Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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Authors draft of article published in March/April 2004 QEX/Communications Quarterly

Please refer to http://www.qsl.net/ke5fx/synth.html for the latest updates and errata

A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer for UH !Mi"ro#a$e Pro%e"ts

John Miles KE5F !i"hard #oskin$ %K&'!( E)er want to *uild a +,- to dayli$ht. re"ei)er or di$itally/"ontrolled spe"trum analy0er1 #ow a*out a trans"ei)er for the 2mateur 3#F *ands4 or a si$nal $enerator with o"ta)e/*and "o)era$e1 2t the heart of ea"h of these pro5e"ts is a lo"al os"illator with $ood sta*ility and spe"tral purity. (ur $oal in this arti"le is to present a )ersatile and practical synthesi0er desi$n that "an address almost any home*rewer6s need for a di$itally/tuna*le si$nal sour"e from %#F to 7 8#0. 3nlike most pu*lished approa"hes4 we6)e fo"used our desi$n efforts as mu"h on afforda*ility4 flexi*ility and reprodu"i*ility as on +spe"smanship.. 9he synthesi0er we6ll des"ri*e offers "ontinuous "o)era$e *etween : and ; 8#0 with fast swit"hin$ time4 su*/: #0 tunin$ resoluion and )ery $ood "lose/in noise performan"e. 9here6s nothin$ to tweak or ali$n with exoti" test equipment < if you *uild it4 it will work. 'est of all4 e)ery "omponent is a)aila*le off/the/shelf from Mini/-ir"uits4 ,i$i/Key4 and 2nalo$ ,e)i"es for a total of less than 3= >;??.??@

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'esign ($er$ie#
Ahen it "omes to modern synthesi0er desi$n trends4 numerous authors ha)e made the "ase for a hy*rid topolo$y that takes ad)anta$e of the "om*ined stren$ths of dire"t di$ital synthesis B,,=C and traditional phase/lo"ked loop te"hnolo$y. :4;4D4745 'efore these hy*rid te"hniques *e"ame pra"ti"al4 PEE synthesis often in)ol)ed awkward tradeoffs *etween frequen"y step si0e4 freedom from spurious outputs4 and o)erall loop "omplexity. Ahile standalone ,,= "hips do not yet ha)e the output frequen"y ran$e Band in many "ases4 the spe"tral purityC to offer an a"ross/the/*oard repla"ement for PEE te"hnolo$y4 it6s easy to use ,,= te"hnolo$y to *uild a PEE synthesi0er with ar*itrary frequen"y/"ontrol pre"ision4 "ompetiti)e spe"tral purity4 and low o)erall "omplexity. Fn its most *asi" form4 a hy*rid synthesi0er uses a ,,= sour"e to pro)ide a sta*le4 "lean4 and pre"isely/tuna*le referen"e for a "on)entional PEE. 9he output of a hy*rid synthesi0er deri)es its tunin$ pre"ision and sta*ility from its ,,= referen"e while pro)idin$ the frequen"y "o)era$e ran$e typi"al of a PEE. 9he approa"h we6)e taken is similar to that in -ornell ,rentea4 KAG-,6s re"ent mi"rowa)e ,,=/dri)en PEE arti"le&4 adapted to use newer4 more readily/ a)aila*le parts and impro)ed post/,,= filterin$. 9unin$ "ontrol is pro)ided )ia the P- parallel port or an 2tmel mi"ro"ontroller. Eike -ornell6s desi$n4 our synthesi0er "an *e used as a standalone %#F/3#F/mi"rowa)e sour"e or with an external frequen"y di)ider to a"hie)e ex"eptional noise performan"e in #F appli"ations. 9he synthesi0er6s heart is the 2,HI5; ,,= "hip from 2nalo$ ,e)i"es. 9he 2,HI5; is used to $enerate a finely/tuna*le referen"e si$nal near :?.G M#0 for the PEE. -hosen for its superior performan"e o)er the less/"ostly Band somewhat more popularC :?/*it 2,HI5?4 the :;/ *it 2,HI5; is "lo"ked *y either an on*oard :? M#0 os"illator or an external :? M#0 sour"e4 usin$ the "hip6s "lo"k/multiplier feature to $enerate internal "lo"k frequen"ies *etween I? and :;? M#0. 2fter passin$ throu$h a "rystal filter to tame any wide*and spurs4 the si$nal from the ,,= is amplified and "on)erted to a square wa)e *y an E9:?:& "omparator from Einear

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9e"hnolo$ies. 9he filtered and squared PEE referen"e si$nal from the "omparator4 alon$ with a sample of the si$nal from the synthesi0er6s %-( o*tained from a resisti)e di)ider4 is applied to any of se)eral pro$ramma*le PEE synthesi0er F-s from Jational =emi"ondu"tor6s EM ;D?&/:&/;& or 2nalo$ ,e)i"es6 2,F7::?/::/:;/:D family. 9hese PEE "hips are marketed toward the wireless/ and "ellular/"ommuni"ations industry4 *ut their low pri"es4 ease of use4 and a)aila*ility in small quantities make them attra"ti)e for 2mateur !adio appli"ations from the lower %#F re$ion to frequen"ies well *eyond the ;.7 8#0 *and. 8eneration of the synthesi0er6s output si$nal is handled *y a "ommer"ial )ara"tor/tuned )olta$e/"ontrolled os"illator module. 2 wide )ariety of prepa"ka$ed %-(s are a)aila*le with industry/standard P- *oard footprints from )endors su"h as Mini/-ir"uits and =yner$y Mi"rowa)e4 offerin$ )arious tunin$ ran$es4 output power le)els4 harmoni" and noise performan"e spe"ifi"ations4 and supply )olta$es. 9he synthesi0er pro5e"t des"ri*ed here uses the !(=/ ;:5?%A from Mini/-ir"uits4 whi"h pro)ides an impressi)e HG?/;:5? M#0 tunin$ ran$e for a*out >D?. ()erall loop "hara"teristi"s su"h as phase mar$in4 *andwidth4 and lo"kup time are determined *y a third/order a"ti)e loop filter *ased on the low/noise (P2;G opamp from 9exas Fnstruments. 9he opamp not only filters the di$ital si$nal from the PEE "hip6s "har$e/pump output4 *ut also amplifies it to the ?.5 / ;5% le)el required to make the most of the %-(6s tunin$ ran$e. Followin$ the %-( and resisti)e di)ider4 a 82EF/5 MMF- from Mini/-ir"uits pro)ides approximately :& d' of $ain. Aith the !(=/;:5?%A %-( and di)ider as shown4 power a)aila*le at the output 5a"k at mid/*and is approximately K:7 d'm with less than K// ; d' of )ariation *etween :??? and :I?? M#0.

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer Perfor*an"e +onsiderations

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2 key spe"ifi"ation of any PEE frequen"y synthesi0er is the spe"tral purity of its output si$nal. Phase noise4 also known as +5itter4. is "aused *y random short/term ex"ursions in the "arrier6s phase and "an arise from a )ariety of "auses. 2mplitude noise is the other aspe"t of "omposite noise performan"e as o*ser)ed with a re"ei)er or spe"trum analy0er4 *ut it is usually insi$nifi"ant "ompared to phase/frequen"y 5itter. Finally4 in addition to "omposite 2M/PM noise4 the synthesi0er6s output si$nal may also "ontain dis"rete spurs that appear as side*ands on either or *oth sides of the "arrier. For a detailed dis"ussion of the nuan"es of noise and spur performan"e4 see ,ean 'aner5ee6s outstandin$ PLL Performance, Simulation, and Design4 downloada*le at http://www.national."om/appinfo/wireless/files/,eans'ookL7L?:.pdf. B2 printed and *ound )ersion of 'aner5ee6s *ook is also a)aila*le at http://www.ama0on."om.C 3nlike a simple E- os"illator sta$e4 the fa"tors that "an "ontri*ute to noisy or otherwise/ impure si$nals at the output of a PEE are almost too numerous to "ount. Aorse4 it6s impossi*le to la*el a $i)en synthesi0er with a simple +spe"tral purity. spe"ifi"ation that will allow dire"t "omparisons with its peers. Joise and spurs are two/dimensional quantities < to e)aluate their se)erity4 we must "onsider *oth the amplitude relati)e to the "arrier si$nal and the frequen"y offset from the "arrier at whi"h the effe"t in question was measured. 2ny synthesi0er whi"h will *e used in a re"ei)er or transmitter must *e "arefully desi$ned to minimi0e noise and spurs at frequen"y offsets which have the potential to degrade the receiver or transmitters performance. 9he last point is si$nifi"ant / a synthesi0er ser)in$ as a wide*and FM re"ei)er6s lo"al os"illator "an *e desi$ned to mu"h looser spe"ifi"ations than one intended for use in a 7?/meter "ontest/ $rade ri$. 2 detailed dis"ussion of noise "auses and "ures is *eyond the s"ope of this arti"le. #owe)er4 in a nutshell4 PEE noise and spurious si$nal analysis must "onsider referen"e noise, V+( noise4 and the *,lti-li"ation effe"t of the loop. 9he desi$n of the loo- filter is "riti"al4 as the *andwidth of the loop should *e tailored to the %-(6s needs. Ft is also important to "onsider extraneous noise/and/spur sour"es su"h as -o#er s,--lies and inter*od,lation effe"ts *etween )arious parts of the "ir"uit.

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/oo- M,lti-li"ation 0ffe"t 2ny phase/lo"ked loop will in"rease the phase/noise amplitude of its referen"e sour"e *y ;? M lo$B1C d' within the loop *andwidth4 where 1 is the loop6s o)erall frequen"y/multipli"ation fa"tor. 2ny dis"rete referen"e spurs within the loop *andwidth will also *e amplified *y a similar fa"tor4 notin$ that their frequen"y offset from the output "arrier will remain the same as their offset from the referen"e. -onsider a synthesi0er with a :/8#0 output frequen"y and a D/k#0 loop *andwidth4 whose referen"e frequen"y is : M#0 with dis"rete side*ands at K// : K#0 and <I? d'". 1 is :??? in this "ase4 and ;? M lo$B1C is &? d'. 2t its output4 the synthesi0er will show side*ands at K// : K#0 and <;? d'"4 whi"h may not *e a""epta*le for many appli"ations. Ft is therefore "riti"al to use a hi$h/quality referen"e sour"e for mi"rowa)e PEEs with their hi$h 1 ratios // or4 failin$ that4 a )ery narrow loop *andwidth with a hi$h/quality %-(.

