLeresL
( )
but, weight of fluid =
( ) (1 ) ( )
o
fl ma
o
weight fluid rock matrix
P
area
V
Ah Ah
P
A

=

=
( 1 )
o f l m a
P h =
|
Generally, it is assumed that P
o
increases uniformly with depth.
Overburden P gradient ~ 1.0 psi/ft
10
SedlmenL poroslLy decrease under Lhe effecL of burlal
(compacLlon), ls proporLlonal Lo Lhe lncrease ln
overburden pressure
ln Lhe case of clays, Lhls reducLlon ls essenLlally
dependenL on Lhe welghL of Lhe sedlmenLs (see flgure
below)
lf clay poroslLy and depLh are represenLed on
arlLhmeLlcal scales, Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhese
Lwo parameLers ls an exponenLlal funcLlon
11
ln sandsLones and carbonaLes, Lhls relaLlonshlp ls a
funcLlon of many parameLers oLher Lhan
compacLlon, such as dlageneLlc effecLs, sorLlng,
orlglnal composlLlon and so on.
A decrease ln poroslLy ls necessarlly accompanled by
an lncrease ln bulk denslLy
ln Lhe upper parL of Lhe sedlmenLary column, Lhe
bulk denslLy lncrease gradlenL ls much sLeeper Lhan
aL depLh (see flgure below)
12
1he LoLal of overburden pressure ls
supporLed by:
l. pore pressure
ll. rock galn pressure
13
l. ore pressure
1he pore pressure of a formaLlon refers Lo LhaL porLlon of Lhe overburden
pressure whlch ls noL supporLed by Lhe rock maLrlx, buL raLher by Lhe flulds or
gases whlch exlsL ln Lhe pore spaces of Lhe formaLlon
normal pore pressure ls equal Lo Lhe hydrosLaLlc pressure of a waLer column
from LhaL depLh Lo Lhe surface
lf for some reason communlcaLlon beLween flulds conLalned aL depLh and
surface flulds ls lnLerrupLed, flulds wlll be unable Lo flow and normally equallze
Lhe pressures wlLhln Lhe sysLem
1hus flulds become enLrapped wlLhln Lhe formaLlon and, ln Lhe case of over
pressured formaLlon, Lhe graln Lo graln pressure decreases as Lhe flulds wlLhln
Lhe lnLersLlces effecLlvely "floaLs" Lhe overburden
lf Lhe pore pressure ls less Lhan normal hydrosLaLlc pressure Lhe formaLlon ls
sald Lo be subnormally pressured
lf Lhe pore pressure aL LhaL depLh exceeds Lhe expecLed hydrosLaLlc pressure
for LhaL depLh Lhe zone ls Lermed abnormally pressured
14
ll. 8ock graln pressure
Slnce lndlvldual gralns ofLen do noL exlsL wlLhln a
rock formaLlon Lhe rock graln pressure refers Lo a
LheoreLlcal fracLlon of Lhe overburden pressure
whlch ls supporLed by Lhe rock maLrlx of Lhe
formaLlon
Slnce a rock mass ls noL homogeneous, pressures
wlll noL be exerLed equally ln all dlrecLlons as ls
Lhe case wlLh fluld pressures
13
c. lormaLlon ressure (
f
)

f
ls Lhe pressure acLlng upon Lhe flulds (waLer, oll, gas) ln Lhe
pore space of Lhe formaLlon (= pore pressure = formaLlon
flulds pressure)
Lxpressed elLher ln psl, aLmosphere or kg/cm
2
normal formaLlon ln any geologlc seLLlng wlll equal Lhe
hydrosLaLlc head (l.e. hydrosLaLlc ) of waLer from Lhe surface Lo
Lhe subsurface formaLlon
normal hydrosLaLlc reservolr pressures normally correspond Lo
orlglnal reservolr pressures, l.e. pressures LhaL exlsLed before
Lhe naLural pressure equlllbrlum of formaLlon was dlsLurbed by
producLlon
Any devlaLlon from Lhe normal Lrend ls called abnormal
16
8LSSu8L 8LLA1lCnS
lf
f
>
hyd
abnormally hlgh formaLlon (surpressures/over
pressures)
lf
f
<
hyd
subnormal (subpressures)
Surpressures occurlng more frequenLly Lhan subpressures
Pressure
Abnormally high P
(surpressures)
Abnormally low P
(subpressures)
Normal mud P
High density mud (for an
abnormally high P well)
17
Subsurface & sLress concepLs are relaLed:

o
=
f
+ o
o graln Lo graln (maLrlx sLress, effecLlve sLress,
verLlcal rock-frame sLress)
ln normal envlronmenLs (
f
=
hyd
), Lhe maLrlx sLress
supporLs Lhe overburden load due Lo graln-Lo-graln
conLacLs
Any reducLlon ln Lhls dlrecL graln-Lo-graln sLress
(o 0) wlll cause Lhe pore fluld Lo supporL parL of Lhe
overburden
f
>
hyd
(abnormal )
Cver pressured gradlenLs
Normal Pressure Gradients
Malaysia: 0.442 psi/ft
Gulf Coast: 0.465 psi/ft
Normal and Abnormal Formation Pressures
Formation Pressure, psig
D
e
p
t
h
,