2eferen"e32elated 1oise and S-,rs 9he random phase/noise performan"e of a ,,= is quite $ood. Ft is determined *y either the noise of its own referen"e / typi"ally a )ery "lean "rystal os"illator / or the noise/floor limitations of the %E=F pro"ess *y whi"h the ,,= "hip was fa*ri"ated Btypi"ally <:7? d'"/#0 for E-E te"hnolo$y and <:5? d'"/#0 or *etter for modern -M(= parts su"h as the 2,HI5;C. #owe)er4 while its phase/noise performan"e is adequate for most purposes4 the output of a ,,= exhi*its dis"rete side*and spurs due to phase trun"ation and timin$ toleran"es in the lookup ta*le and ,2-. 9hese are often si$nifi"ant enou$h to rule out the use of a standalone ,,= as the first lo"al os"illator in a hi$h/performan"e #F re"ei)er. ,is"rete spurs in the ,,= referen"e "an appear in the synthesi0er6s output si$nal at si$nifi"ant "arrier offsets4 fallin$ away outside the loop *andwidth after *ein$ amplified *y ;? M lo$B 1C d' within the loop *andwidth Bsee a*o)eC. Fn reality4 our loop6s )ulnera*ility to spurs in its referen"e sour"e is $reater than one mi$ht expe"t. 'oth the Jational =emi"ondu"tor EM ;D;& and 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,F7::; PEE "hips exhi*it a readily/o*ser)ed Byet apparently undo"umentedC tenden"y to respond to referen"e/

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si$nal spurs at offset inter)als "orrespondin$ to their internal "omparison frequen"y4 from ,- to :?? M#0 and *eyond. -onsider a loop with a : M#0 "omparison frequen"y4 a"hie)ed *y pro$rammin$ the PEE "hip for a referen"e/di)ider modulus B 2C of :? with a ,,=/$enerated referen"e si$nal at :? M#0. 2s expe"ted4 ,,= spurs "lose to the :? M#0 referen"e will appear in the synthesi0er6s output si$nal as noted a*o)e. 2dditionally4 any ,,= spurs appearin$ near : M#0 inter)als on either side of the :? M#0 referen"e frequen"y will appear in the output si$nal exactly as if they had been generated in the vicinity of 1 !"#. For example4 a spur at G.??: M#0 would produ"e side*ands at K// : K#0 from the "arrier at the output of the synthesi0er. 9his effe"t has *een noted with the Jational "hip6s referen"e/e)aluation *oard as well as our prototype 2,F7::;/*ased synthesi0er. Ft is "lear that low/pass filterin$ the ,,= referen"e is not enou$h < we must *andpass/filter it to suppress as many spurs as possi*le a"ross the entire !F spe"trum. (ur synthesi0er addresses ,,= spur pro*lems *y se)erely *and/limitin$ the loop6s referen"e si$nal with an inexpensi)e 7/pole monolithi" "rystal filter. Aith this :5/k#0/wide filter in pla"e4 a series of 54??? automated measurements taken at randomly/sele"ted frequen"ies *etween :??? and :I?? M#0 re)ealed no si$nifi"ant spurious responses at any frequen"y. Aithout the filter4 the synthesi0er6s o)erall spur performan"e was dramati"ally worse. Fn the latter test4 almost e)ery randomly "hosen frequen"y exhi*ited at least one noti"ea*le spur.

5he /oo- ilter and V+( 9he loop filter in a PEE is desi$ned to attenuate hi$h/frequen"y "omponents of the loop error si$nal so that they do not modulate the %-( output. Fn pra"ti"e4 the loop filter "utoff is "ommonly set at *etween ; and 5N of the referen"e frequen"y to o*tain adequate attenuation of "omparison/frequen"y side*ands appearin$ at the phase dete"tor6s output. Fn our "ir"uit the "omparison frequen"y is approximately H?? k#04 so this issue "an *e lar$ely i$nored. Ae "onsequently desi$n the loop filter for *est system phase/noise performan"e *ased on the %-(6s own noise "hara"teristi"s. 2t offsets from the %-( "arrier less than the loop filter *andwidth4 the PEE attenuates noise "ontri*uted *y the %-(. 2t offsets that are si$nifi"antly $reater than the PEE6s loop

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*andwidth4 the prin"ipal sour"e of noise is the %-( itself. Aithin the loop *andwidth4 the noise performan"e is determined *y the PEE referen"e sour"e and the phase dete"tor4 and possi*ly the *road*and noise floor of the frequen"y di)iders as well. E)en the noisiest %-( "an *e "leaned up *y a PEE within its loop *andwidth4 *ut extremely wide loop *andwidths "arry a pri"e of their own. 2s des"ri*ed in 2nalo$ ,e)i"es6 data sheet for the 2,F7::?/::/:;/:D4 the in*and noise floor of a typi"al inexpensi)e phase/frequen"y dete"tor is limited to <I5 to <H? d'"/#04 after allowin$ for the multipli"ation effe"t of the loop as mentioned a*o)e. 9he phase/noise spe"ifi"ations of a $ood/quality %-( at offsets $reater than :? k#0 from the "arrier will *e *etter than this // typi"ally around <H5 to <::? d'"/#0. -onsequently4 it makes sense to "hoose a loop *andwidth narrower than the "arrier/offset points where the %-(6s free/runnin$ noise profile "rosses the PEE6s own noise floor. 'esides requirin$ physi"ally lar$er "omponents4 a narrower/than/ne"essary loop *andwidth allows more %-( noise to appear in the output si$nal. Ft also slows the loop lo"k time. 9he latter may *e an issue where rapid tunin$ is required4 su"h as in a sweep $enerator or spe"trum analy0er appli"ation. -on)ersely4 an ex"essi)ely/wide loop *andwidth means that the PEE is a"tually "ontri*utin$ noise to the output4 de$radin$ the %-(6s noise profile rather than impro)in$ it. Aith the Mini/-ir"uits %-( family we6)e spe"ified4 loop *andwidths in the :.5 k#0 < ;.5 k#0 ran$e seem to yield the *est "ompromise *etween "omponent si0e4 lo"k time4 and noise performan"e. =ome typi"al "omposite/noise results are shown in Fi$ure 7. For "omparison purposes4 the red tra"e was o*tained from the first lo"al/os"illator se"tion of an F"om F-/!G??? %#F/3#F "ommuni"ations re"ei)er. 9he !G???6s synthesi0er splits its GG?/:;H? M#0 output ran$e *etween two separate %-(s4 usin$ a narrow loop *andwidth to suppress the referen"e/ frequen"y spurs at 5 k#0. 2s a result4 its "lose/in noise performan"e suffers relati)e to the hy*rid synthesi0er4 *ut at offsets $reater than a few kilohert0 from the "arrier4 the F"om6s dual dis"rete %-(s demonstrate their superiority. 9here6s no es"apin$ the fundamental truth: a hi$h/quality synthesi0er desi$n has to start with a hi$h/quality %-(. 2s the F"om desi$n shows4 multiple os"illators with narrow tunin$

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ran$es perform *etter than o"ta)e/*and units like the !(=/;:5?%A4 assumin$ the *asi" tank/ "ir"uit te"hnolo$y remains the same. Je)ertheless4 the Mini/-ir"uits parts hold up surprisin$ly well when "ompared to dis"rete/"omponent %-( topolo$ies like the F-/!G???6s that are *eyond the rea"h of most home*rewers.

Phase3'ete"tor 1oise and +o*-arison re7,en"y 2part from the multipli"ation fa"tor des"ri*ed a*o)e4 noise "ontri*uted *y the phase dete"tor in"reases with in"reasin$ "omparison frequen"y Bthe frequen"y at whi"h the phase dete"tor itself operates4 after any pres"alin$ and di)ision is a""ounted forC. Further4 in our desi$n4 the hi$her the "omparison frequen"y the wider the frequen"y ran$e the ,,= referen"e must "o)er4 potentially makin$ post/,,= filterin$ more diffi"ult with off/the/shelf parts. 3sin$ a "heap :?.G M#0 FM "rystal filter with :5 K#0 *andwidth4 we found a PEE referen"e frequen"y of a*out : M#0 B:?.G M#0 di)ided *y ::C $a)e the *est tradeoff *etween phase dete"tor noise and ,,= *andwidth.

8nter*od,lation 0ffe"ts 2nother potential sour"e of dis"rete spurs in the synthesi0er output is "rosstalk *etween the ,,= and PEE "hips. 9he 2,HI5; ,,= is a power/hun$ry de)i"e "apa*le of radiatin$ and "ondu"tin$ hi$h/amplitude !F onto "ir"uit/*oard tra"es in its )i"inity. Aithout extensi)e physi"al shieldin$ *etween the two "omponents < e.$.4 pla"in$ them in separate !F/ti$ht en"losures // the PEE output exhi*its spurs when tuned near a multiple of either :/; or :/D of the ,,= "hip6s master "lo"k frequen"y. Ff the ,,= is dri)en *y a :?? M#0 "lo"k4 for example4 spurs "an *e o*ser)ed on either side of the synthesi0er6s output si$nal when tuned near :?DD and :?5? M#0 as well as most other multiples of DD and 5? M#0. (ne spur appears at the fra"tional "lo"k/frequen"y multiple in question4 while an identi"al spur appears at the same offset on the other side of the output si$nal. Eike other referen"e/deri)ed spurs4 these spurs *e$in to fall off in amplitude on"e their offset from the output frequen"y ex"eeds the PEE6s loop *andwidth.