f
t
10,000
Subnormal pressure
gradlenLs
0
18
19
1he lnfluence of formaLlon pressures on Lhe
drllllng operaLlon
ln order Lo malnLaln hole sLablllLy (by
prevenLlng borehole collapse and also Lo
prevenL Lhe lnflux of formaLlon flulds lnLo Lhe
wellbore):
lL ls necessary Lo malnLaln a borehole whlch ls
sllghLly overbalances Lhe formaLlon
Lo drlll Lhe well ln safeLy necessary Lo know
or Lo predlcL Lhe pressures wlLhln Lhe formaLlon
Lo be drllled
20
A Lechnlque for predlcLlng formaLlon pressures would be
helpful for Lhe followlng reasons:
AsslsL ln selecLlng adequaLe mud welghL Lo ensure
well safeLy
revenL Lhe use of excesslve mud welghLs leadlng Lo
fracLure or losses
revenLlon of hole collapse or sloughlng of shales
AsslsL ln correcL deslgn of caslng schemes Lo ensure
opLlmum compleLlon and maxlmum producLlvlLy
Normal pore pressure gradients in specific geographic area.
Example: Based on the above Table, determine the normal formation
pressure which is to be expected at a depth of 9,000 ft in (a) Malaysia,
and (b) Gulf of Mexico
Solution: (a) P = (0.442 psi/ft)(9,000 ft) = 3,978 psi
(b) P = (0.465 psi/ft)(9,000 ft) = 4,185 psi
21
Example: A formation is to be hydraulically fractured at the depth of
10,000 ft. The fracturing fluid has a SG of 0.85. If the formation break
down at 80% of the theoretical overburden pressure, what pump
pressure will be required for the break down?
Solution:
Expected bottom hole break-down pressure = (0.8)(1 psi/ft)(10,000 ft)
= 8,000 psi
Hydrostatic head of fluid = 0.433(SG)h
= (0.433)(0.85)(10,000 ft)
= 3,681 psi
Requires pump pressure = 8,000 psi 3,681 psi
= 4,319 psi
22
23
Example: During the drilling of a well, a protective string of 10 in.
casing was set and cemented at a depth of 5,000 ft. A BOP, which
provides for sealing the annular space between the drill pipe and the
protective casing, was mounted on the top of the protective casing. The
drilling mud weighs 10.4 ppg. Assuming that the well is full of mud,
and that the formation will hold 70% of the theoretical overburden
pressure, how much pressure can be held against the well by the BOP?
Solution: Since the casing may be assumed strong enough to contain
internal pressures above the 5,000 ft setting depth, the shallowest depth
subject to analysis is 5,000 ft.
Assumed bottom hole break-down P at 5,000 ft = (0.7)(1 psi/ft)(5,000 ft)
= 3,500 psi
Hydrostatic mud head = 0.052 rh
= (0.052)(10.4 ppg)(5,000 ft) = 2,704 psi
Pressure held by BOP = 3,500 psi 2,704 psi = 796 psi
Example: A formation has a pressure of 4,000 psi at 7,500 ft.
The operator desires to have a safety allowance of 300 psi
opposite the formation. What is the required density of the
mud?
Solution:
0.052
0.052
4, 000 300
(0.052) (7, 500 )
11.0
P h
P
h
psi formation pressure psi safety allowance
ft
ppg

=
=

=
=
24
23
A8nC8MAL 8LSSu8L
1echnlcal dlfflculLles are ofLen encounLered ln peLroleum exploraLlon
when drllllng abnormally pressured zones. Such pressures are a
worldwlde phenomenon
MosL peLroleum provlnces exhlblL abnormal pressure. ln facL,
abnormal pressure occurs Lo varylng degrees ln nearly all sedlmenLary
baslns
ln peLroleum exploraLlon, Lhe consequences of abnormal pressures
may be boLh deslrable and undeslrable
1he quallLy of a drllllng programme depends on how well Lhe
formaLlon pressure ls known
Wherever Lhere ls rlsk of abnormal pressure, Lhe drllllng meLhod Lo be
used musL conslsL ln conLlnuously evaluaLlng formaLlon pressure as
preclsely as posslble and adapLlng Lhe drllllng programme accordlngly
26
A normal, hydrosLaLlc pressured geologlc envlronmenL can
be vlsuallzed as a hydraullcally open" sysLem (l.e.
permeable). lluld communlcaLlng formaLlons allow
esLabllshmenL and/or reesLabllshmenL of hydrosLaLlc
condlLlons
Conversely, abnormally hlgh formaLlon sysLems are
essenLlally closed", prevenLlng, or aL leasL greaLly reslsLlng,
fluld communlcaLlon
1echnlcally, any devlaLlon ln naLurally occurrlng formaLlon
from whaL ls consldered Lhe normal hydrosLaLlc
gradlenL ls abnormal , wheLher Lhe devlaLlon ls hlgher or
lower
Plgh ls called abnormal " & someLlmes as surpressure,
Lrapped , geopressure or overpressure
Low ls also called abnormal " & someLlmes as
subpressure or subnormal pressure
Norma| Aborma|
Density of mud required to control this pore pressure
0.433 psi/ft 8.33 lb/gal
0.465 psi/ft 9.00 lb/gal
ore pressure vs. depLh
0
3,000
10,000
13,000
3 10 13 20
ore ressure, lb/gal equlvalenL
u
e
p
L
h
,