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2t a few of these pro*lemati" output frequen"ies4 the "rosstalk effe"t is se)ere enou$h to desta*ili0e the loop and "ause intermittent os"illation. 9he solution we6)e implemented takes ad)anta$e of the 2,HI5;6s *uilt/in "lo"k multiplier feature. Fnstead of "lo"kin$ the ,,= at a "onstant :?? M#04 we apply :? M#0 to the ,,=6s "lo"k input and use its "lo"k multiplier to sele"t one of fi)e possi*le "lo"k frequen"ies *etween I? and :;? M#04 maximi0in$ the distan"e *etween any harmoni" of f,,=-lk/; or f,,=-lk/D and the synthesi0er6s output frequen"y. 9his te"hnique keeps the nearest fra"tional "lo"k harmoni" o)er :.5 M#0 away from the "arrier at any $i)en frequen"y4 eliminatin$ the pro*lem entirely ex"ept for residual leaka$e of "lo"k harmoni"s into the si$nal path asso"iated with 3;?76s input and output. E)en without any additional shieldin$ on the *oard4 the latter spurs are seldom worse than <I? d'". Ahile this approa"h a)oids spurs due to this intermodulation effe"t4 it does "arry the penalty of in"reased software "omplexity. 9he extra "al"ulations pose no si$nifi"ant *urden to a P- or hi$h/performan"e 2tmel 2%! "ontroller4 *ut may *e a "onsideration if a less/"apa*le mi"ro"ontroller is used to dri)e the *oard.

Po#er s,--lies and noise =ome se"tions of the "ir"uit are )ery sensiti)e to power supply noise. Fn parti"ular4 o)erall phase noise performan"e will *e de$raded if supplies to the %-( and the PEE "hip are not adequately filtered and de"oupled. 9ypi"al F- )olta$e re$ulators are )ery "on)enient to use4 *ut they may exhi*it wide*and noise at ma$nitudes many times $reater than a well/desi$ned dis"rete/"omponent re$ulator. Ae used Oener diodes as relati)ely/quiet referen"es for "riti"al parts of the "ir"uit. 2dditionally4 separate re$ulators are used to isolate different parts of the "ir"uit4 nota*ly the di$ital and analo$ ,,= se"tions.

/o"k ti*e 'y to$$lin$ the synthesi0er *etween its frequen"y extremes while monitorin$ the %-( tunin$ port with a di$ital os"illos"ope at 5 millise"onds/di)ision4 the loop6s lo"kup time and

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dampin$ "hara"teristi"s "an *e o*ser)ed dire"tly. 2s the $raphs in Fi$ure 5 show4 worst/"ase lo"kup time is approximately ;5 millise"onds. Eike the phase/noise $raphs4 the lo"k/time $raphs were taken with an !(=/;:5?%A %-(4 with the results "ompared to those o*tained from the F"om F-/!G???6s first lo"al os"illator. 9he hy*rid synthesi0er6s loop *andwidth was approximately ; k#0.

Asse*bly and (-eration

9o o*tain a""epta*le performan"e at mi"rowa)e frequen"ies4 it6s ne"essary to use small "omponents. 9he F-s used in the synthesi0er "ome in 9PFP4 =(F- and ==(P pa"ka$es with pin spa"in$ as small as ?.&mm. Ft is nearly impossi*le to work with these de)i"es without a printed "ir"uit *oard. Ahile our prototype was "onstru"ted dead/*u$ style on a *are "opper/"lad *oard4 the author6s eyesi$ht and ner)es ha)e yet to re"o)er from the experien"e@ Many ho**yists are intimidated *y the pre"ision and small dimensions in)ol)ed with surfa"e mount "onstru"tion4 *ut the truth is that =M9 home*rewin$ is relati)ely easy to master with inexpensi)e tools4 a modi"um of patien"e4 and a "le)er tri"k or two. Fn fa"t4 surfa"e/mount "onstru"tion is a *oon in dis$uise: *e"ause all of the "omponents and their pins are a""essi*le from the top of the *oard4 a dual/layer surfa"e/mount *oard "arries almost all of the Qtweaka*ility6 ad)anta$es of dead/*u$ or Manhattan "onstru"tion4 while surfa"e/mount "omponents tend to *e easier to pur"hase and sto"k due to industry standardi0ation. -on)ersely4 traditional ,FP Fpa"ka$es are fadin$ from the s"ene at a fri$htenin$ pa"e. Most modern !F F-s in"ludin$ ,,= and PEE parts are simply not a)aila*le in ,FPs.

Soldering E)en if this is your first surfa"e/mount pro5e"t4 you6ll find that assem*ly $oes smoothly with a few *asi" tools you may already own. 2 $rounded solderin$ iron with a "lean4 fine tip is a must4 and many "onstru"tors will find a li$hted ma$nifier helpful as well. Manipulatin$ the :;?&/ si0ed resistors and other smaller "omponents is )ery diffi"ult *y hand4 *ut a pair of "osmetolo$y/ $rade twee0ers su"h as the D D/7R !u*is model

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Bhttp://www.foli"a."om/remo)al/ru*isL"ostwe:D;.htmC makes the 5o* tri)ial. ,on6t settle for whate)er6s on sale for >:.HH at your lo"al dru$store < when you6re doin$ =M9 work4 a $ood pair of twee0ers is one of those tools you won6t want to li)e without. 9he !u*is twee0ers ha)e ra0or/ sharp tips that "an *e used to strai$hten pins on the smallest =M9 F- pa"ka$es4 as well as extra"t resistors from the tape strips they6re em*edded in. =olderin$ the ?.&mm F-s < in"ludin$ the I?/pin ,,= and the :&/pin PEE "hip // will likely *e the most dauntin$ part of the pro5e"t4 *ut it6s not as diffi"ult as you mi$ht expe"t. 9he se"ret1 2 roll of ordinary solder/wi"k B,i$i/Key 5?/7/;5/J,C. -lean the F- pads thorou$hly with isopropyl al"ohol prior to solderin$ < this $oes for the rest of the *oard4 too@ < followin$ up with a liquid flux pen B,i$iKey KE:I?D/J,C if desired. 2fter positionin$ and ali$nin$ ea"h "hip on the *oard4 ta"k a "ouple of its "orner pins into pla"e with the solderin$ iron. 8ood pin ali$nment on all sides is "riti"al4 so it6s important to keep the "hip from shiftin$ in pla"e durin$ solderin$. Jow4 dra$ the solderin$ iron tip lightly a"ross ea"h row of pins while feedin$ fine/$au$e solder to the point of "onta"t. 9ake "are not to apply enou$h for"e to *end any ad5a"ent pins to$ether < if this happens4 fine/point twee0ers or a dental pi"k will *e ne"essary to $et out of trou*le. Sou6ll find that this pro"ess una)oida*ly "reates numerous solder *rid$es alon$ ea"h row of F- pins. 9hat6s where the solder/wi"k "omes in: simply lay a strip a"ross the *rid$ed pins and apply the iron to it. 9he result4 *elie)e it or not4 will *e a row of "leanly/soldered4 un*rid$ed pins that6s almost indistin$uisha*le from a professional wa)e/ or reflow/solderin$ 5o*. ,on6t *e o)erly "on"erned a*out heat dama$e to the "hipsT use a hot BG5?FC iron and mo)e alon$ at a "omforta*le pa"e that $i)es the solder enou$h time to melt and flow around ea"h pin. #eat soak "aused *y usin$ a too/"old or dirty iron tip o)er the ex"essi)ely/lon$ period of time needed to make a $ood "onne"tion is a $reater threat to the "hip than momentary "onta"t with a hot iron. Most of the other "omponents4 in"ludin$ the =(F- F-s with their ?.?5?. pin spa"in$4 do not need any spe"ial solderin$ te"hniques. #owe)er4 it "an *e awkward to mount the resistors and "apa"itors due to the apparent need to use three hands to keep the part from mo)in$. Sou6ll find that there6s usually enou$h solder on the pads to ta"k one end into pla"e lon$ enou$h to

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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solder the other end properly. ,on6t for$et to return to the first pad and make the temporary "onne"tion permanent. 9he %-( should *e mounted with the dot or "ir"le on its "ase to the upper ri$ht4 towards -;:;. Jote that its pin rows are offset sli$htly. =older all :& pads4 a$ain usin$ a "lean4 hot iron to minimi0e heat soak. 8et it ri$ht the first time4 *e"ause the %-(4 like the ,,= "hip4 "annot *e remo)ed on"e soldered into pla"e@ =older will flow under the part4 out of the rea"h of solder/wi"k and into a pla"e where it "annot *e safely remelted without o)erheatin$ the %-( or dama$in$ the *oard. Pay "lose attention to the *ands on the ele"trolyti" "apa"itors and Oener diodes. 9he polarity *ands on the latter4 ,D?7 and ,D?&4 are diffi"ult to see "ompared to the lar$er :J7??; diodes used for re)erse/polarity prote"tion. Fdeally4 F7?:4 the "rystal filter4 would *e mounted with a spa"er to keep its pads from shortin$ a$ainst the *ottom of the filter6s "ase. =in"e no spa"er is pro)ided *y the manufa"turer4 you should lea)e a half/millimeter or so of "learan"e *etween the *ottom of the filter and the P-'. Finally4 use isopropyl al"ohol to "lean up any ex"ess flux remainin$ on the *oard after solderin$. 2 P/tip or sheet of opti"al/$rade paper tissue is helpful here.

0n"los,re and Shielding 9he *oard is desi$ned to fit into a #ammond :5H?'' "ast aluminum *ox. 2ppli"ations in whi"h the synthesi0er *oard is not en"losed in its own "hassis *ox may require extra shieldin$ to suppress !FF from the ,,= "hip. Female =M2 "onne"tors are pro)ided for the external "lo"k input and synthesi0er output si$nals. Power should *e deli)ered throu$h feedthrou$h "apa"itors4 with the external data "onne"tion left to the *uilder6s dis"retion4 dependin$ on what is dri)in$ the module. 2 ,'/;5 "onne"tor works well4 allowin$ initial testin$ with P-/*ased software )ia the printer port. 9a*le : des"ri*es the required "onne"tions *etween the *oard6s :?/pin F,"onne"tor and the P-/ or 2tmel 2%!/*ased "ontroller. 2 total of :? holes are pro)ided in the *oard for 7/7? or ;/5& s"rews. Ahen ti$htenin$ these s"rews < and the mountin$ nuts for the =M2 5a"ks // use "aution to a)oid warpin$ or

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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stressin$ the *oard ex"essi)ely. =pa"ers will *e needed *eneath ea"h s"rew hole sin"e the *ottom of a #ammond "hassis *ox is not perfe"tly flat. =M9 resistors and "apa"itors ha)e almost no toleran"e for physi"al stress4 and "omponents with "ra"ks too small to see with the naked eye "an *e diffi"ult to identify.

Po#er +ons,*-tion Power is applied to the *oard )ia J5?:4 a 7/pin header with separate pins for the %-(4 ,,=4 and PEE supplies. 3nder normal "ir"umstan"es4 pins ; and D should *e tied to$ether and "onne"ted to a "lean4 low/ripple K:5% ,- supply. Ahile pin ; requires less than :?? m24 the "urrent drain at pin D is influen"ed hea)ily *y the 2,HI5;6s "lo"k/multiplier settin$. 2ppli"ations whi"h use the su$$ested internal "lo"k rates of I?/:;? M#0 may need to supply as mu"h as 7?? m2 to pin D. 2lthou$h we ha)en6t en"ountered the phenomenon oursel)es4 a few 2,HI5;/2,HI57 users ha)e o*ser)ed in"idents in whi"h the "hip has initiali0ed itself in a state that "auses it to draw ex"essi)e "urrent when its reset pin BG:C is not asserted durin$ power/up. -onsequently4 we re"ommend addin$ a U/amp fuse to the power/supply "onne"tion at pin D in appli"ations that "annot $uarantee a lo$i" #F8# at ,,=!E=E9 Bpin ; of J5?:C at power/up time. Pin : should re"ei)e either K:5% or the maximum %-( tunin$ )olta$e required for the appli"ation4 whi"he)er is hi$her. -urrent drain at this pin is determined *y the "hoi"e of %-(4 and is typi"ally less than 5? m2. (n*oard re$ulation is pro)ided for all supplies4 *ut ex"essi)e input )olta$e at pin D should *e a)oided unless su*stantial heat/sinkin$ is pro)ided for 3D?7. ,on6t run the *oard e)en for a few moments without any heat sinkin$ at all at 3D?; and 3D?7@ Ft is normal for a fully/en"losed synthesi0er assem*ly to run quite warm to the tou"h4 espe"ially at the hi$her ,,= "lo"k rates.

2eferen"e +lo"k So,r"es 2""ordin$ to 2nalo$ ,e)i"es6 data sheet for the 2,HI5;4 the !EF-EK input pin a""epts either normal D.D% -M(= lo$i" le)els for square/wa)e dri)e4 or a :% p/p sine wa)e "entered

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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a*out :.&%. !:?; and !:?D esta*lish a :.&/)olt *ias point for the !EF-EK input and pro)ide !F termination for a :? M#0 sour"e with 5?/ohm output impedan"e4 with ,- *lo"kin$ *y -:?;. 9he :% p/p spe"ifi"ation "orresponds to approximately K7 d'm at J:?:. Fn pra"ti"e4 sine/wa)e "lo"k si$nals at J:?: from <:? d'm B;?? m% pk/pkC to K:? d'm B;% pk/pkC appear to work well4 with the ,,= "easin$ operation at <:5 d'm. Pads are pro)ided on the *oard for 3:?;4 an optional :? M#0 "lo"k module. Ahen 3:?; is installed4 !:?; and !:?D should *e in"reased from :?? to :4??? ohms4 omittin$ -:?; and J:?:. #owe)er4 a hi$h/quality o)eni0ed Bor at least temperature/"ompensatedC external referen"e sour"e is stron$ly re"ommended for most appli"ations. 2t : 8#04 a 5?/ppm "lo"k at 3:?; "ould put your si$nal 5? k#0 off frequen"y@

5est and 'e*onstration Soft#are

9he synthesi0er "an *e operated *y a P- runnin$ Aindows H54 HI4 or ME4 or *y an 2tmel mi"ro"ontroller. 9his unique "ross/platform "apa*ility is a "onsequen"e of our de"ision to use -KK to pro$ram the synthesi0er4 rather than %isual '2=F- or other proprietary lan$ua$es. Ahile -KK is a more "omplex lan$ua$e than %' or ,elphi4 it6s ne)ertheless possi*le to write hi$hly/reada*le4 porta*le "ode *y es"hewin$ the lan$ua$e6s more ar"ane features. -KK is supported *y a *road ran$e of "ompilers and de)elopment tools from many )endors. 9he Aindows )ersion of the "ontrol software is "ompiled with Mi"rosoft6s %isual -KK4 *ut the same "ode may also *e "ompiled for the 2tmel 29me$a:;I usin$ the popular // and free@ // 2%!/8-- pa"ka$e Bsee notes at end of article for Web address). Fn fa"t4 the 8-- "ompiler is a)aila*le on 5ust a*out e)ery platform under the sun in"ludin$ Aindows and Einux4 so e)en the Aindows "ontrol pro$ram "ould *e "ompiled under 8-- with little effort. Fnstru"tions for "ompilin$ *oth the Aindows M=%- and 2tmel 2%!/8-- )ersions are in"luded in the P!(JE-9.M2K makefile4 "ompati*le with "ommon M2KE utilities su"h as Mi"rosoft6s JM2KE. 9hese "ommands may also *e exe"uted *y themsel)es from a ,(= session or *at"h file.

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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P-/hosted de)elopment en)ironments "an *e handy for prototypin$ mi"ro"ontroller/ *ased pro5e"ts. Sou don6t ha)e to "ontinually pro$ram and repro$ram your mi"ro"ontroller to test new fun"tionality4 and de*u$$in$ fa"ilities offered *y pa"ka$es like %isual -KK are superior to anythin$ a)aila*le in the em*edded world. 3nfortunately4 Aindows J9/*ased operatin$ systems su"h as Aindows ;??? and Aindows P don6t normally permit dire"t a""ess to F/( ports from user/mode "ode4 so our P- "ontrol software doesn6t work on these platforms. BAhile workarounds do exist4 they6re *eyond the s"ope of this arti"leT "he"k http://www.$eekhideout."om/iodll.shtml for details.C

;indo#s +ontrol Progra* 9wo )ersions of the Aindows "ontrol pro$ram4 J=9E=9.E E and 2=9E=9.E E4 are pro)ided. 'oth are simple AinD; "onsole appli"ations intended to *e run from the ,(= "ommand line. Ff your synthesi0er uses the Jational =emi"ondu"tor EM ;D;& PEE "hip from Jational =emi"ondu"tor4 run J=9E=9 VnW4 where VnW spe"ifies the parallel port "onne"ted to the synthesi0er *oard. For synthesi0ers "onstru"ted with the 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,F7::; PEE "hip4 use 2=9E=9 VnW instead. 9he differen"es *etween the two "hips are not profound4 *ut they do require sli$htly/different "ontrol "ode. 'y default4 the "ontrol software expe"ts to talk to a synthesi0er *ased on the EM ;D;& or 2,F7::; "hip4 althou$h the underlyin$ =SJ9# "ontrol "lass also supports the EM ;D:& and EM ;D?& parts as well as any 2,F7::;/"ompati*le part in the 2,F7:: family. (n"e the pro$ram is up and runnin$4 it should resem*le the display in fi$ure &. =e)eral options are pro)ided to aid in testin$ and e)aluation of the synthesi0er. 9he Q!6 key will tune the synthesi0er to a random frequen"y *etween :??? and :I?? M#04 while the QE6 key will allow the user to spe"ify any desired frequen"y *etween :??? and ;??? M#0 Bwhi"h may *e entered dire"tly in hert0 or as a D/ or 7/di$it )alue to *e interpreted as an inte$ral multiple of : M#0C. 9he ?/I keys will de"rease the "urrent frequen"y *y :?n #0T holdin$ down =hift while typin$ ?/I will in"rease the "urrent frequen"y *y the same amount. 9he spa"e *ar will for"e the PEE and ,,=

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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"hips to *e repro$rammed from s"rat"h for the "urrent frequen"y4 whi"h "an *e helpful if power to the synthesi0er is interrupted while the pro$ram is runnin$. 'oth 2=9E=9.E E and J=9E=9.E E are *uilt from =9E=9.-PP4 whi"h "ontains se)eral "onfi$uration options a""essi*le only *y modifyin$ and re"ompilin$ the sour"e "ode. A1A/<=02>+(152(/4 whi"h defaults to ?4 "an *e set to : to ena*le the "ontrol pro$ram to tune a spe"trum analy0er alon$ with the synthesi0er. 9his will also add options to the menu to a"quire analy0er s"reenshots and exe"ute automated random spur/sear"hes4 two powerful features that were used to help de)elop and do"ument the pro5e"t. Ff you happen to ha)e a 9ektronix 7H?P/ or ;G5?P/series analy0er "onne"ted to your P- with a Jational Fnstruments 8PF' interfa"e4 $i)e the A1A/<=02>+(152(/ option a try@ ;A85> (2>/(+?4 whi"h defaults to :4 "auses the "ontrol software to wait for the PEE6s lo"k/dete"t line to $o a"ti)e after any "han$e in frequen"y. Ff the pro$ram displays a "ontinuous strin$ of periods after the frequen"y readin$4 it means that the loop is unlo"ked and trou*leshootin$ is ne"essary. !e"ompilin$ =9E=9.-PP with ;A85> (2>/(+? set to ? will "ause the pro$ram to i$nore the lo"k/dete"t line. (U5>M81, (U5>MA@, (U5>2A1'>MA@, and (U5>'0 AU/5 determine the minimum and maximum frequen"ies supported *y the QE6 keyT the maximum random frequen"y a)aila*le *y pressin$ Q!6T and the pro$ram6s default power/up frequen"y4 respe"ti)ely. 9hese may need to *e "han$ed if your synthesi0er uses a %-( other than the !(=/;:5?%A. ''S>+/(+?> 20A should *e set to the "lo"k frequen"y pro)ided at the ,,= "lo"k input 5a"k Bnormally :? M#0C4 while ''S>+01502> 20A should *e left at :?.G M#0 for use with the "rystal filter spe"ified. ''S>M81>MU/5 and ''S>MA@>MU/5 spe"ify the ran$e of possi*le ,,= "lo"k/multiplier "onstants4 defaultin$ to I and :; respe"ti)ely.