f
L
27
28
urllllng problems assoclaLed wlLh abnormal pressures
When drllllng Lhrough a formaLlon, sufflclenL hydrosLaLlc
m
musL be malnLalned Lo prevenL:
Lhe borehole collapslng
Lhe lnflux of formaLlon flulds
Mud denslLy musL be lncrease
lf Lhe overbalance ls Loo greaL, Lhls may lead Lo:
reduced peneLraLlon raLes (due Lo chlp hold down effecL)
losL clrculaLlon (flow of mud lnLo formaLlon)
breakdown of formaLlon (exceedlng Lhe fracLure gradlenL)
excesslve dlfferenLlal pressure causlng sLuck plpe
29
ressure seals
Common Lo boLh subnormal pressures and overpressures ls a seallng
mechanlsm whlch prevenL equallzaLlon of Lhe pressures wlLhln Lhe
abnormally pressured zone and Lhe resL of Lhe geologlcal sequence
1he orlgln of a seal ls physlcal, chemlcal or may be a resulL of Lhe
comblnaLlon of Lhe Lwo (see Lable below):
Type of seal Nature of trap Examples
Vertical Massive shales and siltstones
Massive salt
Anhydrite
Gypsum
Limestone, marl, chalk
Dolomite
Gulf Coast, USA,
Zechstein, North Germany,
North Sea, Middle East,
USA, USSR
Transverse Faults
Salts and shale diapers
Worldwide
Combination of vertical
and transverse
Worldwide
30
a. hyslcal seal
1hls can be a gravlLy faulL durlng deposlLlon of a flner gralned
maLerlal or Lhe deposlLlon of a carbonaLe, salL or oLher non-porous
maLerlal caused by a long perlod of hlgh 1 & low ralnfall
b. Chemlcal seal
1hls refer Lo Lhe chemlcal deposlLlon of CaCC
3
l.e. ln warm waLers,
Lhus resLrlcLlng average permeablllLy. AnoLher example ls chemlcal
dlagenesls durlng compacLlon of organlc maLerlal assoclaLed wlLh
normal deposlLlon
c. hyslcal-chemlcal seal
1hls caLegory refers Lo Lhose ln whlch a physlcal change Lrlggers off a
chemlcal reacLlon or alLernaLlvely a chemlcal change whlch Lrlggers a
physlcal change, e.g. Lhe gypsum-evaporlLe acLlon
31
Causes of abnormal pressures
otent|a| reasons for
Subnorma| ressure Grad|ents Cverpressured Grad|ents
1hermal expanslon lncompleLe sedlmenL compacLlon
lormaLlon foreshorLenlng laulLlng
uepleLlon hase Changes durlng compacLlon
reclplLaLlon Masslve rock salL deposlLlon
oLenLlomeLrlc surface SalL dlaperlsm
Lpelrogenlc movemenL 1ecLonlc compresslon
8epressurlng from deeper levels
CeneraLlons of hydrocarbons
Note. Abootmol ptessote moy bove mooy otlqlo, ftepoeotly o comblootloo of
qeoloqlc, pbyslcol, qeocbemlcol & mecboolcol ptocesses
32
Crlglns for generaLlon of abnormal fluld pressure (afLer lerLl)
1. Piezometric fluid level (artesian water system)
2. Reservoir structure
3. Repressuring of reservoir rock
4. Rate of sedimentation and depositional environment
5. Paleopressures
6. Tectonic activities
a. Faults
b. Shale diapirism(mud volcanoes)
c. Salt diapirism
d. Sandstone dikes
e. Earthquake
7. Osmotic phenomena
8. Diagenesis phenomena
9. Massive areal rock salt deposition
10. Permafrost environment
11. Thermodynamic and bichemical causes
33
1. lezomeLrlc fluld level (arLeslan waLer sysLem)
Cenerally, arLeslan pressures are presenL under Lhe followlng
condlLlons:
orous & permeable aqulfers are sandwlched beLween lmpermeable
beds, such as shales
1hese aqulfers are deformed ln such a way as Lo exhlblL a hlgh lnLake
Lo produce Lhe necessary hydraullc head
34
2. 8eservolr sLrucLure
- ln sealed reservolr rock, such as lenLlcular reservolrs, dlpplng
formaLlons & anLlcllnes, formaLlon pressures ls normal for Lhe
deepesL parL of Lhe zone buL lL wlll be LransmlLLed Lo Lhe
shallower end, where Lhey wlll cause abnormal condlLlons
(see flgure)
ln Lhe presence of Lhe anLlcllnes, abnormal are encounLered
ln Lhe poLenLlal pay secLlon, whereas abnormal hydrosLaLlc
condlLlons sLlll may exlsL aL & below Lhe oll/waLer conLacL
ln very large sLrucLures (e.g. Mlddle LasL), overpressures
resulLlng from dlfferences ln oll/waLer sysLem and
parLlcularly gas/waLer sysLems are known Lo approach Lhe
geosLaLlc of Lhe overburden (e.g. ln lran 0.9 psl/fL)
33
3. 8epressurlng of reservolr rock
normal or low pressured reservolr rocks, parLlcularly aL
shallow depLh, conLalnlng formaLlon waLer and/or
hydrocarbon may someLlmes be pressured up and/or
repressured due Lo hydraullc communlcaLlon wlLh deeper,
hlgher pressured formaLlons, such as (see llgure):
- 8ehlnd caslng ln old wells or boreholes wlLh faulLy
cemenL [ob
- Along leaky" faulL zones
- As a resulL of caslng leak ln old wells
- Whlle drllllng a sequence of permeable formaLlons
exhlblLlng drasLlcally dlfferenL pore fluld pressures
(causlng recharge salLwaLer flows)
36
4. 8aLe of sedlmenLaLlon and deposlLlonal envlronmenL
8apld loadlng" can cause abnormal lnLersLlLlal
waLer ls llkely Lo be Lrapped and lsolaLed from
communlcaLlng wlLh Lhe surface
ln Lhls slLuaLlon Lhe sedlmenL cannoL compacL and
Lhe conLalned waLer ls sub[ecLed noL only Lo
hydrosLaLlc forces, buL also Lo Lhe welghL of newly
deposlLed sedlmenL, Lherefore lL wlll creaLed hlgh
pressure zone
1he normal sedlmenLaLlon process lnvolves Lhe
deposlLlon of layers of varlous rock parLlcles
37
3. aleopressures
Such abnormal formaLlon pressures can only exlsL ln
older rock whlch have been compleLely enclosed by
masslve, dense & essenLlally lmpermeable rocks or ln
compleLely sealed formaLlon upllfLed Lo a shallower
depLh
38
6. 1ecLonlc acLlvlLles
Abnormally hlgh pore fluld pressures may resulL from
local & reglonal faulLlng, foldlng, laLeral slldlng &
sllpplng, squeezlng caused by down-dropplng of faulL
blocks, dlaplrlc salL and/or shake movemenLs,
earLhquakes, sandsLones dlkes
39
7. CsmoLlc phenomena
Csmosls ls Lhe sponLaneous flow of waLer lnLo a
soluLlon or Lhe flow from a more dlluLe Lo more
concenLraLed soluLlon, when Lhe Lwo are
separaLed from each oLher by a sulLable
membrane
Shale can acL as seml-permeable membrane
40
8. ulagenesls phenomena
ulagenesls ls a Lerm LhaL refers Lo Lhe chemlcal alLeraLlon of
rock mlnerals by geologlcal processes
ulagenesls ls Lhe posL-deposlLlonal alLeraLlon of sedlmenL & lLs
consLlLuenL mlnerals
rocesses of dlagenesls lnclude:
formaLlon of new mlnerals
redlsLrlbuLlon & recrysLalllzaLlon of Lhe subsLances ln
sedlmenLs
llLhlflcaLlon
41
9. Masslve areal rock salL deposlLlon
SalL ls LoLally lmpermeable Lo flulds &
Lransforms under pseudoplasLlc movemenL
(recrysLalllzaLlon effecL), Lhereby exerLlng
pressure equal Lo Lhe overburden load ln all
dlrecLlons
underlylng formaLlons have no fluld escape
posslblllLles, Lhus remalnlng unconsolldaLed &
becomlng overpressured
42
10. ermafrosL envlronmenL
ln permafrosL reglons, unfrozen areas exlsL ln many
places, such as under deep lake
urasLlc changes ln cllmaLe and/or surface condlLlons
cause permafrosL encroachmenL, Lhereby Lrapplng
an unfrozen area ln a essenLlally closed sysLem
As freezlng proceeds, a bulldup of abnormally hlgh
formaLlon pressures occurs ln unfrozen pockeLs.
1hese sLrucLures are called plngos
43
11. 1hermodynamlc & blochemlcal causes
Changes ln formaLlon 1 wlll also change Lhe fluld
1he flgure suggesL LhaL pressure ln an lsolaLed volume
lncreases wlLh lncreaslng 1 more rapldly ln Lhe
surroundlng flulds
8reakdown of hydrocarbon molecules lnLo slmple
compounds lncreases Lhelr volume
volume changes ls due Lo caLalyLlc reacLlons,
radloacLlve decay, bacLerlal reacLlon, and/or 1 changes
uecomposlLlon of organlc maLLer Lhrough bacLerlal
acLlons form pockeLs of meLhane under excesslve
pressure
8LulC1lCn & uL1LC1lCn Cl A8nC8MAL 8LSSu8LS
- 1here are many meLhods Lo predlcL, deLecL & evaluaLe formaLlon fluld
pressures (see 1able on Lhe nexL sllde)
- MosL of Lhe meLhods can be subdlvlded lnLo quallLaLlve & quanLlLaLlve
deLecLlon meLhod as shown ln Lhe Lable below (Lhls Lable conLalns only
Lhose meLhod LhaL are appllcable durlng Lhe drllllng phase of a well)
Qualitative methods Quantitative methods
Paleontology
Offset well correlation
Temperature anomalies
Gas counting
Mud and/or cutting resistivity
Delta chlorides
Cuttings character
Hole condition
Cuttings content (shale factor)
Log analysis
porosity detection
resistivity (conductivity)
sonic
Bulk density
Drilling equation
d
c
exponent
computerized drilling models
Kicks
Pressure detection methods while drilling
1echnlques
avallable Lo
predlcL,
deLecL and
evaluaLe
overpressures
(afLer lerLl)
Source of data Pressure indicators Time of recording
Geophysical methods Seismic (formation velocity)
Gravity
Magnetics
Electrical prospecting methods
Prior to spudding well
Drilling parameters Drilling rate
d-exponent and Modified d-exponent
Drilling rate equations
Drilling porosity and formation pressure logs
Logging while drilling
Torque, Drag
While drilling (no delay)
Drilling mud parameters Mud-gas cutting
Flow-line mud weight
Pressure kicks
Flow-line temperature
Resistivity, chloride ions & other novel concepts
Pit level and total pit volume
Hole fill-up
Mud flow rate
While drilling (delayed by
the time required for mud
return)
Shale cuttings
parameters
Bulk density
Shale factor