At*el A5*ega1&6 +ontrol Progra* 9he 29me$a:;I test pro$ram4 2%!=9E=9.-PP4 uses the same synthesi0er "ontrol "lass de"lared in =SJ9#.-PP as its P-/*ased "ounterpart. 9here the resem*lan"e ends4 howe)er: 2%!=9E=9 is a simple host pro$ram that displays a +lo$on. *anner on an !=/;D;

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terminal "onne"ted to the 29me$a:;I6s 32!9? port4 and waits for an in"omin$ F!P "ommand to pro$ram the synthesi0er to a $i)en frequen"y. 2s with the P- pro$ram4 the F!P VnW "ommand a""epts )alues dire"tly in hert0 with :/#0 pre"ision or D/ or 7/di$it )alues interpreted as inte$ral multiples of : M#0. 9he #yper9erminal pro$ram in"luded with most )ersions of Aindows offers an easy way to "ommuni"ate with 2%!=9E=9 BFi$ure GC. 2%!=9E=9 assumes the 29me$a:;I "hip is "lo"ked at :&.? M#0. 9erminal settin$s should *e DI47?? *ps4 no parity *its4 I data *its4 and : stop *it. (ther 2tmel 2%! pro"essors are "andidates for "ontrollin$ the synthesi0er4 althou$h not all offer the speed and "omprehensi)e F/( "apa*ilities of the 29me$a:;I. Pro$rammin$ and "onstru"tion details for the 2%! family are *eyond the s"ope of this arti"le4 *ut there are "ountless online resour"es that dis"uss part sele"tion4 support/"ir"uit desi$n4 prototypin$4 and pro$rammin$ for the 2tmel "ontrollers4 and the reader is en"oura$ed to wade in with *oth feet. (ne ex"ellent site is http://www.a)rfreaks.net/4 whi"h ena*led the author to "lim* the 2%! learnin$ "ur)e in only a few days with no prior mi"ro"ontroller experien"e.

5he S<15H +ontrol +lass

=SJ9#.-PP "ontains all of the fun"tionality needed to pro$ram the hy*rid synthesi0er. 2lthou$h the =SJ9# "lass was desi$ned to *e easily understood and reused4 we6ll examine it here in some detail for the *enefit of readers who may not *e familiar with the -KK lan$ua$e.

+reating and 8nitializing a S<15H (b%e"t 9o use =SJ9#.-PP in your appli"ation4 simply add it to your pro5e"t6s existin$ AinD; or 2tmel -KK "ode with the Xin"lude dire"ti)e. For ea"h synthesi0er module you wish to "ontrol4 you6ll need to de"lare an o*5e"t instan"e of type S<15H4 passin$ )arious parameters to its -KK "onstru"tor:
SYNTH::SYNTH (SYNTH_PORT control_port, PLL_CHIPTYPE chip_type,

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

S64 S#$ S#$ S' S' min_o tp t_!re" ency, %%S_center_!re" ency, %%S_cloc&_!re" ency, %%S_min_cloc&_m ltiplier, %%S_m()_cloc&_m ltiplier*

Page 16 of 47

(n the 2tmel platform4 "ontrol>-ort is a )alue of type S<15H>P(25 BS<15H>P(25>A throu$h S<15H>P(25>'C that spe"ifies whi"h of four possi*le 2tmel F/( ports is "onne"ted to the synthesi0er hardware. (n a Aindows P-4 "ontrol>-ort is the inte$er F/( address of the desired P- parallel port4 typi"ally ?x;GI4 ?xDGI4 or ?xD'-. B9he P- test pro$ram =9E=9.-PP determines the F/( address of the spe"ified parallel port *y readin$ the system6s 'F(= data area4 another Qle$a"y6 te"hnique not supported *y J9/*ased )ersions of Aindows.C "hi->ty-e is a )alue of type P//>+H8P5<P0 whi"h "orresponds to the PEE "hip used *y the synthesi0er *oard. /M@&):4 spe"ifies the Jational =emi"ondu"tor EM ;D?&4 /M@&)@4

spe"ifies the EM ;D:& or EM ;D;&4 and A' 411@ is used to "ommuni"ate with the 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,F7::?4 2,F7:::4 2,F7::;4 or 2,F7::D. *in>o,t-,t>fre7,en"y and ''S>"enter>fre7,en"y are the synthesi0er6s minimum supported output frequen"y and the post/,,= "rystal filter6s "enter frequen"y in #04 respe"ti)ely. 9hese )alues help determine how the synthesi0er fills in the $aps *etween PEE multiplier settin$s with the finely/tuna*le ,,= referen"e. ''S>"lo"k>fre7,en"y spe"ifies the frequen"y of the "lo"k si$nal fed to the 2,HI5; in hert04 while ''S>*in>"lo"k>*,lti-lier and ''S>*aB>"lo"k>*,lti-lier spe"ify the the permissi*le ran$e of ,,= "lo"k/multiplier settin$s. (peratin$ the synthesi0er with ''S>"lo"k>fre7,en"y M ''S>*aB>"lo"k>*,lti-lier produ"ts $reater than :;? M#0 is not re"ommended4 sin"e hi$her "lo"k rates in"rease "urrent "onsumption without offerin$ any si$nifi"ant impro)ement in spe"tral purity. Fnternal "lo"k rates $reater than ;?? M#0 may "ause dama$e to the ,,= "hip itself. 'elow is an example of how to "reate a S<15H o*5e"t4 taken from the 2tmel test pro$ram 2%!=9E=9.-PP:

SYNTH +ynth(SYNTH_PORT_,, -- .+e ,/R port , ,%04112, -- T(l& to ,n(lo3 %e4ice+ ,%0411$ chip

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

567777777, 17677777, 17777777, ', 1$*? ------

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8inim m !re" ency 567 8H9 !or ROS:$1;7/< %%S center !re" ency = 17>6 8H9 %%S cloc& inp t = 17 8H9 8inim m %%S cloc& m ltiplier = '2 8()im m %%S cloc& m ltiplier = 1$2

Using a S<15H (b%e"t (n"e you6)e "reated a S<15H o*5e"t4 you "an set the synthesi0er6s output frequen"y with the S<15H::set>fre7,en"yCD fun"tion and "he"k for phase/lo"k a"quisition with the S<15H::lo"kedCD fun"tion. 9he S<15H::set>fre7,en"yCD fun"tion has the followin$ -KK prototype:

4oi@ SYNTH::+et_!re" ency(.64 hert9*

9he hertz parameter is an unsi$ned &7/*it inte$er )alue that spe"ifies the desired output frequen"y in hert0. 2fter tunin$ the synthesi0er4 you "an "all the S<15H::lo"kedCD fun"tion to determine when the loop has lo"ked at the new frequen"y:

AOOL SYNTH::loc&e@(4oi@*

,ependin$ on the loop *andwidth4 S<15H::lo"kedCD will return 9!3E within se)eral millise"onds of a "all to S<15H::set>fre7,en"yCD. 'elow is a small "ode example showin$ how to tune the synthesi0er o*5e"t "reated a*o)e to a $i)en frequen"y and wait for the "ommand to su""eed:
+ynth>+et_!re" ency(1$56771;6;*? -- T ne to 1$56>771;6; 8H9 Bhile (C+ynth>loc&e@(**? -- <(it !or ph(+e:loc&

Synthesizer Progra**ing 8n 'etail

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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Sou "an "reate and use S<15H o*5e"ts in your own -KK "ode without knowin$ anythin$ a*out pro$rammin$ the synthesi0er hardware. For the "urious4 howe)er4 here are a few of the te"hni"al details underlyin$ the S<15H "lass. =SJ9#.-PP is hea)ily/"ommented4 *ut it does ha)e aspe"ts that may not *e readily apparent.

Pre"al",lation of ''S and +o*-arison3 re7,en"y +onstants 9he S<15H "onstru"tor6s first task is to "ompute and store the 2 Breferen"eC modulus for the PEE "hip *ased on the ''S>"enter>fre7,en"y parameter. 2 determines the relationship *etween the :?.G M#0 referen"e frequen"y from the ,,= and the a"tual PEE "omparison frequen"y B "o*-C where the phase dete"tor operates. 2t referen"e frequen"ies under :& M#0 an 2 modulus of :: is sele"ted4 yieldin$ "o*- YZ HGD k#0 for the standard :?.G M#0 referen"e. #i$her referen"e frequen"ies4 su"h as would *e asso"iated with a ;:.7 M#0 "rystal filter4 are di)ided *y D;. (n"e 2 is known4 the followin$ equation yields the required tunin$ ran$e of the ,,= synthesi0er:

%%S_center_!re" ency %%SA< =

min_o tp t_!re" ency D R

For example4 the :?.G/M#0 ,,= referen"e in a :??? / ;??? M#0 synthesi0er will need to *e tuned a"ross a ran$e approximately :?.7 k#0 wide to "o)er the $aps *etween ad5a"ent PEE 1 fa"tors. 9his is a $ood mat"h for the :5 k#0 *andwidth of the E-=/:?.G/:5' "rystal filter. Ft "an *e seen that hi$her ,,= frequen"ies require *roader "rystal filters4 leadin$ to impaired spur performan"e. 2fter "al"ulatin$ the ,,= tunin$ ran$e4 the minimum and maximum possi*le "omparison frequen"ies are o*tained *y

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%%S_center_!re" ency E (%%SA< - $* 0compmin,m() = R

"o*-*in is stored with the S<15H o*5e"t and used later *y S<15H::set>fre7,en"yCD to determine the PEE6s o)erall 1 di)ision fa"tor for the requested frequen"y. Jeedless to say4 performin$ the "o*-*in "al"ulation when the S<15H o*5e"t is "reated rather than e)ery time S<15H::set>fre7,en"yCD is "alled sa)es quite a *it of pro"essin$ time@

Pres"aler Mod,l,s Sele"tion Most modern PEE "hips4 in"ludin$ those used *y the synthesi0er4 "ontain dual/modulus pres"alers that di)ide the sampled %-( si$nal prior to applyin$ it to the 2 and ' "ounters that perform the loop6s di)ide/*y/1 fun"tion. 'e"ause of the way these three "ounters // A4 E4 and P // intera"t4 the dual pres"aler fa"tors P and PF1 determine the minimum o)erall 1 )alue the "hip "an supportI a""ordin$ to the equation 1*in G P&3PH 9he Jational =emi"ondu"tor "hips ha)e fixed pres"aler "onstants that the software must look up *ased on the "hi->ty-e parameter. 9he EM ;D?&4 intended for lower/frequen"y use throu$h 55? M#04 offers a relati)ely/small P fa"tor of I/H "orrespondin$ to 1*in Z 5& . 9he hi$her/ frequen"y EM ;D:& and EM ;D;& parts use P "onstants of D;/DD4 so their minimum 1 fa"tor is su*stantially hi$her B1*in Z HH;C. Jote that when "o*-*aB Z HGD k#0 as determined a*o)e4 the EM ;D:&/;& parts are in"apa*le of operation *elow H&5 M#0 BHGD k#0 M HH;C@ 9o use the EM ;D:&/;& parts at lower frequen"ies4 the 2 modulus "al"ulation will need to *e modified to yield a lower "o*-*aB4 possi*ly de$radin$ phase/dete"tor performan"e in the pro"ess. 9he 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,F7:: "hips offer a more flexi*le alternati)e *y supportin$ pro$ramma*le P fa"tors from I/H to &7/&5. Ahen "hi->ty-e is set to A' 411@4 the S<15H "onstru"tor "al"ulates 1*in *ased on "o*-*aB and the spe"ified *in>o,t-,t>fre7,en"y, and sele"ts the lar$est P fa"tor that will satisfy the 1 IG P&3P relation.

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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P// 8nitialization (n"e the P and 2 modulus )alues ha)e *een determined4 the PEE "hip is ready for initiali0ation. 2$ain4 this is done only on"e when the S<15H o*5e"t is "onstru"ted4 rather than e)ery time a new output frequen"y is requested. 9he "hip6s di$ital lo"k/dete"tion feature is also ena*led at this point. 9he initiali0ation pro"edure is sli$htly different for the Jational and 2nalo$ parts4 due to the latter6s pro$ramma*le pres"aler and "har$e/pump "urrent "ontrol features.

''S 8nitialization Finally4 the S<15H "onstru"tor must reset and initiali0e the 2,HI5; ,,=. 9his step has *een a sour"e of "onfusion to many 2,HI5; users4 *e"ause the "hip powers up in a mode that "auses its internal re$isters to update themsel)es periodi"ally whether the initiali0ation data has *een "ompletely transmitted or not@ (ur approa"h is to initiali0e the ,,= "hip twi"e with identi"al "ommand words4 turnin$ off the auto/update feature and settin$ the minimum "lo"k/multiplier fa"tor *y default. Portions of the "hip that are unused *y the synthesi0er are turned off to sa)e power4 in"ludin$ the se"ondary or quadrature ,2- and internal "omparator Bwhi"h is repla"ed *y the E9:?:& in our "ir"uit due to its superior sensiti)ity and output le)elC. E)en if the first initiali0ation attempt is in"omplete due to an asyn"hronous re$ister update4 the se"ond attempt will ensure that the entire initiali0ation "ommand is lat"hed manually at the proper time.

S<15H::set>fre7,en"yCD Ahen the synthesi0er is tuned to a new frequen"y4 the S<15H::set>fre7,en"yCD fun"tion first "al"ulates the PEE6s o)erall 1 di)ision fa"tor *y di)idin$ the output frequen"y *y the pre)iously/"al"ulated "o*-*in. 9he required ,,= referen"e frequen"y ' is then $i)en simply *y

% = 0o

D R - N

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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'e"ause the ' )alue is "omputed in 5&.I fixed/point format4 the ,,= referen"e frequen"y "an *e set with :/;5& #0 pre"ision4 "orrespondin$ to tunin$ steps rou$hly ?.GD #0 wide at a ; 8#0 output frequen"y. B2 G& 8#0 ri$ "an *e tuned in D? #0 steps with this de$ree of "ontrol // so $i)en the wide a)aila*ility of V :/pp* "rystal4 8P=4 and ru*idium standards on e'ay4 there6s no ex"use for not knowin$ where you are@C Jext4 the PEE6s A and E "ounters are pro$rammed with the "al"ulated 1 )alue4 and a series of assertBC statements ensure that the resultin$ )alues make sense for the PEE "hip type. 2ttemptin$ to tune to an out/of/ran$e frequen"y will yield a fatal error in the Aindows test pro$ram. Phase "ontinuity durin$ most in"remental tunin$ operations is ensured *y skippin$ the PEE pro$rammin$ step if the 1 )alue has not "han$ed sin"e the last "all to S<15H::set>fre7,en"yCD. 9his way4 the synthesi0er "an *e tuned smoothly with a rotary en"oder without $eneratin$ "li"ks or other o*5e"tiona*le artifa"ts in re"ei)ed audio. 9he 2,HI5; is pro$rammed to $enerate the referen"e frequen"y ' in two steps. First4 the "lo"k multiplier +M is "hosen a""ordin$ to the al$orithm des"ri*ed in +Fntermodulation Effe"ts. a*o)e. 'e"ause a "han$e to the "lo"k multiplier reinitiali0es the ,,= "hip4 requirin$ extra pro"essin$ time and *reakin$ phase "ontinuity4 the "lo"k multiplier is not repro$rammed if the pre)ious +M )alue is still optimal for the new output frequen"y. 2fter the "lo"k/multiplier "al"ulation step4 the quotient of the ' )alue and C''S>"lo"k>fre7,en"y J +MD is written to the ,,= phase/in"rement re$ister at D&/*it pre"ision4 and the loop *e$ins its phase/lo"kin$ pro"ess.

S<15H::lo"kedCD 9he S<15H::lo"kedCD fun"tion returns the lo$i" le)el at pin :7 of the PEE "hip. 9his is a di$ital lo"k/dete"tion output that $oes hi$h after the dete"ted phase error remains *elow a predetermined minimum for a period of fi)e "y"les of
"o*-

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer S"he*ati" 1otes

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Po#er S,--ly C ig,re 6D ,D?& determines the )olta$e supplied to the %-( module4 minus the )olta$e drop a"ross the series pass transistor of approximately ?.&%. =ee the Parts Eist for re"ommended ,D?& part num*ers for 5% and :;% %-(s.

P// and V+( C ig,re 9D Eoop/filter "omponents -;:;4 -;:D4 -;:&4 !;?I4 and !;?H are determined a""ordin$ to the equations from the 'aner5ee referen"e Bsee side*arC. Ff an 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,F7::?4 2,F7:::4 2,F7::;4 or 2,F7::D is sele"ted for 3;?:4 !;:G must *e installed *etween pin : and $round to *ias the "hip6s internal "har$e/pump "urrent sour"e. 'oards assem*led with the Jational =emi"ondu"tor EM ;D?&4 EM ;D:&4 or EM ;D;& should omit !;:G. -;D? is in"luded to dis"oura$e any tenden"y on the PEE "hip6s part to lo"k to %-( harmoni"s. ,urin$ testin$4 the !(=/;:5?%A %-(6s se"ond/harmoni" le)el was o*ser)ed to in"rease *y as mu"h as ;/D d' relati)e to a : 8#0 fundamental at temperatures "lose to ? de$rees F4 "ausin$ o""asional lo"k failures when the *oard was initially powered up *elow room temperature. 2 :/pF "apa"itor *etween the differential FFJ pins pre)ented this symptom from o""urrin$. E)en/lar$er shunt "apa"itor )alues may *e ne"essary with other %-(s4 espe"ially when the synthesi0er is operated well *elow the upper frequen"y limit of the PEE "hip. =imilarly4 when workin$ with other %-(s4 the di)ider network "onsistin$ of !;:?/!;:; and !;:I may need to *e ad5usted to keep the sampled %-( si$nal at pin & of 3;?: within the manufa"turer6s re"ommended ? to /:? d'm ran$e.

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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''S and +lo"k C ig,re 1:D Pro)ision is made for an internal "lo"k module to *e installed at 3:?;4 althou$h hi$her/ quality external "lo"k sour"es are re"ommended. Ff an on*oard "lo"k sour"e is installed4 the "omponents asso"iated with the external/"lo"k input B!:?;4 !:?D4 -:?;4 J:?:C should *e omitted. 3:?: may *e either an 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,HI5;2=9 or 2,HI572=9. 9he 2,HI57 supports the $eneration of in/phase and quadrature si$nals // a feature not used *y the synthesi0er // *ut is otherwise identi"al to the 2,HI5;. 9he /2=9 suffix refers to the family of parts desi$ned for a maximum internal "lo"k rate of ;?? M#0. Ahile the more/expensi)e /2=P part supports "lo"k rates up to D?? M#04 its "ondu"ti)e *ottom surfa"e must *e reflow/soldered to the P-' to dissipate enou$h heat for operation *eyond ;?? M#0.

Post3''S iltering C ig,re 11D F7?: is desi$ned to *e terminated with D4??? ohms for minimum pass*and ripple4 *ut it works well in this non/"riti"al appli"ation with D&:: *road*and transformers and a 5?/ohm resisti)e termination at 37?:. 9he low/pass filter "onsistin$ of E7?;4 E7?D4 and -7?D/7?5 helps re5e"t ,,= ima$e si$nals at hi$her frequen"ies where F7?:6s parasiti" elements de$rade its attenuation.