Volume, shape and size
Novel, miscellaneous methods
While drilling (delayed by
the time required for mud
return)
Well logging Electrical surveys (resistivity, conductivity, etc)
Interval transit time
Bulk density
Hydrogen index
Thermal neutron capture cross section
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Downhole gravity data
After drilling
Direct pressure
measuring device
Pressure bombs
Drill-stem test
Wireline formation test
When well is tested or
completed
Predict
Detect
(will focus
on this item)
Confirm/
Evaluate
1here are 3 general classlflcaLlons can be proposed (see Lhe prevlous
Lable):
1. redlcLlve Lechnlques
1hese can be consldered as Lhose geophyslcal Lechnlques applled Lo
Lhe lnlLlal exploraLlon phase. 1he meLhods wlll predlcL Lhe exlsLence of
condlLlons ln whlch abnormal may be found
2. ueLecLlon Lechnlques (wlll cooceottote oo tbls tecbolpoes)
Applles Lo Lhose aspecLs & parameLers whlch can be monlLored durlng
Lhe drllllng process & can alerL Lhe drllllng crew Lo Lhe facL LhaL Lhey
have encounLered a LranslLlon zone/abnormally pressured zone
3. ConflrmaLlon Lechnlques
8elaLes Lo Lhose meLhods whlch can be applled afLer Lhe hole has been
successfully drllled Lo conflrm and quanLlfy abnormal formaLlon pore
pressures
1here are 3 caLegorles of sources of daLa whlch wlll allow Lhe deLecLlon
of abnormal pressures, namely:
A. urllllng parameLers
1hls caLegorles refers Lo Lhe observaLlon of drllllng parameLers & Lhe appllcaLlon of
emplrlcal drllllng raLe calculaLlons whlch uLlllze a pore dependenL Lerm
8. urllllng mud
1hls caLegory refers Lo Lhe affecL LhaL an abnormal zone may have on Lhe drllllng fluld,
e.g. lncrease ln 1, lnflux of hydrocarbon, eLc.
C. urlll cuLLlngs
1hls secLlon comprlses meLhods used Lo lnvesLlgaLe Lhe naLure of Lhe deLecLlng Lhe
cuLLlngs from Lhe seallng zone cuLLlngs, generally wlLh speclflc reference Lo deLecLlng
Lhe cuLLlngs from Lhe seallng zone
ueLecLlon of Abnormal lormaLlon ressures
A. urllllng arameLers
1he concepL behlnd Lhe use of drllllng
parameLer ls LhaL:
upon approachlng an abnormal pressured zone lL
ls posslble LhaL Lhe seal zones wlll presenL lLself as
a zone of greaLer compacLlon whlch wlll glve
decreased peneLraLlon raLes
upon enLerlng Lhe abnormally pressured zone,
Lhe rock many become more porous & less dense
& Lhls wlll resulL ln lncreased peneLraLlon raLes
1. urllllng raLe (peneLraLlon raLe)
urllllng raLe breaks have been used for many years Lo
dlsLlngulsh sand from shale
Powever, Lhe apparenL relaLlon of peneLraLlon raLe
Lo varlaLlons ln pore flulds has been recognlzed
8aslcally, drllllng raLe ls a funcLlon of WC8, roLary
speed (rpm), blL Lype & slze, hydraullcs, drllllng fluld
& formaLlon characLerlsLlcs
eneLraLlon raLe decrease unlformly (due Lo
compacLlon) wlLh depLh (assumlng all Lhe above
parameLers are consLanL)
2. d-exponenL (normallzed raLe of peneLraLlon)
Slnce lL ls noL always a posslble Lo conLrol/malnLaln WC8, rpm,
eLc. (as dlscussed prevlously), an lmproved meLhod has been
developed whlch allows ploLLlng of a normallzed peneLraLlon
raLe (d-exp.) vs. depLh
uaLa requlred Lo calculaLe Lhe d-exp. (a dlmenslonless no.) are
Lhe peneLraLlon raLe , blL slze (dlameLer), WC8 & roLary speed:
where:
8 = raLe of peneLraLlon (fL/hr)
n = roLary speed (rpm)
W = WC8 (lbs)
u = blL dlameLer (ln.)
) D 10 / W 12 ( log
) N 60 / R ( log
d
6
=
Cverpressured zone can be ldenLlfled by ploLLlng d-
exponenL vs depLh
lor accuraLe resulLs Lhe followlng condlLlons musL
exlsL:
no abrupL changes ln WC8 or 8M should occur,
l.e. keep WC8 and 8M as consLanL as posslble
Lo reduce Lhe dependence on llLhology Lhe
equaLlon should be applled over small depLh
lncremenLs only (ploL every 10 fL)
a good Lhlck shale ls requlred Lo esLabllsh a rellable
Lrend llne
8aslcally, ploLs of d-exponenL
vs depLh show an lncreaslng
Lrend wlLh depLh
ln LranslLlon zones &
overpressure envlronmenLs,
Lhe calculaLed d-value dlverge
from Lhe normal Lrend Lo lower
Lhan normal values (see flgure)
CompuLed d-values are
affecLed by any change ln 8, n,
W & u. 1hus changes ln blL slze
& Lype, blL welghL, eLc. wlll
affecL Lhe d-exponenL
LlLhology change, mud welghL
change wlll also affecL d-
exponenL
3. Modlfled d-exponenL
Slnce Lhe d-exponenL ls lnfluenced by mud
welghL varlaLlons, a modlflcaLlon has been
lnLroduced Lo normallze Lhe d-exponenL for
Lhe effecLlve mud welghL such as:
where:
d
c
= modlfled (correcLed) d-exponenL

n
= mud equal Lo a normal formaLlon pore p gradlenL

e
= Lqulllbrlum mud aL Lhe blL whlle clrculaLlng
) / ( d d
e n c -
=
Example:
The Iollowing table is obtained Irom a well drilled at Alpha Iield.
Assuming the normal Iormation pressure oI 9.0 ppg:
a. Make a plot of d-exponent vs. depth using Cartesian
coordinates
b. Make a plot of d-exponent vs. depth using semi-log
c. Make a plot of modified d-exponent vs. depth using Cartesian
coordinates
d. Make a plot of modified d-exponent vs. depth using semi-log
e. Determine the depth of upper zone of abnormal pressure
f. Can the d-exponent be used to determine the abnormal pressure
in this case? Give your reasons
Depth Bit size Drlling time WOB N Mud density
6,000 8.500 4.72 35,000 120 9.0
8.500
8.500
(ft) (in.) (hrs) (lb) (rpm) (ppg)
6,500 8.500 4.85 35,000 120 9.0
7,000 6.50 35,000 110 9.0
7,500 8.500 7.58 35,000 110 9.0
8,000 11.21 30,000 110 9.4
8,500 7.875 10.87 30,000 110 9.4
9,000 7.875 12.69 30,000 110 9.4
9,500 7.875 14.28 30,000 110 9.8
10,000 7.875 6.49 30,000 110 10.1
10,200 7.875 7.61 30,000 100 10.1
10,400 7.875 8.10 30,000 100 10.1
10,600 7.875 8.62 30,000 100 10.5
10,800 7.875 9.17 30,000 90 11.1
11,000 7.875 10.47 30,000 90 11.1
11,200 7.875 11.17 30,000 90 11.3
11,400 7.875 11.91 30,000 90 11.6
11,600 7.875 9.13 35,000 90 11.6
11,800 7.875 9.71 35,000 90 11.8
12,000 7.875 9.71 35,000 90 13.1
12,200 7.875 10.00 35,000 90 13.4
12,400 7.875 11.11 35,000 90 13.6
12,600 7.875 11.11 35,000 90 14.2
12,800 7.875 11.77 35,000 90 14.5
h
h
t
R = h/t
D
h
W N
e
(ft) (ft) (hr) (ft/hr) (in.) (lb) (rpm) (ppg)
6,000 4.72 8.500 35,000 120 9.0
6,500 500 4.85 103.1 8.500 35,000 120 9.0 1.4118 1.4118
7,000 500 6.50 76.9 8.500 35,000 110 9.0 1.4803 1.4803
7,500 500 7.58 66.0 8.500 35,000 110 9.0 1.5314 1.5314
8,000 500 11.21 44.6 8.500 30,000 110 9.4 1.5805 1.5132
8,500 500 10.87 46.0 7.875 30,000 110 9.4 1.6096 1.5411
9,000 500 12.69 39.4 7.875 30,000 110 9.4 1.6598 1.5892
9,500 500 14.28 35.0 7.875 30,000 110 9.8 1.6981 1.5594
10,000 500 6.49 77.0 7.875 30,000 110 10.1 1.4425 1.2854
10,200 200 7.61 26.3 7.875 30,000 100 10.1 1.7601 1.5684
10,400 200 8.10 24.7 7.875 30,000 100 10.1 1.7804 1.5865
10,600 200 8.62 23.2 7.875 30,000 100 10.5 1.8005 1.5433
10,800 200 9.17 21.8 7.875 30,000 90 11.1 1.7864 1.4485
11,000 200 10.47 19.1 7.875 30,000 90 11.1 1.8294 1.4833
11,200 200 11.17 17.9 7.875 30,000 90 11.3 1.8504 1.4738
11,400 200 11.91 16.8 7.875 30,000 90 11.6 1.8712 1.4518
11,600 200 9.13 21.9 7.875 35,000 90 11.6 1.8789 1.4578
11,800 200 9.71 20.6 7.875 35,000 90 11.8 1.8999 1.4491
12,000 200 9.71 20.6 7.875 35,000 90 13.1 1.8999 1.3053
12,200 200 10.00 20.0 7.875 35,000 90 13.4 1.9099 1.2828
12,400 200 11.11 18.0 7.875 35,000 90 13.6 1.9459 1.2877
12,600 200 11.11 18.0 7.875 35,000 90 14.2 1.9459 1.2333
12,800 200 11.77 17.0 7.875 35,000 90 14.5 1.9655 1.2200
, )
, ) D 10 / W 12 log
N 60 / R log
d
6
=
e n c
/ d =
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
14,000
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
d exponent
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
14,000
1.0 10.0
d exponent
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
14,000
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
dc exponent
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
14,000
1.0 10.0
dc exponent
39
Comparison of d and d
c
-exponents
Comparison of d and d
c
exponents used in
geopressure detection.
Both exponents may be
used for estimating the top
of an overpressured zone,
but d
c
is more quantitative
since it considers mud
weight effects on drilling
rate.
Mud weight, ppg
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