'igital +ontrol 8nterfa"e C ig,re 1&D !5?: and !5?G/5?H help prote"t 3;?: from E=, and transients4 while the di)iders formed *y !5?:/5?& and !5:?/5:7 allow 5% lo$i" families to dri)e the D.D% ,,= "hip B3:?:C6s data lines safely. 9a*le : details the "onne"tions *etween J5?: and the F'M P- parallel port or 2tmel 2%! mi"ropro"essor used to "ontrol the synthesi0er. 2nalo$ ,e)i"es re"ommends that the ,,=!E=E9 line BJ5?: pin ;C *e asserted #F8# durin$ power/up initiali0ation. Ahen usin$ the P- parallel port4 it6s a $ood idea to in"lude a U/

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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amp fuse in the power/supply line to JD?: pin D to prote"t the "hip a$ainst in)alid initiali0ation states.

+o*-lete Parts /ist 8n"l,ding 'igi3?ey, Mini3+ir",its, and Analog 'e$i"es Part 1,*bers

!:?:: :.DK ohms BP:.DKE-9/J,C !:?;4 :?D: :?? ohms BP:??E-9/J,C B5?/ohm external "lo"k input onlyC !:?;4 :?D: :K ohms BP:.?KE-9/J,C BFnternal "lo"k sour"e onlyC !7?D: :K ohms BP:.?KE-9/J,C !:?7: D.HK ohms BPD.HKE-9/J,C !:?5/:?I4 ;:;: 5: ohms BP5:E-9/J,C !;?:/;?D: :I ohms BP:IE-9/J,C !;?&4 ;?G4 5:?/5:7: :?K ohms BP:?KE-9/J,C !;:?4 ;::4 ;:I: ;; ohms BP;;E-9/J,C !;:D/;:&: 7G? ohms BP7G?E-9/J,C !;:G: 7.GK ohms BP7.GKE-9/J,C B2,F7::; PEE "hip onlyT omit for EM ;D;&C !D?:4 D?D: 7.GK ohms BP7.GKE-9/J,C !7?:4 7?;4 5?:4 5?G/5?H4 :?H/::;: :?? ohms BP:??E-9/J,C !5?;/5?&: D.DK ohms BPD.DKE-9/J,C -:?:4 :?D4 ;?G4 ;?I4 ;?H4 7?:: ?.?: uF/5?% "erami" BDHH/:;D7/:/J,C -:?;4 :?74 :?&4 ;?;4 ;?74 ;?54 ;::4 ;:54 ;:H4 ;;74 ;;&4 D?H4 D::4 D:;4 D:54 D:G4 D:I4 7?G4 7?I: ?.: uF/5?% "erami" BP--:?7'-9/J,C -;?:4 ;?D4 ;?&4 ;:?4 ;:G4 ;;?: :?? pF/5?% "erami" BDHH/:;?5/:/J,C -;:74 D;:: 7G uF/D5% ele"trolyti" BP-ED;I?-9/J,C -;:I4 ;;I4 D?;4 D?74 D?G4 D?I4 D:D4 D:74 7?H: :? uF/:&% tantalum BDHH/:5H5/:/J,C -;;:/;;D4 ;;54 7?&: ?.??: uF/5?% "erami" BD::/::G?/:/J,C

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

-;D?: : pF/5?% "erami" Bsee textC BDHH/::GI/:/J,C -D?:4 D:H4 D;?4 D;;: :? uF/D5% ele"trolyti" BP-ED7:D-9/J,C -7?D4 7?5: ;G? pF/5?% JP( "erami" BDHH/:;?H/:/J,C -7?7: 7G? pF/5?% JP( "erami" BDHH/:;:D/:/J,C ,D?:/D?D: :J7??; B,E7??;,F-9/J,C ,D?7: 5.&% 5?? mA Oener B'O95;-5%&/G,F-9/J,C ,D?&: 5.&% 5?? mA Oener B5% %-(s onlyC B'O95;-5%&/G,F-9/J,C ,D?&: :;% 5?? mA Oener B:;% %-(s onlyC B'O95;-:;/G,F-9/J,C

Page &7 of 47

F7?:: E-=/:?.G/:5' monolithi" "rystal filter4 K// G.5 k#0 *andwidth4 ;5 k#0 stop*and B G?7/J,C J:?:4 ;?:: =M2 female *ulkhead 5a"k BJ5&H/J,C JD?:: 7/position strai$ht header B2:H:;/J,C J5?:: :?/position shrouded header BM#':?K/J,C E7?;47?D: ?.H: u# !F "hoke B,J:?:5-9/J,C E;?:4 ;?;4 ;?7/;?G4 D?:4 7?7: DD u# ::5 m2 !F "hoke B9K=;&DI-9/J,C E;?D: Mini/-ir"uits 2,-#/I?2 PD?:4 D?D: ;=-:I7G B;=-:I7G?P/J,C 97?:4 7?;: Mini/-ir"uits 9D&/:/KKI: D&:: !F transformer 3:?:: 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,HI5;2=9 ,,= synthesi0er 3:?;: E-=/DH5DM :? M#0 os"illator module for internal/"lo"k option B -;II-9/J,C 3;?:: 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,F7::;'!3 D.? 8#0 !F PEE frequen"y synthesi0er 3;?:: Jational =emi"ondu"tor EM ;D;&9M ;.I 8#0 !F PEE frequen"y synthesi0er BEM ;D;&9M/J,C 3;?;: 'urr/'rown (P2;G low/noise operational amplifier B(P2;G83/J,C 3;?D: Mini/-ir"uits !(=/;:5?%A :/; 8#0 %-( 3;?7: Mini/-ir"uits 82EF/5 monolithi" amplifier 3D?:4 D?;: Einear 9e"hnolo$y E9:?I&/D.D )olta$e re$ulator BE9:?I&-9/D.D/J,C 3D?7: GI:; )olta$e re$ulator BJJMGI:;F2/J,C 37?:: Einear 9e"hnolo$y E9:?:& pre"ision "omparator BE9:?:&-=I/J,C

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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Mis"ellaneo,s hard#are and o-tional -arts

#ammond :5H?'' aluminum en"losure B#M:5;/J,C 9(/;;? mountin$ kits for 3D?:4 3D?; B7G;7K/J,C :?/position F,- so"ket for J5?: BMK-:?2/J,C :?/position ri**on "a*le BM-:?8/5/J,

/oo- filter "o*-onents C2(S3&1.:V; V+(, &H. kHz loo- band#idthD:

!;?I: :5? ohms BP:5?E-9/J,C !;?H: I; ohms BPI;E-9/J,C -;:;: : uF/D5% tantalum BP-=&:?5-9/J,C -;:D: ?.: uF/5?% "erami" BP--:?7'-9/J,C -;:&: ?.: uF/5?% "erami" BP--:?7'-9/J,C

P+ Eoards

,ual/layer P- *oards with plated )ias4 solder mask4 and "omponent markin$s are a)aila*le from John Miles4 KE5F B5miles[pop.netC for 3= >;5.?? postpaid. -ash4 "he"ks4 and PayPal are a""epted.

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer Posts"ri-t: +ollaborati$e 'esign in the 8nternet Age

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9his *oard was desi$ned entirely )ia email // the two authors ha)e ne)er met@ !i"hard4 %K&'!( was "oura$eous enou$h to de)ote su*stantial personal la*or to the pro5e"t si$ht/ unseen4 fashionin$ the s"hemati"s and P- *oard layout from a few )a$ue senten"es from John4 KE5F B+Pin :? $oes to pin :54 with a DD u# !F "hoke to the supply *us..C ,espite the H4??? miles that separated our P9#s4 the desi$n pro"ess "ould s"ar"ely ha)e *een easier with two en$ineers in ad5a"ent "u*i"les. (ur synthesi0er *oards ha)e under$one su*stantial testin$ o)er the past year4 and we6re *oth ea$er to hear the experien"es of others who6)e dupli"ated our work or impro)ed upon it. 2dditional thanks $o to Kathy =ten$er for her draftin$ assistan"e.

2eferen"es
:. P32E-(MM Fn".4 +#y*rid PEE/,,= Frequen"y =ynthesi0ers4. 2J;DD7/7 B-EI?/D75H/ :2C4 Mar"h :HH; ;. 3.=. Patent Jo. 74H&545DD Direct Digital Synthesi#er Driven Phase Loc$ Loop %re&uency Synthesi#er4 P32E-(MM4 Fn". D. 3.=. Patent Jo. 54?;I4IIG Direct Digital Synthesi#er Driven Phase Loc$ Loop %re&uency Synthesi#er with "ard Limiter 4 P32E-(MM4 Fn". 7. 3. E. !ohde ,J;E! / K2;AE34 +2 #i$h Performan"e #y*rid =ynthesi0er4. 'S(4 Mar"h :HH54 pp D?/DI 5. !ohde4 !icrowave and )ireless Synthesi#ers* (heory and Design BJew Sork: John Ailey and =ons4 F='J ?7G:5;?:H54 :HHGC4 pp 7IH/5?7 &. -. ,rentea KAG-,4 +'eyond Fra"tional J4. PE 4 Mar"h/2pril ;??: pp :I/;5 and May/June ;??: pp D/H G. ,. 'aner5ee4 PLL Performance, Simulation, and Design, +nd ,dition BJational =emi"ondu"tor -orporation4 F='J ?HG?I;?G?74 ;??:C4 pp. :?5/::D I. 'aner5ee4 p. :&?