d
e
p
t
h
,

f
t
Normal
pressure
Over
pressure
2.0 3.0 10 11 12 1.0
d
d
c
60
Formation pressure can be derived from the d
c
, using Eatons equation
1.2
co
cn n
d P S S P
D D D D d

|
=
| | |
' .
| |
n
co c
cn c
P
= fluid pressure gradient (psi/ft)
D
S
= overburden gradient (psi/ft)
D
P
"normal" hydrostatic gradient (psi/ft)
D
d = observed d at given depth
d = d from normal trend (i.e. extrapolated) at given
|
=
|
' .
depth
8. u8lLLlnC Muu A8AML1L8S
1. Mud-gas cuLLlngs
2. llowllne mud welghL
3. llowllne LemperaLure
4. lL level & LoLal plL volume
3. Mud flowraLe
1. Mud-gas cuLLlngs
Cas can be evolved ln 2 ways:
a. lrom shale cuLLlngs
Cas ls commonly assoclaLed wlLh shale & especlally
overpressured shales whlch have a hlgh |. urllled
shale cuLLlngs can release gas as lL expands as Lhey
move up Lhe annulus ln Lhe drllllng fluld
b. ulrecL lnflux
1he lnflux of gas can occur as Lhe resulL of dlrecLly
removlng Lhe overbalance p or durlng Lhe maklng of
connecLlons when pulllng back Lhe drlll sLrlng,
produces a Lendency Lo swab
2. llowllne mud welghL
1he mud welghL as measured aL Lhe flowllne
wlll be lnfluenced by any forelgn fluld lnflux
Cas ls more readlly noLlceable because of Lhe
dlfference, buL waLer ls more dlfflculL Lo
lsolaLe
ConLlnuous measuremenL of mud welghL ls a
mosL useful Lechnlque, e.g. uslng a radloacLlve
densomeLer
3. llowllne LemperaLure
WaLer has a lower heaL conducLlvlLy Lhan shale (~ 60)
PeaL rlslng Lhrough Lhe earLh Loward Lhe surface wlll
normally esLabllsh an even 1 gradlenL buL when Lhe waLer
conLenL ls hlgher as ln under compacLed shale, Lhe 1 Lend Lo
be hlgher & decrease rapldly Lhrough Lhe LranslLlon zone
before esLabllshlng a sLeady gradlenL Lhrough Lhe normal
lnLerval (see flgure)
roblem when flow ls sLopped, mud ln Lhe hole near Lhe
surface cools whlle deeper mud heaLs & plL mud approaches
amblenL 1. When clrculaLlng resumes, mud from Lhe flowllne
slowly heaLs up Lo some equlllbrlum value
4. lL level and LoLal plL volume
varlaLlons ln Lhe LoLal mud volume can
be monlLored by plL level lndlcaLors
1he lncrease or decrease ln Lhe plL
volume may be relaLed Lo losL
clrculaLlon, fluld lnflux, gas lnflux, eLc.
3. Mud flow raLe
Any abnormal rlse ln plL level caused by mud
flow from Lhe annulus wlll also be reflecLed ln
an lncreaslng flow raLe, whlch can be measured
by a sLandard flowmeLer
C. u8lLL Cu11lnCS A8AML1L8S
1here are a number of analyLlcal Lechnlques
lnvolvlng Lhe use of drlll cuLLlngs mosLly assoclaLed
wlLh Lhe ldenLlflcaLlon of under-compacLed shales:
1. Density of shale cuttings
2. Shale factor
3. Volume, shape and size of shale cuttings
1. uenslLy of shale cuLLlngs
1he denslLy wlll vary wlLh Lhe degree of compacLlon
and ls glven by Lhe followlng relaLlonshlp:

sh
= |
w
+ (1- |)
g
where:
sh
= shale denslLy

g
= graln denslLy
| = shale poroslLy
8ulk ln normally compacLed shales lncreases wlLh
depLh ln normally pressured reservolrs, a ploL of bulk
wlLh depLh should be a sLralghL llne as lL wlll show
lncreased compacLlon wlLh depLh for a consLanL
llLhology
3. volume, shape and slze of shale cuLLlngs
An lncreased ln peneLraLlon raLe wlll resulLs ln
an lncreased volume of cuLLlngs
AddlLlonally, Lhe shape and slze of Lhe
cuLLlngs wlll change
ln LranslLlon zone Lhe cuLLlngs shape wlll show
an angular and sharp edges and large cuLLlng
slze
lormotion lrocture 6rodient
70
Definition:
Fracture gradient is a measure of how the strength of the rock
(i.e. its resistance to break down) varies with depth.
In planning the mud programme, it is useful to know the
max MW which can be used at any particular depth
This maximum MW is defined by the fracture gradient
The MW used in the well must lie between the formation
pressure gradient and the fracture gradient
Knowledge of the fracture gradient is vital when drilling
through an overpressured zone
Leak-off 1esL
71
Formation breakdown/fracture gradients
are determined by leak-off tests
quantitative
Procedure:
Run and cement casing
Drill about 5 - 10 ft below the casing
shoe
Close the BOPs
Pump slowly and monitor the pressure
At the point where pressure begins to
bleed off stop pumping
1rl-axlal 1esL
72
Leak-off tests expensive
Alternative: Tri-axial Test, much cheaper
Used core sample taken at pre determined
depth
Used Tri-axial machine
lracLure CradlenL redlcLlons
73
Many attempts have been made to predict fracture
gradients from known pore pressure gradients
Hubbert and Willis
Matthews and Kelly
Pennebaker
Ben Eaton
Christman
Etc.
All are somewhat similar. In this lesson only
Hubbert and Williss, Matthews and Kellys and
Ben Eatons methods will be discussed
nubbert and W||||s
74
Based on the assumption that fraction occurred when the
applied fluid pressure exceeded the total minimum
effective stresses and formation pressure
Predicts higher fracture gradient in abnormal pressured
formation and lower fracture gradient in subnormal
pressured formation
Not suitable for soft rock formation like in the Gulf of
Mexico and northern part of North Sea area
f
f
P 1 2
G
3 D 3 D

=
f
f
G fracture gradient (psi/ft)
overburden stresses (psi)
D depth of interest (ft)
P formation pressure (psi)

=
=
=
=
Matthews and ke||y
73
Proposed the method for use in sedimentary rocks
K
i
relates the actual matrix stress to the normal
matrix stress and can be obtained from charts
i
f p
K
G G
D

=
f
p
i
G = fracture gradient (psi/ft)
G = pore pressure gradient psi/ft
K = matrix stress coefficient
= matrix stress (psi)
D = depth of interest (ft)

Laton
76
The most widely used in petroleum industries
Field tests however show that may range from 0.25 to
0.5 at which point the rock becomes plastic (stresses equal
in all directions).
, )
f o p p
G G G G
1

|
=
|

' .
f
o
p
G = fracture gradient (psi/ft)
G = overburden gradient (psi/ft)
G = pore pressure gradient
(observed or predicted) (psi/ft)
= Poisson's ratio
1 1
p p
1
, ( . )
1 3
from lab test


= =

Summary of procedures
77
In planning a well using formation pressures and fracture
pressures the following procedure applies:
analyse and plot log data or d-exponent from an offset well
draw in the normal trend line, and extrapolate below the
transition zone
calculate a typical overburden gradient using density logs
from offset wells
calculate formation pressure gradients from equations (e.g.
Eaton)
use known formation and fracture gradients and overburden
data to calculate a typical Poisson's ratio plot
calculate fracture gradient at any depth