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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H. !. Aitte4 Spectrum and -etwor$ !easurements BJor"ross4 8eor$ia: Jo*le Pu*lishin$4 F='J :II7HD;:&H4 ;??:C4 pp :7G/:7I

Soft#are and S,--le*entary iles

http://www.qsl.net/ke5fx/synth.html

'ata Sheets and (ther (nline 2eso,r"es

2,HI5;: http://produ"ts.analo$."om/produ"ts/info.asp1produ"tZ2,HI5; EM ;D?&/:&/;&: http://www.national."om/pf/EM/EM ;D;&.html 2,F7::?/::/:;/:D: http://produ"ts.analo$."om/produ"ts/info.asp1produ"tZ2,F7::; 82EF/5: http://www.mini"ir"uits."om/"$i/*in/spe"1"atZamplifier\modelZ82EF/5 2,-#I?2: http://www.mini"ir"uits."om/d$?D/;7;.pdf E9:?:&: http://www.linear."om/prod/datasheet.html1datasheetZ:5G (P2;G: http://fo"us.ti."om/do"s/prod/folders/print/opa;G.html !(=/;:5?%A: http://www.mini"ir"uits."om/"$i/*in/spe"1"atZ)"o\modelZ!(=/;:5?%A Jational =emi"ondu"tor6s AE'EJ-# Ban ex"ellent online PEE modellin$ pro$ramC http://wireless.national."om/ 2nalo$ ,e)i"es 2,FsimPEE %ersion ;.? http://forms.analo$."om/FormLPa$es/!F-omms/2,FsimPEE.asp Mini/-ir"uits appli"ation notes for %-(s and other "omponents http://www.mini"ir"uits."om/appli"ation.html 2%!/8-- B-KK "ompiler for 2tmel mi"ro"ontrollersC http://www.a)rfreaks.net/2%!8--/

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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A--endiB CSidebarD 1: S-e"tral 1oise Meas,re*ent

=pur and noise amplitudes are expressed relati)e to a desired "arrier si$nal. 2 spur at < I? d'" has an amplitude I? d' *elow that of the "arrier. 3nlike -A spur si$nal power4 thou$h4 noise power is proportional to the square of the *andwidth o)er whi"h it is measuredT noise le)els measured *y a re"ei)er with a :/k#0 FF filter "annot *e dire"tly "ompared to le)els measured with a :??/#0 filter. =o noise power is usually expressed in units of d.c/"#4 i.e.4 d' *elow the "arrier amplitude4 normali0ed to a *andwidth of : #0. Ahen usin$ a spe"trum analy0er to measure "omposite noise4 its resolution *andwidth settin$ Bwhi"h "orresponds to the FF filter *andwidth in a traditional re"ei)erC "an ran$e from : #0 to : M#0 or more. 2s a first approximation4 the noise le)el o*ser)ed on a re"ei)er or spe"trum analy0er at a $i)en *andwidth "an *e normali0ed to : #0 *y su*tra"tin$ 1: J log1:CE;D. #owe)er4 this isn6t the whole story. 9he shape fa"tor of a filter affe"ts its noise e&uivalent bandwidth4 whi"h is another way of sayin$ that a filter6s D/d' points measured or modelled with a -A si$nal may not a""urately refle"t its response to *road*and noise. 2 spe"trum/analy0er filter desi$ned with a $radual slope to redu"e rin$in$ and distortion durin$ fast sweeps may exhi*it a noise equi)alent *andwidth su*stantially wider than its spe"ifi"ations su$$est. Finally4 the lo$arithmi" amplifier and )ideo dete"tor sta$es may also introdu"e errors in the analy0er6s apparent response to noise. For these reasons4 most traditional Bnon/FF9/*asedC spe"trum analy0ers require a "orre"tion fa"tor of K; to K;.5 d' to *e added to normali0ed noise powers.H Many newer analy0ers in"lude a +noise normali0ation. feature that "omputes the lo$B'AC and assorted "orre"tion fa"tors automati"ally. 9he 9ektronix 7H72P used to "apture the spe"tral/ purity $raphs in this arti"le displays normali0ed noise )alues in d'm/#04 so all of the $raphs were re"orded with a <:& d'm offset )alue to "ompensate for the K:& d'm amplitude of the : 8#0 "arrier *ein$ measured.

Miles, Hosking: A Versatile Hybrid Synthesizer

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A--endiB CSidebarD &: /oo- ilter +o*-onent Sele"tion

Ahen "hoosin$ a parti"ular %-( or loop *andwidth for your synthesi0er4 it will *e ne"essary to re"al"ulate the loop/filter "omponent )alues. 9his is a step/*y/step pro"ess that *e$ins with a few key loop parameters.

?$"o is the %-(6s tunin$/port sensiti)ity fi$ure in #0/)olt. 9his may )ary *y a fa"tor of ;:: or more o)er the %-(6s tunin$ ran$eT )ara"tor/tuned %-(s are less sensiti)e at the upper end of their ran$e. Fn our "al"ulations with the !(=/;:5?%A we use its ?$"o fi$ure at :??? M#0 BG? M#0/)oltC4 *ut loop performan"e "an *e further optimi0ed *y lookin$ up < or experimentally measurin$ // ?$"o at the frequen"y of interest.

?-fd is the phase dete"tor6s "urrent $ain in amperes per ; radians of phase error. ?-fd is not well/"hara"teri0ed *y many manufa"turersT some spe"ify it in m2 per radian4 while others ne$le"t to mention whether or not it6s dependent on the PEE "hip6s supply )olta$e. 2nalo$ ,e)i"es employs a "onstant/)olta$e sour"e with an external resistor to esta*lish their "hips6 maximum ?-fd fi$ure4 while the EM ;D;&6s fi$ure is : m2 for a D% supply and + is about 25% more when operating at 5 Volts versus 3 volts and varies with voltage in a linear fashion, according to the online help at National Semiconductors WEBBENCH page (see notes at end of article for Web address). For our example, well select a programmed value of 1.88 mA for the ADF4112.

o,t

is the output frequen"y in #0. For synthesi0ers with wide tunin$ ran$es4 we take the

$eometri" mean Bthe square root of the produ"tC of its maximum and minimum frequen"ies. 9o "o)er :??? to ;??? M#04 for example4
o,t

would *e :7:7 M#0.

"o*-

is the "omparison frequen"y in #0. Ae assume the ,,= referen"e is "entered at

"o*-

:?.G M#04 and "hoose an 2 di)isor of :: to yield

Z HGD k#0.

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is the loop *andwidth in #0. Ae6ll use ;5?? #0 in our example "al"ulation4 sin"e this

yields readily/a)aila*le "omponent )alues and results in fast lo"k times without de$radin$ the %-(6s noise performan"e.

F is the desired phase mar$in4 typi"ally *etween 7? and 55 de$rees. 7I de$rees is a $ood "ompromise *etween minimal spe"tral +shoulders. and lo"k time.

5)1 is the ratio of the time "onstants of poles 9D B!;?H4 -;:&C and 9: B!;?I4 -;:;4 and -;:DC in the a"ti)e/filter topolo$y we6)e sele"ted. 'aner5ee6s su$$ested G 5)1 "onstant of ?.5 is used.

+) is the "apa"itor )alue in farads at the final pole *efore the %-(4 -;:& in our "ase. %alues of a few hundred pF are "ommon4 *ut these lead to lar$e Bread: noisyC series resistor )alues. Fn the author6s experien"e4 as lon$ as the op/amp is sta*le dri)in$ a "apa"iti)e load4 relati)ely/lar$e +) )alues ha)e the *enefit of keepin$ wide*and noise from the rest of the loop out of the %-(. 9he (P2;G used in our loop works well with -;:& Z ?.: uF.

First4 the phase mar$in and loop *andwidth are "on)ered to radian/*ased notation:

F = F D $ D G - #67>7 Hc = $ D G D !c

9he time "onstants of the three filter poles "an then *e determined:

T1 = (((1>7 - co+(F** : t(n(F** - Hc* D (1>7 - (1>7 I T#1** T# = T1 D T#1 T$ = 1>7 - (Hc2 D (T1 I T#**

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Jext4 the loop6s 1 fa"tor Bor its $eometri" mean4 in this "aseC is "al"ulated alon$ with a few intermediate results:

N = 0o

- 0comp

C)( = (Jp!@ D J4co* - (Hc D Hc D N* C)K = (1>7 I (Hc2 D T$2** - ((1>7 I (Hc2 D T12** D (1>7 I (Hc2 D T#2*** C) = C)( D C)K7>;

9he loop/filter "omponent )alues are now a)aila*le4 with the results for our example ;5?? #0 loop filter shown in parentheses:

C$1$ C$1# C$16

= 1E6 D C) = 1E6 D C) D (T1 - (T$ : T1** = 1E6 D C#

C:H96 , D C:H11 , D C:H1 , D C1.& oh*sD C61 oh*sD

R$7'L = 1E6 D T$ - (C$1$ I C$1#* R$75L = 1E6 D T# - C$16

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ig 1 -omplete synthesi0er P- *oard with output and external/"lo"k 5a"ks

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ig & 'lo"k dia$ram

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ig ) (utput flatness from :??? to :I?? M#0 at ; d'/)erti"al di)ision

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ig 4 -omposite noise performan"e. 9he *lue tra"e "orresponds to the synthesi0er6s "omposite/ noise profile at a loop/filter *andwidth of :45?? #0T the purple tra"e "orresponds to ;45?? #0T and the $reen tra"e to D45?? #0

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F"om F-/!G??? first E( synthesi0er %-( tunin$ line4 GG? M#0 to :?D? M#0 F"om F-/!G??? first E( synthesi0er %-( tunin$ line4 :?D? M#0 to GG? M#0 KE5F hy*rid synthesi0er %-( tunin$ line4 :??? M#0 to ;??? M#0 KE5F hy*rid synthesi0er %-( tunin$ line4 ;??? M#0 to :??? M#0 ig . =ynthesi0er lo"kup "hara"teristi"s "ompared to F"om F-/!G???

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ig 4 AinD; "onsole appli"ation for P- parallel/port "ontrol

ig 7 -ommuni"atin$ with the 2tmel 29me$a:;I "ontrol pro$ram in an !=/;D; terminal session

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ig 6 Power supply se"tion

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ig 9 PEE and %-( se"tions

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ig 1: ,,= se"tion

ig 11 Filter and "omparator se"tion

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ig 1& ,ata interfa"e se"tion

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ig 1) P-' "omponent layout

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8'+ +onne"tor : ; D 7 5 & G I H :?

/P5 Port :5 H / & G I 7 ; D :I/;5

AV2 Port KAK Signal P2? P2: / P2; P2D P27 P25 P2& P2G 8J,

5able 1 P- parallel port and 2tmel 2%! "onne"tions to J5?: